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Fictive Kin Networks among African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and Non-Latino Whites
Abstract
Using data from the National Survey of American Life, we investigated the social and demographic correlates of fictive kin network involvement among African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Latino Whites. Specifically, we examined the factors shaping whether respondents have fictive kin, the number of fictive present kin in their networks, and the frequency with which they received support from fictive kin. Overall, 87% of respondents had a fictive kin relationship, the average network size was 7.5, and 61% of participants routinely received fictive kin support. Affective closeness and contact with family, friends, and church members were positively associated with fictive kin relations. Age, region, income, and marital and parental status were related to fictive kin network involvement, though these associations varied by race/ethnicity. Collectively, findings indicate that fictive kin ties extend beyond marginalized communities, and they operate as a means to strengthen family bonds, rather than substitute for family deficits.
... Focusing on social networks further contributes to building interventions that recognize the larger ecological context in which parents live and from which they may experience support and strain (Merritt 2009), with the goal of improving outcomes for Black women and their children who have been reported to the child welfare system. Understanding the social networks of Black parents can also help to better capture the sociocultural views of parenting in Black communities, wherein support from kin, fictive kin, and nonkin alike is historically central to rearing children (Hill 1999;Stack 1974;Taylor et al. 2022). ...
... In this context, Black Americans often viewed themselves as "making it" only as a function of the concerted efforts of groups of people (Dilworth-Anderson 1992). Mutual aid and kin networks within Black communities continue to facilitate the sharing of resources within and across households and to provide care for children, the elderly, and other needy adults within extended family networks (Dilworth-Anderson 1992;Hunter et al. 2019;Taylor et al. 2022). ...
... Notably, for Black families, the provision of vital social support spans beyond relative networks to include support routinely provided by individuals who are not formally related (Chatters et al. 1994). Black extended family systems commonly include fictive kin, who often provide more family support services than biological kin and contribute to family stability and advancement (Manns 1981;Taylor et al. 2022). Research also suggests that social support from nonkin peers plays a distinct role among Black Americans. ...
This study explores whether positive and negative aspects of social networks influence parenting strengths and distress. Our sample is drawn from the Getting Access to Income Now (GAIN) study, a randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate a child maltreatment prevention program in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin. Using prerandomization baseline survey data on the subgroup of respondents who identify as Black or African American mothers (N 5 402), we find that supportive social networks are associated with higher parental resilience, better
parental emotional competence, and lower levels of parental distress. Social networks high in negativity had more negative parenting outcomes, but this relationship was moderated by the positive aspects of social networks. Social network positivity was more important than social network negativity in predicting positive outcomes. Findings may inform prevention strategies utilizing social networks and have critical implications for culturally sensitive practices and programs designed to amplify the strengths of Black mothers.
... Using data from the National Survey of Black Americans, Chatters et al. (1994) found that approximately 66% of African Americans indicated that they maintain a fictive kin relationship with someone who is unrelated. Further, with respect to age, older adults were less likely than their younger counterparts to report a fictive kin relationship, a finding that was later supported by Taylor et al. (2021) using data from the National Survey of American Life. These age-related findings are likely due to several reasons. ...
... Second, older adults in general often selectively limit their network to those providing the most meaningful engagement (English & Carstensen, 2014). Finally, a recent analysis of fictive kin networks across the full adult age range (Taylor et al. 2021) found that, unlike Black Caribbeans and non-Latino whites, for African Americans age played a significant role in the outcomes related to fictive kinship. Specifically, older African American adults were less likely than their younger counterparts to have fictive kin, to have a large fictive kin network, and to receive frequent support from fictive kin. ...
... To date, no existing research study examining fictive kin relationships among older African Americans, or older adults in general, utilizes a nationally representative sample. This fact, coupled with recent evidence of age-related differences in fictive kin (Taylor et al., 2021), suggests that a logical next step is to quantitatively document the demographic and social correlates of fictive kinship among older African Americans. ...
Fictive kin are individuals who are not related biologically or legally family members but are conferred all of the expectations, obligations, norms, and behaviors that are typically associated with family members. Early ethnographic and qualitative studies on impoverished African Americans depicted fictive kinship as a strategy of necessity used by urban poor Blacks to share scarce resources. More recent surveys of fictive kin relationships based on nationally representative samples of African Americans establish that fictive kinship occur across a range of social and economic circumstances. However, fictive kin relationships among African Americans older adults remains an understudied area. The current study explores fictive kinship relationships (having fictive kin and receiving support from fictive kin) among African American, Black Caribbean, and non-Hispanic white older adults using data from the National Survey of American Life. We examined race/ethnicity and gender differences, as well as demographic and social network correlates. Findings showed that having and receiving support from fictive kin varied across race, ethnicity and gender. African Americans were more likely to have fictive kin than were non-Hispanic whites, but there were no overall race/ethnic differences in receiving support from fictive kin. Gender specific findings showed that Black Caribbean women received fictive kin support more frequently than African American and non-Hispanic white women. Finally, demographic and social network correlates of fictive kin varied by race and ethnicity and connections with social networks (family, friend, church members) were positively associated with having and receiving support from fictive kin.
... Firstly, religion provides a supportive social network for many Black individuals, which can be similar to family bonds. 22 Secondly, religion has been observed to hold a more significant role in the identity of Black individuals compared to their white counterparts. 23 While specific statistics on religious affiliation by ethnicity are not available for the UK, Protestant Christianity is the main religion practised within African American and Black communities in the USA. ...
... 24 Studies have shown that Black Christians are more likely to attend church at least once a week compared to their white counterparts. 22,25 A study conducted in the USA revealed that the content and style of services in majority Black Protestant churches widely differ from Black churches of other denominations and Protestant churches that are predominantly white or of other racial backgrounds. 26 This divergence in worship practices and spiritual expression can lead to a sense of discomfort or alienation when attending churches of different denominations or racial compositions. ...
The demographics of the dental workforce have changed significantly in recent years, with regard to both gender and ethnicity. Ethnic diversity within dentistry does not align with UK population data, with some groups less well-represented than others, such as those of Black or Afro-Caribbean heritage. Although multiculturalism has developed throughout the UK, it is much less advanced within rural areas. Rural communities have a less ethnically diverse population and this has been identified as a challenge when looking to recruit dentists and other dental care professionals from a Black, Asian or minority ethnic (BAME) background.Recruitment and retention of dentists to rural areas is a major issue and it is vitally important to ensure that all members of the dental profession feel adequately supported and welcome. Addressing the shortage of dental professionals in rural areas is crucial in improving dental access. However, this task becomes more complex when considering the increasing number of BAME students and graduates from a metropolitan background, and a continuing lack of multi-culturalism within rural communities. Identifying and understanding the factors which influence BAME dental professionals' decisions to relocate to rural areas is vital for developing effective strategies to attract and retain diverse talent within these communities.This opinion article considers existing literature, while drawing upon personal experiences as a Black student in the South West of England, in order to explore the barriers to working in rural areas as an individual from a minority ethnic group. Socioeconomic challenges, cultural isolation and limited rural experience are identified as factors that can deter Black and other minority ethnic dentists from living and working in rural areas.
... Conversely, it may be that cultural definitions of friendship lead to an undercount of who is labeled a friend among racial-ethnic minorities. Because people of color are more likely to have fictive or chosen kin relationships (Chatters et al., 1994;Taylor et al., 2022), the relationship may not be captured as a friend per se, but instead identified as a family member. Furthermore, staying in school longer provides access to more resources, for example, opportunities to meet new people, make friends, and take part in social opportunities (e.g., joining clubs, new classes, attending organized functions) than one may find in the workplace. ...
Friends are a vital source of social relations throughout the lifespan and across developmental stages. Our knowledge of how friendships develop over time, especially from childhood through adulthood, is limited. Furthermore, it is now recognized that this specific type of relationship influences health across the life course in unique ways. Using the Convoy Model of Social Relations as a guiding framework, this study charts the multiple and unique trajectories of friendship across adulthood and tests whether these trajectories influence health differentially by age. The sample for the study consisted of 553 adults from the longitudinal Social Relations Study. Respondents ranged in age from 13 to 77 at Wave 1 (1992), and included only those who reported a best friend in each wave, that is, Wave 2 (2005) and Wave 3 (2015). Approximately 65% of the respondents were women, and 24.5% were people of color. Latent growth curve analysis identified three trajectories of the presence of friends in one’s network over time, two trajectories of positive friend quality, and three for negative quality. The most consistent findings are associated with positive friend relations over time. Gender was associated with friendship quality where women reported more positive friend relations over time, and increasing positive friend relations predicted better health 23 years later. These findings demonstrate that consistent and increasing positive friendships yield health benefits over time, whereas the presence of friends and negative quality does not have an effect. Overall, findings advance understanding of the long-term effects of social relations across the lifespan and life course.
... Social support can take many distinct forms, including tangible or material support, emotional support, and social companionship, as well as perceived and actualized support, available via social networks (Barrera 1986;Coohey 1996;Giovannoni and Billingsley 1970;Thompson 2015). Sources of social support can also vary within one's social network, inclusive of family members, friends, coworkers, neighbors, and other neighborhood members (Bruhn and Philips 1984;Taylor et al. 2022;Thompson 2015). ...
This study examines the social network characteristics of 670 mothers reported to and investigated by the child protection system (CPS) in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin in 2016. Specifically, having a recurrent CPS investigation within one year of an index investigation that did not result in an ongoing CPS case is assessed as a function of positive social network ties, negative social network ties, and perceived neighborhood support. Few studies have explored these aspects of social networks comparatively and simultaneously in relation to CPS outcomes, or within this population. We used cluster analysis to identify particular combinations of network characteristics among mothers with recent investigations and then examined whether different cluster types are predictive of recurrent CPS involvement within one year. Clusters differed on the perceived levels of both positive and negative interpersonal ties as well as perceived neighborhood support and were associated with different levels of known child maltreatment risk factors. Clusters with lower levels of perceived neighborhood support were more likely to be associated with future CPS investigations, but this association becomes statistically insignificant when controlling for mothers' depressive symptoms. The results of this study suggest that a more multi-faceted view of social networks can be helpful to understand the social contexts of mothers as they experience contact with CPS and raises questions about how these contexts interact with parental mental health in relation to CPS recurrence.
... For example, many African American children and youth reflect a deep connection to their ancestral heritage (Lateef & Horton, 2022) in their lives by attending cultural-based events, afrocentric based academic programs, supportive religious or spiritual environments, and participate in holidays that celebrate their African roots (Gilbert et al., 2009). African American families also demonstrate a strong connection to collectivism whereby social support, critical to youth development, is established through the commitment to family and extended family or fictive kin (Taylor et al., 2022). Additionally, concepts found in the literature around racial identity and racial socialization speak to the importance of teaching, understanding, and living with the realities of race for the Black family and their children while at the same time reflecting on the sense of pride, resilience, and strength of sharing such identity (Harris & Kroger, 2021;Lindsey, Joe & Nebbitt, 2021: Butler-Barnes et al., 2019. ...
Social competence, which is the ability to demonstrate socio-emotional behavior skills, is crucial during adolescence with far-reaching implications across the lifespan. However, social competence development among youth is greatly influenced by social inequities, which places many Black American youth at a disadvantage due to the disproportionate burden on youth development in resource-constrained environments. Responsively, we sought to determine whether Afrocentric cultural norms (i.e., Ubuntu) and goal orientation contribute to the resilience of Black youth in developing social competence while controlling for social positions (i.e., social class and gender). For this study, we used the dataset of black boys and girls (average age of 14.68) from the Templeton Flourishing Children Project. Linear regression analysis followed by mediation analysis was conducted to identify the factors associated with higher degrees of social competence. Significant study findings indicate that Black youth reporting higher goal-oriented mindsets reported higher social competence scores. Goal orientation and social competence were mediated by Ubuntu, with the model explaining 63% variance in social competence in Black youth. The findings suggest prevention efforts that provide socialization centered around Afrocentric cultural norms may provide valuable means of bolstering social competence development in Black youth living in resource-constrained communities.
... Examples of fictive kin include godparents, close family friends, informally adopted children, or close church members. According to Tayer et al. (2022), overall, 87% of African American respondents had a fictive kin relationship, the average network size was 7.5, and 61% of participants routinely received fictive kin support (Taylor et al., 2022). ...
... This statement addresses a core axiom of many indigenous African psychological identity conceptualizations that contributed to African American culture; it places priority on (a) connections to interpersonal relationships, (b) prioritization of shared resources as opposed to individual competition, (c) shared suffering during times of hardship, and (d) shared victory during times of resilience and achievement (Karenga, 1989;Martin & Martin, 2003). Among many contemporary African American families, and subsequently African American youth, collectivism orientation is reflected through strong commitment to family, extended kin, as well as what some scholars have called "fictive kin"those who are not biological kin or kin related through intimate family partnerships, but are often perceived as family members or persons of support (Stack, 1975;Taylor et al., 2022). Prior studies demonstrate that cultural assets like collectivism in African American youth may be associated with an array of positive developmental indicators, including lower levels of externalizing behaviors, depression, and anxiety, as well as greater persistence in achieving academic milestones (Graves & Aston, 2018;Komarraju & Cokley, 2008;Thomas et al., 2008). ...
Although scholars in the applied social sciences and allied professions have paid increasing attention to many of the disparities experienced by African American youth, very few efforts have been made to increase awareness of how culturally responsive practice can inform prevention and intervention efforts with this population. In response, the authors present an overview of cultural factors among African American youth, including information on their ancestral heritage, language, and known findings from culturally responsive interventions, to establish guideposts for next steps required to advance practice within social work. Subsequently, the authors conclude by sharing implications for continued research with communities and preliminary steps for social work practitioners that work with African American youth and their families.
... More embracive kinship conceptualizations based onfor exampleshared children instead of blood or marital bonds are common among various non-Western populations and could serve as a useful starting point for informing more appropriate kinship conceptualizations among postdivorce families (e.g. Clark et al. 2015;Crosbie-Burnett and Lewis 1993;Taylor et al. 2022). Efforts could also be made to stimulate more embracive conceptualizations of kinship that rely on individuals' own accounts of who their kin are instead of relying on scholarly definitions of kinship, for example when designing family surveys (Sanner et al. 2020). ...
Despite the potential importance of kin to divorced parents in particular, prior research rarely studied how kinship patterns vary between married and divorced parents, nor within-group variations depending upon postdivorce residence arrangements and repartnering. We estimated mixed-effects logistic regression models using data from samples of Dutch married (N = 1,336) and divorced parents (N = 3,464) to predict the extent to which parents considered various blood relatives and (former) in-laws kin (i.e. parents, siblings, aunts/uncles, nieces/nephews, and cousins) and investigated differences within the divorced group per residence arrangements and repartnering. We found that married and divorced parents barely differed in the extent to which they considered blood relatives kin, but differences were large for (former) in-laws, and particularly great when parents did not reside with their biological child. Repartnered divorced parents were less likely to consider their former in-laws kin than single divorced parents but considered their new in-laws kin to high extents. For both blood relatives and (former) in-laws, parents were most often, and cousins least often considered kin. These results indicate that kinship patterns only differ for in-laws between married and divorced parents. Resident children may lead parents to consider former in-laws kin, whereas repartnering leads to exclusion of former in-laws.
... Family research conducted by Black scholars has been distinctive in acknowledging the presence of within group variability in family characteristics and behaviors as a response to stereotypical depictions of Black family life in popular culture and academic discourse (Berkley & Landor, 2020;Franklin & James, 2015;McKinley & Brown, 2020;Taylor et al., 1997;Taylor et al., 2021;Taylor et al., 2022). Research on social class differences and the family lives of middle-and upper-income families provides information about how families possessing different social positions and material resources organize themselves and function as a family (e.g., kin networks, support exchanges, intrafamily relations and ties), define marital and parental roles and responsibilities, and operate within different life contexts (e.g., residential neighborhoods, schools, occupation). ...
Race science attributes differences in human populations to biology and genetics that reflect a hierarchy of human races with whiteness at its pinnacle. This article examining the history of race science and current family scholarship and practice contends that race science matters for family science. We discuss (1) white supremacy, the development of race science, and the eugenics movement in the U.S.; (2) racism, racialized experiences, and oppression of Black families in the U.S.; (3) the construction of whiteness in family science and re‐envisioning theories to make racism's impact visible; (4) racial reckonings for professional organizations; and (5) why race science matters for family science and a call to action. Clarity about the meaning of race can ensure that family science addresses white supremacy and racism embedded in scholarship, training, and practice, and promotes work that supports the well‐being of families that are most vulnerable and marginalized.
... For older black women, sex ratio imbalances are especially large, a result of lifelong gender and racial disparities in mortality. Cultural adaptations, such as the formation of multigenerational households (e.g., doubling up) or supportive fictive kin, may also reduce economic incentives to marry or encourage marrying unwisely (Park et al., 2019;Taylor et al., 2021). Historically, the limited marital opportunities among African American women-throughout the life course-have made them less dependent on male providers and encouraged their own financial independence (e.g., higher employment rates among black women). ...
This paper presents a search-theoretic model of union formation among women, aged 55 and older. Specifically, it provides new estimates of gender differentials in cohabitation and marriage at older ages, and documents recent patterns of assortative mating using data from the 2008–2017 American Community Survey. Our analyses reveal that cohabitation represents a much smaller share of all older unmarried women, all partnered women, and all women in comparison to patterns observed among their male counterparts. The results also reveal highly uneven patterns of union formation by age, race and marital history, which reflect demographically uneven constraints and preferences. Our analyses also document, for the first time, patterns of assortative mating at older ages. Shortages of similarly-aged men, especially among older African American women, seemingly heighten the likelihood of demographically mismatched unions. Older women are less likely to form unions with same-race or economically attractive partners, defined as men having a college-degree. This study shows that older single women, in general, are at a comparative disadvantage in the marriage market, both in forming co-residential unions and in finding partners who match their own social, demographic, and economic profiles. This paper highlights considerable heterogeneity in the experiences of America's older women. It calls for new theoretical approaches that acknowledge the unequal resources and bargaining power among older women in the marriage market.
Aim: to explore the range of cultural understandings of dementia held by people providing nursing care globally.Background: There is a worldwide shortage of nurses and healthcare workers, resulting in extensive global mobility among the workforce. Cultural competence is expected of nurses who serve diverse populations and although self-awareness is recognised as crucial in developing this ability, the focus has tended to be on the identity of the patient and adjusting care according to their specific needs. However, taken-for-granted assumptions drive unconscious judgements and therefore behaviour so nurses’ dementia-related understandings are worthy of exploration.Design: An integrative literature review, comprising five stages: problem identification; literature search; data evaluation; data analysis; and presentation of the findings.Methods: Six databases were searched for original research published between 1997 and 2023. Studies which focus on qualified/registered and unqualified/unregistered healthcare workers’ cultural understandings of dementia were included. Studies were evaluated using a tool designed for the critical assessment of qualitative research. Data was extracted using a bespoke spreadsheet. Conventional content analysis was undertaken to develop a synthesised summary of the findings of the studies.Findings: 11 papers met the inclusion criteria. Content analysis led to identification of two main themes: ‘Stigma as a common factor in cultural perceptions of dementia’, and ‘Stigma derived from cultural perceptions has consequences for people living with dementia’.Conclusion: An international perspective facilitated insight into alternative perceptions of the nature of dementia and care responses. A version of the ‘Relationship Centred Care’ model, expanded to include the wider community, could support theoretical and practical recommendations for culturally congruent approaches to care. Further research is required to examine the usefulness of incorporating this approach internationally.Reporting Method: The authors followed the ENTREQ reporting guidelines (Tong et al., 2012).
Objective
This study uses an intersectional approach to examine whether bonding and bridging family social capital change after adolescent delinquency and arrest.
Background
Family social capital (the resources and energy investments parents make in their children) has important implications for numerous youth outcomes. To date, little research has examined how stressful behaviors (like delinquency) and life events (such as arrest) strain or strengthen parent–child relationships, particularly across Black, White, and Hispanic families.
Methods
Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 cohort, the authors use fixed effects, dynamic panel, and correlated random effects models to analyze how delinquent behavior and arrest impact bonding and bridging forms of family social capital in adolescence. Stratified models by race/ethnicity and gender test whether the effects vary across groups.
Results
Results show that delinquency is negatively associated with bonding and bridging family social capital. Black girls experienced the sharpest reduction in family social capital resulting from delinquent behavior. Arrest was significantly associated with decreased bridging capital for Hispanic boys and increased bridging capital for Black girls.
Conclusion
Delinquency creates stress for parents and reduces investments in children, especially for Black girls. The effects of arrest vary by race and gender.
Implications
This study demonstrates the dynamism of family social capital and the impact of adolescent delinquency and arrest on parent–child ties, providing insights into the racialized and gendered development of family social capital amid heightened concern about youth deviance and incarceration.
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to determine whether social support from extended family and church members moderate the association between chronic stress exposure and sleep quality in a nationally representative sample of African American adults.
Design:
Data from African American respondents aged 18 and older were drawn from the National Survey of American Life-Reinterview. The analytic sample for this study included 1,372 African American adults who attended religious services at least a few times a year, as the church-based relationship measures were only assessed for these individuals. Self-reported sleep quality was assessed by sleep satisfaction, trouble falling asleep, and restless sleep. Chronic stress exposure was measured by a nine-item index. OLS and logistic regression were used to estimate the relationship between chronic stress exposure, extended family and church relationships, and sleep quality.
Results:
The data indicated that chronic stress exposure was associated with decreased sleep satisfaction, increased likelihood of trouble falling asleep and restless sleep. Receiving emotional support from family and more frequent contact with church members were associated with decreased restless sleep. Emotional family support moderated the associations between chronic stress exposure and trouble falling asleep and restless sleep. The positive associations between chronic stress exposure and these two sleep quality measures were attenuated among respondents who received high levels of emotional support from their family.
Conclusions:
Together, these findings underscore the detriment of chronic stress exposure to African Americans' sleep quality and suggest that extended family members are effective stress coping resources and play an important role in this population's sleep quality.
Researchers have long documented the impact of social inequalities on family life. Most family research has focused on inequalities at the individual and family levels, and extant studies on macro‐level conditions have primarily examined economic conditions and specific family‐focused social policies. Yet, an emerging body of largely conceptual research suggests that structural inequities also have enormous power to shape families. Structural racism, structural sexism, and structural sexual and gender minority oppression, and other forms of structural injustice operate across various levels (macro, meso, and micro) and systems (e.g., educational, economic, political, criminal‐legal, etc.), to influence individuals' social environments and everyday lives in ways that may impact how, when, and where people form families. Structural oppression, moreover, may influence relationship quality, caregiving patterns, child outcomes, and various other aspects of family life. Yet, the consequences of these structural forces for families have not yet been thoroughly examined. In this article, we (1) develop a conceptual framework linking structural oppression to family characteristics and outcomes, (2) outline innovative approaches for conceptualizing and measuring structural oppression and describe how incorporating these approaches can move the field of family science forward, and (3) make several recommendations regarding best practices and fruitful avenues for future research.
Imagination is often relegated to the margins of African American children's schooling experiences. Furthermore, the varied role of children in liberation struggles and their centrality in ushering in just futures remain underexplored. This article examines five African American first graders’ sociopolitical knowledge and how they used their imagination to develop counternarratives of refusal and agentic possibilities. I offer imaginative praxis as a conceptual tool to analyze how young African American children name historical and contemporary racialized realities and generate joyful visualizations of actionable resistance. Young children's imaginative praxis challenges the notion that the fight for liberation is void of joy.
In the current qualitative study, we explored the perceived benefits of Black mothers’ villages as cultural resource systems of social support. We used consensual qualitative research methods to analyze semi-structured interview data from 28 Black mothers (25–60 years, M age = 46) in the United States. We identified seven main themes. For Black daughters, village support offered: (a) models of positive relationships, (b) access to social and enriching activities, (c) natural mentorship, and (d) gendered racial identity affirmation. For Black mothers, village support offered the necessary time and space to: (e) engage in personal restorative practices, (f) find joy in Black mama sister circles, and (g) experience support for educational and occupational opportunities. In addition to appreciation for the various ways village members showed up, mothers valued village members’ contributions to daughters’ self-esteem and gendered racial pride. Narratives highlighted Black mothers’ intentional village-making, underscoring fictive and extended kin networks’ enduring importance in Black girls’ identity development and well-being. Our findings hold implications for culturally relevant socialization frameworks for Black girls and stimulate new discussions on supporting Black mothers and daughters more effectively.
Objective: This research investigates associations between living arrangements and older adults’ depressive symptoms and whether these associations are moderated by extended family, friends, and neighborhoods for White, Black, and Hispanic older adults.
Background: The drastic marriage and kinship decline since the 1970s has raised growing concerns about aging alone in both the public and scholarship. This paper adopts critical race theory to examine the social convoy model which argues that distant networks will fill in to protect individuals from stressors in the absence of proximal relations.
Method: This paper applies multilevel mixed-effects linear models to 2006-2018 waves of Health and Retirement Study (N=44,304 obs., with 32,599 White, 7,028 Black, and 4,677 Hispanics).
Results: While married couples living alone have the best mental health among Whites, co-residing with both spouses/partners and children (the intergenerational coresidence) is associated with the lowest depressive symptoms for Black and Hispanic older adults. Moreover, strong social support from extended family and friends and a high level of neighborhood social cohesion can significantly mitigate increased depressive symptoms associated with living alone or with others only (people other than spouses/partners and children) for Whites, but not for Blacks and Hispanics.
Conclusion: This research challenges the paradigm that considers “married couples living alone” as a normalized family structure. It also emphasizes the “double plight” of Black and Hispanic older adults, who show both a disproportionate decline in family ties and a lack of supportive distant relations serving as buffer zones in the absence of spouses and children.
Numerous studies have highlighted mental health disparities based on race/ethnicity, nativity, and gender across different life stages. However, few have investigated how the intersectionality of these factors influences mental health trajectories during midlife to late life. This study fills this gap by adopting a life course-intersectional approach, viewing mental health trajectories as dynamic processes shaped by the combined influences of race/ethnicity, nativity, and gender. It explores social, psychological, and physiological pathways contributing to these disparities.
Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (2006–2018; N = 38,049 observations) and growth curve models, this study examines how intra-individual trends in depressive symptoms (measured as CES-D scale, 07) are influenced by the intersection of race/ethnicity, nativity, and gender. It also investigates the impact of objective and subjective social isolation and physical health on group disparities in mental health trajectories.
The findings reveal that, during mid- to early late-life, most Black and Hispanic Americans experience higher levels of depressive symptoms compared to their White counterparts (disparities ranging from 0.184 to 0.463 for men and 0.117 to 0.439 for women). However, this disadvantage diminishes for US-born Hispanic men and US-born Black women (0.014–0.031 faster decrease rates compared to US-born White), while it intensifies for Hispanic immigrants (0.017–0.018 slower decrease rates compared to US-born White) in advanced ages. Mediation analysis demonstrates that both social isolation and physical health contribute to these disparities, with physical health explaining a larger portion, particularly in differences between immigrant Hispanic women and US-born Whites.
This study underscores the importance of a life course-intersectional approach in understanding mental health disparities. It emphasizes the need for improved social welfare systems and community-level interventions targeting the specific challenges faced by older Hispanic immigrants, especially women who encounter multiple forms of oppression.
A limited number of studies have examined how Black children, particularly daughters, perceive Black men who provide care—financial, material, or emotional support—to children who are not their biological or legal children (these men are here conceptualized as “otherfathers”). Using accounts from in-depth interviews with twenty-six young Black women from two-parent and single-mother households, this study explores how daughters identify and assign meaning to otherfathers. Findings reveal a heterogeneous category with no single definition or set of criteria; rather, the young women enact a process of parental ascription to determine who “counts” as an otherfather. Otherfathers’ contributions are understood in relation to biological fathers’ involvement but not always in expected ways. The study challenges assumptions about how daughters think about otherfathers and reveals the importance of examining the perspectives of Black girl youth and young women.
I address two challenges to the discipline of family demography from scholars, mostly European, who advocate for the broader concept of personal life. The first challenge is that family studies should encompass unrelated individuals such as close friends, intimate partners who maintain separate residences, or housemates. The second challenge, more radically, is that the very concept of family should be de-centered from scholarship due to its over-focus on the couple and on childbearing. I will argue that family demographers should indeed expand their horizons to include non-kin actors inside and outside of the household. However, I will argue against decentering the family. I will review evidence which suggests that we should retain the core concept of family life, even while extending its reach as research on personal life suggests.KeywordsPersonal lifeKinshipFamily demographyResearch methods
Does anti-Black racism harm White Americans? We advance hypotheses that address this question within the neighborhood context. Hypotheses are tested with neighborhood and survey data from a probability sample of White residents of Nashville, Tennessee. We find that regardless of neighborhood crime rates or socioeconomic compositions, Whites report heightened perceptions of crime and danger in their neighborhoods as the proportion of Black residents increases. Perceived neighborhood danger, in turn, predicts increased symptoms of psychophysiological distress. When stratified by socioeconomic status (SES), however, low-SES Whites also report perceptions of higher status when living near more Black neighbors, which entirely offsets their distress. We conclude that while anti-Black racism can ironically harm the health of White Americans, compensatory racist ideologies can also offset these harms, particularly for lower-status Whites. We situate our findings within broader discussions of anti-Black racism, residential segregation, and psychiatric disorders commonly observed among White Americans. 3
James S. Jackson (1944–2020) is remembered as a groundbreaking social psychologist whose career contributions in scholarship, research, and service were fundamental to the field of psychology. This article briefly outlines his career-long work and contributions. A strong believer in interdisciplinary work, his research spanned other related social science disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science), as well as health and social welfare professions (public health, social work, medicine). As the founding director of the Program for Research on Black Americans at the Institute for Social Research, James Jackson initiated and led a long-standing program with a dual focus on research and training and mentoring doctoral students, postdoctoral scholars, and early career scientists. Jackson’s efforts in the development of several nationally representative surveys of the Black population in the United States (e.g., National Survey of Black Americans, National Survey of American Life) revolutionized research focusing on the lives of Black Americans. James Jackson’s international influence and reputation included numerous prestigious positions within national science organizations and honors and awards for his scientific contributions. Among James S. Jackson’s most enduring legacies is the vast network of current scientists, researchers, and academics who were trained under his direction and leadership.
Geographic racism gives rise to health inequities that impact communities in detrimental ways. Southern ethnic minority groups, particularly African American/Black semi‐rural communities, are subject to especially unjust outcomes in health, education, and wealth. Asset‐based community development (ABCD) is a way of engaging with communities in participatory and positive ways that center community voices as expert. Youth can participate in ABCD, are sensitive to the ways in which their communities are structured, and have insights as to how to improve the places they live. We undertook a qualitative interview study which included a cognitive mapping exercise with 28 youth to understand how African American/Black youth who had participated in an ABCD‐informed summer program conceptualized community and preferences about where they lived. Using a phenomenological approach to qualitative analysis, our study revealed that many youth defined community as a combination of people and place, enjoyed engaging with unique resources in their communities as well as seeking peace and quiet, experienced hardships as “something everybody knows” when observing constraints on their communities, and were committed to their communities and interested in seeing—and participating in—their flourishing. Our study provides a nuanced and contemporary understanding of the ways in which African American/Black semi‐rural youth experience community which can contribute to cyclical asset‐based development strategy aimed at empowering young people and improving health outcomes in resilient communities.
A robust body of research has shown that Black Americans are less likely than Whites to have psychiatric disorders despite the social and economic disadvantage and systemic racism that they face. This mental health paradox has been demonstrated across all ages of the life course, including older adulthood. One of the prevailing explanations for the lower prevalence of psychiatric disorders among Blacks pertains to the influence of psychosocial resources on mental health. Psychosocial resources can directly or indirectly support mental health through physiological and psychological pathways. They can also mitigate the adverse effects of social stressors of discrimination and other stressors on psychological distress and mental illness. Black older adults may particularly benefit from psychosocial resources because they have had a lifetime of experiencing and overcoming adversity. Although this cycle of stress adaptation can wear away at the physical body, it may facilitate mental health resilience. In this chapter, we review research on the relationship between psychosocial resources and mental health. The chapter begins with a brief review of the Black-White mental health paradox and the mechanisms through which psychosocial resources operate to influence mental health. We then review research on intrapersonal, interpersonal, and community-level psychosocial resources that are particularly salient for Black Americans. Throughout the chapter we highlight research specifically focused on Black older adults and discuss the cultural relevance of each resource to their mental health and psychological functioning.
This article features in‐depth interviews and ethnographic vignettes that explore collectivism, social cohesion, and Black educational leadership as a strategy to infuse liberatory practices in the educational process. The article examines how the social foundation of African‐centered ethos of collectivism can shift how marginalized students approach and experience learning and socialization inside mainstream K‐12 educational systems. Additionally, this article introduces a new theoretical concept entitled Ethno‐Cultural Responsiveness. This theory explains how sub‐culture groups socialize new members into their particular ideological and sub‐cultural communities. This research demonstrates how African‐centered leaders shape their schools through an ideological inquiry designed to challenge what they perceive as the cultural negation of African histories and understandings. Moreover, the leaders featured in this article use their public‐facing political project (an African‐centered institution) grounded in the politics of Black Nationalism and Pan Africanism to design and shape their institutional cultures to be responsive to people racialized in western counties as Black.
Objective
This study examined the prevalence of nonresident social fathering among African American youth from single‐mother families and their reports of subjective closeness, frequency of contact, and financial support from social fathers during young adulthood.
Background
Research on African American families has overwhelmingly focused on single motherhood and the mother–child dyad. The perceived deficits of single‐mother families are emphasized, while their assets frequently go unnoticed. One potential resource available to offspring in these families are nonresident social fathers (men who act as fathers to children).
Method
Using Add Health ( n = 728), we document the share of youth who had a nonresident social father serve as their main father figure and examine key indicators of their long‐term relationships with these men: closeness, contact, and receipt of financial support during young adulthood. We also consider whether relationships with social fathers differ by type (stepfather versus male relative) and from those with biological fathers.
Results
Twenty‐five percent of respondents identified a nonresident social father as their main father figure; 44% indicated a nonresident biological father. Nearly 70% of participants reported strong feelings of closeness and regular contact with social fathers. Over 40% received financial assistance. Respondents were more likely to report feeling closer to a social than a biological father; there were no other differences by father figure type.
Conclusion
Most African American young adults from single‐mother families have close and consistent ties with a nonresident father figure. While underexplored, their sustained engagement with these men may have positive implications for their downstream outcomes.
Objective:
Guided by role theory and the intersectionality framework, this study assesses whether social role volume, role type, and role configuration influence the mental health of Non-Latina White, African American, Afro-Caribbean, Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Chinese, Filipina, and Vietnamese American women.
Background:
Contemporary shifts in the primary roles (i.e., worker, spouse, parent) women occupy and in the ethnic composition of the U.S. necessitate a re-examination of how roles impact U.S. women's mental health. Moreover, family member and friend roles are relatively understudied.
Method:
Drawing data from the nationally representative Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES) (N=7370), ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis is used to assess the relationship between role volume, role type, role configuration, and mental health for women across nine ethnic groups. We report ethnicity-stratified models.
Results:
On one hand, role accumulation was psychologically beneficial for Non-Latina White, African American, Puerto Rican, and Chinese women. On the other hand, the psychological benefits of social roles diminished after accumulating three social roles for Cuban, Mexican, and Filipina women. The psychological influence of specific roles and role configurations for women was dependent on ethnicity.
Conclusion:
This study demonstrates the powerful impact of ethnicity on social role engagement as well as the influence of such roles on women's psychological health.
Scholarship on fictive kinship has relied on many different terminologies. I argue for a new precision. I review existing discussions and draw on those to suggest a new, experimental typology. I suggest that the typology illuminates a variety of issues, including the aspects of family that are accomplished through fictive kin. I also discuss issues surrounding fictive kinship for which no information exists but about which the typology might help make predictions.
This study explores the relationship of family and demographic factors to the frequency of receiving emotional support and the frequency of engaging in negative interactions with family members (i.e., criticism, burden, and being taken advantage of). The study uses the ambivalence framework and data from the National Survey of American Life, a national sample of African Americans and Caribbean Blacks (Caribbean Blacks). Overall, no significant differences were found between African Americans and Caribbean Blacks in the frequency of emotional support or negative interaction; several significant correlates (e.g., age, family closeness) were found for both groups. However, a number of unique associations were also demonstrated (e.g., marital status, frequency of family contact), indicating differences in the ways that these variables operate within the two populations. These and other findings are discussed in relation to the ambivalence framework and subgroup differences in family phenomena within the Black population.
This study examines patterns of emotional support and negative interaction (i.e., criticism, conflict) from extended family members using data on African Americans and Caribbean Blacks from the National Survey of American Life. A pattern variable was constructed that describes four types of extended family networks: (1) high emotional support and high negative interaction (ambivalent), (2) high emotional support and low negative interaction (optimal), (3) low emotional support and low negative interaction (estranged) and (4) low emotional support and high negative interaction (strained). Multi-nominal logistic regression was used to investigate the sociodemographic and familial (e.g., frequency of family contact) correlates of the patterns of extended family networks. Family closeness and contact, as well as gender, age and marital status were associated with extended family network types. Optimal family networks were associated with higher levels of family contact and closeness; women, younger adults and unmarried persons were more likely than their counterparts to have more advantageous extended family networks. Overall, findings for African Americans and Caribbean Blacks revealed both important similarities (e.g., gender, marital status, family closeness and contact) and differences (e.g., age) in the sociodemographic and familial correlates of diverse extended family networks.
In this article, the authors merge the study of support, strain, and ambivalence in family relationships with the study of stress to explore the ways family members provide support or contribute to strain in the disaster recovery process. The authors analyze interviews with 71 displaced Hurricane Katrina survivors, and identify three family relationships that were especially important to postdisplacement experiences: marital or intimate partner, parent–adult child, and fictive kin. These relationships provided support, contributed to strain, or did both, highlighting the complexity of such relationships in the postdisaster context. Women tended to provide more support to and receive more support from family relationships than did men, especially through mother–adult daughter relationships.
This study explored how participants discursively rendered voluntary kin relationships sensical and legitimate. Interpretive analyses of 110 interviews revealed four main types of voluntary kin: (i) substitute family, (ii) supplemental family, (iii) convenience family, and (iv) extended family. These types were rendered sensical and legitimated by drawing on the discourse of the traditional family. Except for the extended family, three of four voluntary kin family types were justified by an attributed deficit in the blood and legal family. Because voluntary kin relationships are not based on the traditional criteria of association by blood or law, members experience them as potentially challenging, requiring discursive work to render them sensical and legitimate to others.
This study proposed and tested a model of informal church support networks among African Americans. Consistent with research in family relations, age and gender were significantly associated with the frequency of interaction with church members. In addition, the degree of subjective closeness and the frequency of interaction were both significantly associated with the frequency of receiving support from church members, suggesting that conceptualizations of family solidarity may extend to church networks. Practice implications emphasize the importance of recognizing church members as integral members of the informal networks of African Americans.
This study explores the nature of intentional family relationships between friends of different genders and different sexual orientations. Drawing on in-depth interviews with 46 members of 23 friendship dyads, I first make the case that the friends considered one another family and I specify the criteria they use for making such designations. I then focus on the ways in which gender and sexual orientation influenced relationships between lesbians and straight men and between gay men and straight women. The data provided evidence that the dyad members identified one another as family and served the functions of family for each other. The findings also suggest that various gender issues affect cross-gender, different sexual orientation relationships. Exploring the meaning and functioning of these intentional family ties documents their existence and illuminates their meaning and maintenance.
The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and tolerance are both widely used measures of the degree of multi-collinearity of the
ith independent variable with the other independent variables in a regression model. Unfortunately, several rules of thumb
– most commonly the rule of 10 – associated with VIF are regarded by many practitioners as a sign of severe or serious multi-collinearity
(this rule appears in both scholarly articles and advanced statistical textbooks). When VIF reaches these threshold values
researchers often attempt to reduce the collinearity by eliminating one or more variables from their analysis; using Ridge
Regression to analyze their data; or combining two or more independent variables into a single index. These techniques for
curing problems associated with multi-collinearity can create problems more serious than those they solve. Because of this,
we examine these rules of thumb and find that threshold values of the VIF (and tolerance) need to be evaluated in the context
of several other factors that influence the variance of regression coefficients. Values of the VIF of 10, 20, 40, or even
higher do not, by themselves, discount the results of regression analyses, call for the elimination of one or more independent
variables from the analysis, suggest the use of ridge regression, or require combining of independent variable into a single
index.
In this hermeneutic study we explore how fictive kinship (kin-like close personal friendship) amongst high school students
of color mediated their resiliency, perseverance, and success in a college physics class. These freely chosen, processual
friendships were based on emotional and material support, motivation, and caring for each other, as well as trust, common
interests, and goals. Such close bonds contributed in creating a safe and supportive emotional space and allowed for friendly,
cooperative competition within the physics classroom. Friends became the role models, source of support, and motivation for
the fictive kinship group as well as for each other, as the group became the role model, source of support, and motivation
for the individuals in it. Because of their friendships with one another, physics talk was extended and made part of their
personal interactions outside the classroom. These social relationships and safe spaces helped the students cope and persevere
despite their initial conflicting expectations of their success in physics. Our research thus expands on the concept of social
learning by exploring student friendships and how they frame and mediate such a process.
KeywordsFictive kinship–Friendship–Resiliency–Perseverance–Coping–Student relationships–Role models–Emotions–Science learning–Physics–Social learning
The key relationships of never married, childless older women, that is, those relationships described as central, compelling,
enduring, or significant throughout their lifetimes, were explored in this study. Analysis of qualitative, ethnographically
based interviews with 31 women indicated that the key relationships they describe fall into three classes: ties through blood,
friendships, and those we label “constructed” ties (kin-like nonkin relations). We report on types of key interpersonal relationships
of these women and also examine limits to these key relations, describing some strategies these women have adopted for gaining
kin-like relations and the problems inherent in them for the expectation of care in later life. Theoretical work by anthropologist
David Schneider concerning American kinship as a cultural system is used to explore dimensions of these relationships.
To describe naturally occurring care relationships between unpaid, nonprofessional, nonkin (unrelated) caregivers and frail community-living older adults.
Face-to-face, semistructured interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of 114 caregivers and care recipients recruited from the community through a variety of organizations. Standard techniques for thematic analysis of qualitative data were used along with descriptive and other statistics as appropriate for numerate data.
Nonkin caregiving proved to be heterogeneous in initiation of relationship, form, duration, tasks performed, and association with family caregivers. Partnerships ranged from 0.1 to 57 years in duration, with just over half (58%) starting with the provision of care. Many caregivers (47%) were themselves older adults, aged 65 or older. There was little variation in what motivated or rewarded caregivers, many of whom felt morally obligated to help. More than half the sample used kin terms to characterize their relationship. Four distinct styles of relationship were discerned, varying by degree of emotional intimacy and types of assistance given. All relationships, however, involved socializing and help with at least two instrumental tasks of daily life.
This kind of caregiving is important for sustaining community living for about 10% of frail elderly persons. A greater understanding is needed, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, of when and how nonkin relationships are beneficial and why they in many ways successfully mirror the actions and sentiments of family caregivers.
This comprehensive, state-of-the-art textbook and reference volume in family gerontology reviews and critiques the recent theoretical, empirical, and methodological literature; identifies future research directions; and makes recommendations for gerontology professionals.
This book is both an updated version of and a complement to the original Handbook of Families and Aging. The many additions include the most recent demographic changes on aging families, new theoretical formulations, innovative research methods, recent legal issues, and death and bereavement, as well as new material on the relationships themselves—sibling, partnered, and intergenerational relationships, for example. Among the brand-new topics in this edition are step-family relationships, aging families and immigration, aging families and 21st-century technology, and peripheral family ties.
Unlike the more cursory summaries found in textbooks, the essays within Handbook of Families and Aging, Second Edition provide thoughtful, in-depth coverage of each topic. No other book provides such a comprehensive and timely overview of theory and research on family relationships, the contexts of family life, and major turning points in late-life families. Nevertheless, the contents are written to be engaging and accessible to a broad audience, including advanced undergraduate students, graduate students, researchers, and gerontology practitioners. Serious lay readers will also find this book highly informative about contemporary family issues.
This study uses data from the National Survey of American Life Re-Interview to examine the types and frequency of instrumental support that African Americans exchange with extended family members as well as the demographic and family correlates of these exchanges. Four types of instrumental support are examined: transportation assistance, help with chores, financial assistance, and help during illness. Findings indicate that respondents most frequently gave support to and received support from family members during illness episodes, followed by financial support, help with chores, and transportation assistance. For each type of support, individuals indicated that they provided more assistance than they received. These support exchanges are patterned by subjective family closeness, frequency of family contact, financial and social resources, gender roles, and regional differences. Overall, the findings underscore how features of family relationships and demographic characteristics are associated with the provision and receipt of instrumental family support among African Americans.
Close relationships are a resource for mental and physical health that, like other social resources, is unequally distributed in the population. This article focuses on racial disparities in the loss of relationships across the life course. Racial disparities in life expectancy in the United States mean that black Americans experience the deaths of more friends and family members than do white Americans from childhood through later life. I argue that these losses are a unique type of stress and adversity that, through interconnected biopsychosocial pathways, contribute to disadvantage in health over the life course. I focus particularly on how the interconnected pathways associated with loss undermine opportunities for and increase risks to social ties throughout life, adding to disadvantage in health. I call on social scientists and policy makers to draw greater attention to this unique source of disadvantage for black children, adults, and families.
Religion in the Lives of African Americans: Social, Psychological, and Health Perspectives examines many broad issues including the structure and sociodemographic patterns of religious involvement; the relationship between religion and physical and mental health and well-being; the impact of church support and the use of ministers for personal issues; and the role of religion within specific subgroups of the African American population such as women and the elderly. Authors Robert Joseph Taylor, Linda M. Chatters, and Jeff Levin reflect upon current empirical research and derive conclusions from several wide-ranging national surveys, as well as a focus group study of religion and coping. Recommended for students taking courses in racial and ethnic studies, multicultural and minority studies, black studies, religious studies, psychology, sociology, human development and family studies, gerontology, social work, public health, and nursing.
Demographic correlates of whether an extended family has incorporated a fictive kin relative was examined among a national sample of black adults. Fictive kin are defined as persons who are treated like a relative but who are not related by blood or marriage. Two out of three respondents indicated there was someone in their family who was regarded as a fictive kin. Multivariate analysis revealed that gender, age, education and region were all significantly associated with the probability that a family would incorporate fictive kin members. These findings are discussed in relation to previous work on fictive kinship relationships.
Academic persistence among African American college students has become an important issue due to the consistent lack of increase in retention and graduation rates of these students attending 4-year institutions. Despite the importance of this issue in the field of education, little has been done to study how cultural factors may influence college students’ academic success. The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the ways in which fictive kin relationships and religiosity impact academic persistence in African American college students. Fourteen African American college students attending a Historically Black University were interviewed for the study. Participants were juniors and seniors who were expected to graduate within 2 years. Findings suggest that both fictive kin relationships within the university setting and surrounding community and religiosity to include prayer and attending religious services are used as coping methods contributing to the academic persistence of African American students.
Drawing on a survey of more than 600 articles that use the term fictive kin, I demonstrate that this term is used predominantly in reference to African Americans and a variety of marginal people and only rarely is used in conjunction with a mainstream White population. After presenting data on the use of the term, I discuss the implications of these findings. I explore as well two rhetorical shifts in language-the introduction of the notion of families of choice and the recent introduction of the concept of voluntary kin.
Fictive kin, defined as family-type relationships, based not on blood or marriage but rather on religious rituals or close friendship ties, constitutes a type of social capital that many immigrant groups bring with them and that facilitates their incorporation into the host society. We describe three types of fictive kin systems in different immigrant populations and argue that their functions are similar across various ethnic groups and types of fictive kin relationships. Fictive kin systems expand the network of individuals who provide social and economic capital for one another and thereby constitute a resource to immigrants as they confront problems of settlement and incorporation. While anthropologists have long noted systems of fictive kin in premodern and modernizing societies, sociologists have paid little attention to fictive kin networks. We argue, however, that systems of fictive kin constitute an important part of the social networks that draw immigrants to a particular locale and provide them with the material and social support that enables them to become incorporated into a new and often hostile society. Data are derived from interviews with informants from various immigrant groups in Houston, Texas and from a Yoruba community in Brooklyn, New York.
This article describes development of a theory of solidarity among parents and children during the adult family life course. Four stages in the theory's development are reported here. Presented first is a taxonomy of six dimensions of intergenerational family cohesion—association, affection, consensus, resource sharing, the strength of familism norms, and the opportunity structure for interaction—reflecting conceptual contributions from classical social theory, social psychology, and family sociology. An initial formal theoretical specification of interrelationships among a subset of the six elements is reviewed, as well as two independent tests of that model. Second, a revision of the theory informed by results of the two empirical tests is presented. Third, elements of the revised theory are translated into a structural equation model, which is tested with data collected from 363 pairs of elderly parents and middle-aged adult children. These data provided support for seven of nine propositions derived from the reformulated theory. The major finding concerns interrelationships among normative integration, affection, and association. Greater endorsements of familial primacy norms by parents and children were associated with higher ratings of intergenerational affection. Greater affection was, in turn, related to more frequent association when opportunity for interaction was controlled. The fourth stage in theory development reported here includes discussion of the new results and suggestions for future conceptual and empirical work.
Sociologists long have observed that the urban poor rely on kinship networks to survive economic destitution. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork among evicted tenants in high-poverty neighborhoods, this article presents a new explanation for urban survival, one that emphasizes the importance of disposable ties formed between strangers. To meet their most pressing needs, evicted families often relied more on new acquaintances than on kin. Disposable ties facilitated the flow of various resources, but often bonds were brittle and fleeting. The strategy of forming, using, and burning disposable ties allowed families caught in desperate situations to make it from one day to the next, but it also bred instability and fostered misgivings among peers.
This study examined differences in kin and nonkin networks among African Americans, Caribbean Blacks (Black Caribbeans), and non‐Hispanic Whites. Data are taken from the National Survey of American Life, a nationally representative study of African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non‐Hispanic Whites. Selected measures of informal support from family, friendship, fictive kin, and congregation/church networks were utilized. African Americans were more involved in congregation networks, whereas non‐Hispanic Whites were more involved in friendship networks. African Americans were more likely to give support to extended family members and to have daily interaction with family members. African Americans and Black Caribbeans had larger fictive kin networks than non‐Hispanic Whites, but non‐Hispanic Whites with fictive kin received support from them more frequently than African Americans and Black Caribbeans. The discussion notes the importance of examining kin and nonkin networks, as well as investigating ethnic differences within the Black American population.
This article extends previous research by examining the relationship between prospective accounts of intergenerational affection, normative expectations, and conflict on current patterns of supportive exchanges between parents and adult children. Research questions are addressed using data from 680 parent-child dyads participating in the 1988 and 1991 waves of the University of Southern California Longitudinal Study of Generations. Findings indicate that a history of affection in a parent-adult child relationship is associated with equitable and reciprocal exchanges of support and a greater likelihood of receiving and giving various forms of help and support. A strong sense of obligation to family at an earlier time period was related to exchange relationships with fathers but not with mothers: Duty-driven exchanges were less equitable, with adult children giving much more than they received. Earlier conflict in parent-adult child relationships did not interfere with contemporary exchanges of help and support.
This article discusses the concept of fictive kinship and presents the findings of a qualitative study that investigated the fictive family ties of elderly women. In-depth interviews with 142 respondents revealed that 40% could actually identify a fictive family member. Moreover, it was found that these relationships appeared to be a salient and meaningful component of the social networks of these elderly women. Evidence was found to support the substitution principle, or the notion that individuals who have no kin tend to substitute for missing relatives by converting close friends into quasi-kin. It is argued that fictive kinship ought to be given more research attention. Because current demographic trends indicate that a sizable proportion of future generations of elderly people will have considerably fewer "real" family ties, fictive kin could become a very relevant research focus for social gerontologists in particular.
This article explores the ways in which African Americans, define family and kinship. Using data collected using ethnographic methods, issues such as the level of ongoing commitment to extended family structures, fictive kin status and obligations and pathways to kinship status are examined. This study has broad implications for the delivery of culturally appropriate services to African American individuals and families.
To identify perspectives on the roles of extended family and fictive kin, the authors conducted a qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with 45 older adults diverse in gender, race, and class. Five strategies of kin reinterpretation were found. Kin promotion defined a distant blood relative as a closer blood relative. Kin exchange reclassified a parent–child tie as a sibling tie or vice versa. Nonkin conversion created fictive kin by turning friends and colleagues into family-like members. Kin retention kept an ex-in-law in the extended family network following divorce. Kin loss identified the meaning of losing physical or psychological contact with a once-valued kin member. The findings reveal that older adults from both mainstream and marginalized families expanded kin reinterpretation practices as a means of adapting to impermanence in family ties. These alterations helped ensure closeness and mutual reliance, thus providing a bridge to connect the old and new social landscape.
This research presents empirical findings concerning the extent to which older people in the inner city neighborhoods of New York City have an informal network of friends and neighbors and the nature of the interactions which occur. The characteristics associated with individuals possessing extensive friend-neighbor networks are discussed, and the preferences of older people for assistance from kin versus nonkin in a variety of situations are explored. Several theoretical models concerning the operation of the informal support system are considered, and the author postulates a new model - the hierarchical-compensatory model - as best fitting the empirical data at hand. The findings are from the largest cross-cultural study of the elderly in urban poverty, The Elderly in the Inner City of New York with an N of 1,552, including 49% white, 37% black, and 13% Hispanic elderly.
intellectual antecedents of our current conceptualization of intergenerational solidarity
force, or unitary property, [that] allows collective action and enables some groups to be more harmonious than others
macro- and micro-social assessments of solidarity
presents alternatives to be considered in future empirical treatments of family intergenerational relations
societal solidarity / cohesiveness in small groups / the
two-dimensional Circumplex Model / cohesion and adaptability / analysis of patterns of interaction within the family (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compadrazgo, "coparenthood," is a traditional ritual fictive kinship system that provides a network of mutually supportive relationships in the Mexican American culture. A literature search of CINAHL, Medline, PsychoInfo, and Web of Science was used to identify peer-reviewed journals and original sources. Keywords included comadre, compadrazgo, fictive kin, social support, Mexican, and Mexican American. Additional resources were identified through a focused review of references. Findings from this study indicate knowledge about compadrazgo, is limited to the social organization, historical practices, and a preliminary description of the compadres role. Minimal information is available about the relationship between compadrazgo, and health, and variations in roles and responsibilities of compadrazgo, participants. Frequency of enactment of compadrazgo, responsibilities and barriers to the enactment of social support by compadres remain unknown. Variations in practice have not been explored. Nursing implication include the recommended ways that compadrazgo, can be encouraged or promoted in patient care.
"Anderson's mix of the language of sociology and the more colorful street idiom makes a complex social phenomenon accessible to a broad audience. . . . An important work."âGerald Lee Dillingham, Contemporary Sociology
This paper is primarily about why individuals choose to help others. Kinship is an important concept in research on helping behavior with common distinctions made between kin, non-kin, and fictive kin. Unrelated individuals become "adopted" family members who accept the affection, obligations and duties of "real" kin. Understanding more about the subjective nature of fictive kin relations is important for understanding individual motivations for engaging in various helping behaviors. Gang members are found to use fictive kin terminology and gangs are a substitute family for members.
These research findings compare the support networks of inner-city blacks and whites, 65 years and older, who were selected from hospital medical clinics. Both blacks and whites who are in need of help use formal supports. Blacks, however, have more active support networks than do whites despite the low incidence of support from spouses and children. These social resources result from mechanisms in black families that expand network membership through the creation of fictive kin.
Research on the informal support networks of older persons recognizes that network size and composition (i.e., family vs.
Nonkin) may have important consequences for care. Factors that determine these aspects of networks among older blacks, however,
have not been explored systematically. The present study examined the relationship of a group of sociodemographic, health,
family, and availability factors to the size and composition of the informal support network. The data were taken from the
national survey of black americans and constitute a nationally representative sample (N = 581) of older blacks (55 years and
older). The results for several of the sociodemographic factors (i.E., sex and marital status) are consistent with previous
work. Regional differences in network dimensions, however, suggest new areas of inquiry. The findings underscore the importance
of availability and family factors in support relationships and the relative ineffectiveness of health factors as predictors
of network size and composition
The purpose here is to identify those processes that account for the more active and supportive kinship networks among Black oldest old than found among their White age peers.
Focused interviews were conducted with 122 Blacks 85 years and older. Both open-ended and semistructured questions were asked in order to determine how Blacks defined family and kinship membership, their expectations for kin, and the desired levels of reciprocity.
A content analysis of the responses indicated that Blacks defined the boundaries of their families flexibly so as to include fictive kin, and they upgraded more distant kin into the status of primary kin. They also emphasized the importance of collateral relatives so as to expand the size of the network.
These processes use personal choices as well as immediate needs to expand the basis of relatedness beyond blood and marriage. Thus the supportive capacities of networks increase in order to serve a potentially vulnerable population.
This paper provides an overview of the probability sample designs and sampling methods for the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Studies (CPES): the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), the National Study of American Life (NSAL) and the National Latino and Asian American Study of Mental Health (NLAAS). The multi-stage sample design and respondent selection procedures used in these three studies are based on the University of Michigan Survey Research Center's National Sample designs and operations. The paper begins with a general overview of these designs and procedures and then turns to a more detailed discussion of the adaptation of these general methods to the three specific study designs. The detailed discussions of the individual study samples focus on design characteristics and outcomes that are important to analysts of the CPES data sets and to researchers and statisticians who are planning future studies. The paper describes how the expected survey cost and error structure for each of these surveys influenced the original design of the samples and how actual field experience led to changes and adaptations to arrive at the final samples of each survey population.
The objectives of the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) are to investigate the nature, severity, and impairment of mental disorders among national samples of the black and non-Hispanic white (n = 1,006) populations in the US. Special emphasis in the study is given to the nature of race and ethnicity within the black population by selecting and interviewing national samples of African-American (N = 3,570), and Afro-Caribbean (N = 1,623) immigrant and second and older generation populations. National multi-stage probability methods were used in generating the samples and race/ethnic matching of interviewers and respondents were used in the largely face-to-face interview, which lasted on average 2 hours and 20 minutes. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) IV World Mental Health Composite Interview (WHO-CIDI) was used to assess a wide range of serious mental disorders, potential risk and resilience factors, and help seeking and service use patterns. This paper provides an overview of the design of the NSAL, sample selection procedures, recruitment and training of the national interviewing team, and some of the special problems faced in interviewing ethnically and racially diverse national samples. Unique features of sample design, including special screening and listing procedures, interviewer training and supervision, and response rate outcomes are described.