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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria: The Role of the Christian Religion

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Abstract

Conflict and crisis are common phenomena in many countries of the world, including Nigeria. They are perceived and analyzed differently by people. Conflict and crisis are two interrelated concepts used to describe occurrences in traditional human society. In Nigeria, religious, ethnic and political conflicts are common occurrences. This paper, therefore, examines the concept of conflict, its prevention and management, and the role of Christian religion towards achieving this in Nigeria. The paper employs descriptive and evaluative methods to achieve its aim. This paper, therefore, recommends that Christians should employ the principle of the universal brotherhood of humanity in the prevention and management of conflicts and crisis in Nigeria. The paper concludes that combined efforts of government, religious leaders and groups, humanist groups, civil society and individuals are required for a sincere and consistent implementation of these preventive and managerial measures.
Enwlsdomization Journal
VoL
4
No.
3,
2010
CONFLICT PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: THE ROLE OF
THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
John A. Onimhawo and Peter
0. 0.
Ottuh
Abstract
Conflict and crisis are common phenomena in many countries
of the world, including Nigeria. They are perceived and
analyzed differently by people. Conflict and crisis are two
interrelated concepts used to describe occurrences in
traditional human society. In Nigeria, religious, ethnic and
political conflicts are common occurrences. This paper
therefore, examines the concept of conflict, its prevention
and management, and the role of Christian religion towards
achieving this in Nigeria. The paper employs the descriptive
and evaluative methods to achieve its aim.
This paper therefore, recommends that Christians should
employ the principle of universal brotherhood of humanity
in the prevention and management of conflicts and crisis in
Nigeria. The paper concludes that combined efforts of
government, religious leaders and groups, humanist groups,
civil society and individuals are required for a sincere and
consistent implementation ofthese preventive and managerial
measures.
Introduction
Conflict and violence are characteristics of every human society. This is
because human beings are different from one another psycho-socially. The
occurrences of Conflict and violence are sequel, most often, to
misunderstanding or clash of interest between people, groups, nations or
organizations. Also, their perception of morality is differently and independently.
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
The Christian churches and theologians, at the outset, have never been
unanimous in their views about violence and conflict in human society.
I
Today, most people believe that general opinion inthe past accepted and, in
one way or the other, blessed the state's use of violence and condemned
any revolt against the ruling
authorities.'
But it is a mistake to assume that
it is only in our day that Christians have adopted a nonviolent stance or, on
the other hand, have ranged themselves on the side of revolutionary violence.
These two attitudes have had their representatives, their theologians, and
their sects from the beginning.
The intention of this study therefore, is to look into the frequent
reoccurrence of conflicts and crisis in Nigeria. The frequent reoccurrence
of these ugly phenomena have great significant effects on the people and
the society at-large. This is why itbecomes necessary to discuss their preventive
and managerial measures in order to achieve a workable synthesis.
Concept of Conflict
Conflict implies fights, struggles, agitations, and disagreements according to
the
OxfordAdvanced Learners Dictionary of Current English.
Conflicts
originate from differences in opinions, desires and inconsistencies in actions.
In most cases, conflicts are struggles over communal values including
resources. Hence conflict is a socio-political instrument or mechanism in
the resolution of devalues and inconsistencies in human societies. Conflict
as a human activity is found all over the world today. Conflict is perceived
as integrative tendency from the liberal point of view. Thus, it becomes a
situation whereby different individuals struggle to follow a particular line of
action to the detriment of others. Typology of conflicts includes political,
ethnic, economic, cultural and religious conflicts.
The Concept of Violence and Non-Violence in Christian Thought
Violence
Violence - political, religious or ethnic has never had official approval in
Christian history. Like non-violence, it has never had official status but has
always been represented - albeit in sporadic fashion in spite of its official
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Peter O. O. Ottuh
disapproval. This is the view that, aside from any question of authority,
violence on the part of the individual may be legitimate.' This is not at all a
modem discovery, though the ''theologians of revolution" seem to think so.
However, the use of violence, whether by Christians or non-Christians,
have always been accepted in Christian thought on various grounds," Some
violence are termed by some Christian sects to be a "puritanical violence".'
Example of such purifying violence was carried out by the Authorities of
the Nile Valley, hermits of the third and fourth centuries on Egypt." At that
time, they claimed to be purifying Egypt of her rampant moral corruption,
hence, they proclaimed the imminence of the sternjudgment of God, and
drove home their proclamation by their violent actions.' In this sense, they
took it upon themselves to punish sinners here and now and to manifest
God's judgment on the world in concrete ways. Thus, these puritanical
"ambassadors" were said to be motivated primarily by a prophetic and
spiritual concern.' According to history, they took their cue from the
celebrated biblical passage which tells how Jesus whipped the merchants
and drove them from the temple (Mtt. 21 :12-16).
9
In time, the outlook changed completely, and the problem became that
ofthe violence of the poor and oppressed against their oppressors. Was
such violence legitimate before God? The answer was an unqualified "yes",
sweeping aside all the Old Testament passages which indicate that God is
the one who avenges the misery of the poor and the suffering of the
oppressed; also, sweeping aside the New Testament passages which counsel
the unfortunate to practice the virtue of patience and exhort servants to
obey their masters even ifthe master is unjust to them.
ID
The Bible is clear
about this matter, however, practically, there is no biblical text that directly
justifies violence.
Such as the analysis of Thomas Aquinas helps puritanical theologians
and violent perpetrators tojustify violence. According to Aquinas:
When a poor person, out of his need, steals, he is not
committing a sin and should not be punished by the Church.
The bread he stole was due him from the rich man; and if
the poor man stole, it was because of the rich man's hardness
of heart.
I I
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
In the light of the above statement, can we now say that the violence in the
Niger Delta of Nigeria isjustified? This is a food for thought.
In this connection, reference must be made also to the innumerable
social movements that generally based their agitations and acts of violence
on Christian grounds. This includes the Joachimite movement ofFloris in
Europe who fought the rich on behalf'of'the
poor,"
The same force was
conquered by another Christian movement "Forces of Order" an army
corn mended by the Bishop
of'Vercueil."
As a result of the Crusades fought by the church, violence cannot be
erased from the history of Christianity. The sixteenth century particularly
say an ever increasing glorification of violence on the basis of Christian
motifs.
14
There was first, the great revolt of Thomas Munzer, which aimed
to establish a truly Christian state of equity and justice.
IS
His idea was that
ofa puritanical violence. The case of the Anabaptist also comes to mind. A
movement where John ofLeyden, by violent means, set up his regime at
Munster in the early centuries.
16
All these movements, often accompany
the proclamations of the reign ofthe Spirit, a reign erupting in violence, as
though spiritual passion were incarnated in violence.
From the foregoing, for Christians to take a position in favour ofviolence
is nothing new at all. From all quarters nowadays, we are told that the
"theology of revolution" is one of the most remarkable developments in
modem theological thought and that, with time, we shall get rid of the
conformism that has long marked the churches. However, Christians in this
regard, should moderate their enthusiasm.
Non- Violence
Opposed to the position described above, is that of non violence. This is an
orientation that goes back to the beginning of Christianity and has always
been represented in the church. This position seems to bear witness or
have bearing on the teaching of Jesus on the level of personal relationships
- love your enemy, turn the other cheek, etc." Jesus himself carried the
commandment "Thou shall not kill" to the extreme limit, and in his person
manifested non violence attitude.
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To relate this to the official position of the church as regard non-violence,
both in public and private affairs, especially, military service, the church
seems to toe the Iine or position of Jesus. In practical, it seems that in the
fourth century, such was the view of Christians generally and the official
position of the church." To be sure of this, for instance, the first and
succeeding generations obeyed and honoured the political powers of their
time, but, because of their love of humanity and their respect for the strangers,
they refused to render military service.
19
Tertullian is the first author to mention the presence of Christians in the
military, and he condemned it.
20
History shows that in his era, Christians
only became soldiers under duress, and that soldiering was not approved by
the church. In Africa, for instance, towards the end of the third century,
many Christians were martyred because they refused to serve in the
armies." Example is the case ofMaximilian, whose words have become
famous: "I cannot be a soldier; Icannot do evil, because Iam a Christian"
.22
However, granted in its varied origins, the stand for nonviolence was
taken by a great deal of Christians, though not all. But in the fourth century,
this position became less rigid. The last military martyrs no longer objected
to army service as such, they only refused to fight against their Christian
brethren. This orientation became very strong in the church after the World
War of 1914, when conscientious objection and nonviolence movements
multiplied everywhere." Some churches adopted this position, for instance,
certain Baptist Churches, the Pentecostalists, Jehovah's Witnesses, etc."
Conflict and Violence in Nigeria
Nigeria, like other nations of the world, is enclaved in conflicts and violence.
Conflicts that erupt in Nigeria are given religious and ethnic interpretations.
But most of these conflicts have political and economic undertone, although
religion and ethnicity have the larger share of these crises. Since
independence in 1960, Nigeria has encountered numerous religious, ethnic,
economic and political crises. The eras of military rule in Nigeria can be
described as the era of political crisis in Nigeria. These periods marked the
"celebration" of economic conflicts, social conflicts and political violence.
It was a period of the "survival of the fittest".
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
The year 1986 - 2006, marked violent religious crises in Nigeria."
There was no year that passed without one religious crises or the other.
The current Sharia crisis in the north, resource control crises in the south,
Niger Delta crises, agitation for selfindependence in the east, etc, easily
come to mind.
When discussing violence and conflict inNigeria, we should look beyond
religious, political and ethnic conflicts. What about the frequent industrial/
trade disputes/conflicts between government and organized labour groups
in the country? Industrial strikes are frequent phenomena in the Nigerian
society. Their existence has affected lives and other aspects of the national
life. Although, these conflicts produce negative effects, sometimes, it also
affects lives and society positively. This is because they bring about radical
changes that promote unity and progress",
Causes of Conflicts and Crisis
The reasons why people resort to violence as a last resort are very many
and clear. Here, we shall attempt to mention few.
1. Oppression
According to Thomas Muruzer,
... the children of God are entitled to happiness in this world
and to full enjoyment of all the goods of nature which God
gives to man; and they are kept from enjoying what is
rightfully theirs by the rich and powerful who have cornered
the goods of the world...
27
The declaration ofMuruzar reflects the actual situation ofthe Niger Delta
in Nigeria. Thus, the current conflict going on in the Niger Delta is borne
out of oppression and negligence, probably, by the Federal Government."
Oppression in its practicality negates human rights, human values and human
dignity. For the oppressed people to retrieve and sustain their values, rights
and dignity, they resort to conflict and violence in most cases (We just used
the Niger Delta crises to represent every other oppression cases in Nigeria).
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2. Exclusivism
Exclusivism isadoctrine of total exclusion. The practice of religious, political
and social exclusivism in Nigeria has been the brain behind numerous
persistent conflicts in the country. A situation where the minority, the poor
and the weak are excluded from the scheme of things is unacceptable. The
result will be agitation and violence. That is why there must be equal
participation,justice and equity.
3. Misrepresentation and Inadequacy ofInformation
In a situation where the interest of the minority and the powerless are
misrepresented and traded upon bythe few powerful rich people will surely
create a "war" situation. When the people are not well informed about, and
incarnated into government policies concerning them, they misunderstand
such policies (in spite of the good intention of such policies as the CAsemay
be) and resort to revolt.
The same is applicable to religion, when people fail to have adequate
information or ideas about their religions or principles of their religions, they
tend to misrepresent such institutions inthe midst of others, this can generate
into disagreement and eventually, conflict.
4. Poverty
There is a saying that goes thus: "a hungry man is an angry man". The
Nigerian economy is biting hard on people. No employment, no incentives
to promote entrepreneurial skills.Therefore, in a slightestprovocation, people
react negatively and resort to violence to achieve their economic goals.
Such necessitated the Aba Women riot of 1969
29
and the Niger Delta crises
being experienced currently, to mention but few.
5. Sensational Press Reports"
The Nigerian press is not helping matters at all. The Nigerian Press in most
cases has been accused of reporting and publishing provocative and
subjective publications which inturn were responded to violently byaggrieved
persons. According to Y.O. Imam, such reports contain "half truth and half
falsehood" in order to sell their papers." These kinds of reports and
publications have stimulated violent demonstrations that threatened societal
social structure." Other causes of conflict include intolerance, fanaticism
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
and extremism. The role of the Nigerian traditional institutions is not also
helping matters at all.
6. Politicization of Religion
Politicization of religion is one of the major causes of crisis. In Nigeria like
other African nations, political life is inseparable from religious life. Political
leaders are seen as agents of the gods and goddesses ofthe society and as
custodians of the wishes of the ancestors. Hence, the people on their part
would accept the political arrangements governing their lives as religious
obligations. Therefore, the relationship between politics and religion is
inevitable and vital issue. Undoubtedly, both Islam and Christianity in Nigeria
sre
highly politicized. In this way, many Christians now see religion as a
major
determinant factor in deciding the "leadership power" of the Muslims.
Therefore, it becomes imperative for the Christians to use religion to achieve
their socio-political goals. To back up their position the Christians would
always referred to the words of Jesus Christ in Matthew
22:21
which says
that we should give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's.
Even in most cases, political parties are formed along ethno-religious
lines. All these have made politics to creep into the churches and mosques
in Nigeria. More also, religion has acted as a "watch dog" against government
bad
policies. For instance, under a succession of Muslim military and civilian
dictators between
1977
and
2007,
the churches became increasingly pol itical
and function almost as "an unofficial opposition to the regimes". Undoubtedly,
the involvement of religion in politics and in State affairs has often led to
crises and conflicts.
The Role of Christian Religion in Conflict and Crisis Prevention
al~d Management
Chri'S:tians believe that the objection to violence in human society is to seek
out ways of expressing love. Hence, the view developed that in and of
itself, as an absolute act, non-violence is of no direct value, that the principle
of nonviolence must lead to ways of acting that are valid expressions of
authentic love of neighbour. Therefore, there would be no need to distinguish
between good and bad, oppressor and aggressor; violence must not be used
against them, because violence is necessarily contrary to love. Love itself
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John A. Onimhawo &Peter O. O. Ottuh
can overcome evil, and we are under an imperative to go beyond the order
of justice by way of the order oflove. This line ofthought, however, rests
on the conviction that it is God who transforms the heart of man. In other
words, it beckons an attitude of utter faith in the action of the Holy Spirit, a
recognition that the will of God is not accomplished through violence on the
part of man, but on the contrary, that man's obedience, sacrifice and
nonresistance to evil clear the way for the action of God to manifest itself.
This orientation gives us a better and clearer perspective on how the Christian
religion can prevent and manage conflict and crisis".
1. Christianizing Every Situation
In this stance, reasonable Christians, not conformists or hypocrites, who
believe that, after all, every period of human history has its values, should
Christianize a given situation than to enter into conflict or promote it. The
story of Jesus, the mob, and the adulteress woman in the Bible is a good
example of this (Jhn. 8: 1-11
).34
By so doing, the Christians apply prudence
and "compromise". This measure also leads to the Christian virtues of
moderation and temperance.
2. Sacrifice and Tolerance
This measure appeals to those whom can be termed "sufferers", people
who are acutely conscious of the scandalous gap between Christian
affinnations and the behaviour of our society. Here, the sufferings of others
wi11prompt Christians to be ready to make serious personal sacrifices and
commitments. As such, their attitudes should be marked by true spirit of
charity (love) and great humility.
3. Applying the Ultimate Goal of Religion
The ultimate goal or aims of all religion include peace, harmony and progress.
Religion is very relevant in all areas of human life. Hence, people apply
their religion to their social, emotional, economic, intellectual and spiritual
life35Religion helps to cultivate the whole of human person. It is religion
that solves every profound questions oflife. Religion like Christianity has
greatly influenced the thinking and lives of people, including their society. It
should be noted that almost every person who is involved in one conflict or
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
the other belong to one religion or the other. As Christians who are "light of
the world" and the "ambassadors" of their religion (Christ) should subscribe
.to peace, universal brotherhood, harmony and progress. Their exhibition of
these virtues will prevent or reduce conflict at any level.
4. Universal Brotherhood of Man.
The motivation for Christian love for one another is grounded in God's love
for us and the world which he created. This can be practically seen in the
gift of his son Jesus Christ (Jhn. 3:
16).36
The love for the brethren here can
be interpreted to include all persons in the human society, irrespective of
tribe, culture, socio-economic status, religion or
scolour."
Love for every
one therefore, is an inevitable requirement and instrument to enthrone
peaceful co-existence in any human society, especially in a pluralistic society
likeNigeria.
God being the loving Father of all, He naturally expects His children to
love one another and live as brothers. So the Brotherhood of Man is a
central idea in the teaching of Jesus Christ. According to Him,
unbrotherliness is the supreme sin.
This brotherliness is summed up inthe word "Love" Christ commands
us to love one another because God our Father is Love. This command of
love isthe law of our King, and takes precedence over any other law, and to
obey it is to be truly happy. When Christ commands us to love one another,
He does not mean an all-inclusive toleration that does not distinguish between
right and wrong; what He means isthat we should have a spirit that harbours
no grudge, that sees the best in men, that is full of understanding, is
wonderfullypatient and utterlypure. Brotherlyloveshows itselfin various ways:
(a) Act of benevolence. Jesus taught that we should help the needy
and give alms without parading it like the Pharisees, but after His
own quiet example of helping others. Wemust not turn away from
those who need our help ifwe are ina position to give it(Lk.3:) Off).
The rich man in the Bible was condemned, not because he was
rich, but because he closed the eyes of his mercy against Lazarus,
his poor suffering brother whom he was in a position to help. "He
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John A. Onlmhawo
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that hath two coats, let him give one to him that hat not, and he that
hath food, let him do likewise", said Jesus. And such a help, springing
from pure love, should know no limits of race or colour, as is shown
by the parable of the Good Samaritan.
'(b)
Unlimited forgiveness. Readily and whole-heartedly given. Just
as God the Father always ready to forgive for Christ's sake every
penitent sinner, so "not unto seven times but seventy times seven."
This is demonstrated in the life and teachings of our Lord Jesus
Christ. This act prevents tension and bring about peace and harmony
among people
5. Compromise
Christians should apply or adopt an attitude of compromise in every
"demanding" situation, without loosing their faith. Such Jesus Christ applied
to avoid conflict between himself and the Jews including the Romans in his
time. Our relationship with the natural world should be that of cordiality and
social, as well as spiritual mediation." Christianity is a religion of peace,
justice, and mercies of God hence, it preaches the fatherhood ofrnankind."
6. Provision of Physical (Social) Amenities
As it is in the tradition of some churches, such as the Catholic, Baptist,
Anglican etc, in establishing social and business concerns, more Christian
churches should follow suite in order to compliment government efforts in
the bid to create job opportunities and to eradicate poverty. The church
should not only provide for the spirituality of the people, but also their physical
needs. This, Jesus Christ also did in his time. When people are not idle,
there will be less conflict of any kind.
7. Humility
Humility is a virtue of humanity. It promotes tolerance, and brings people to
gather. According to the Scriptures, pride is the very root and essence of
sin, as it leads to rebellion against the Law of God. Hence in the Bible,
especially in the Psalms and Wisdom literature, pride is condemned in clear
terms just as humility is highly commended. The proper attitude of man
before God is self-abasement and utter self-surrender to His divine will.
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Conflict Prevention and Management in Nigeria
The life of our God Jesus Christ affords the best lesson in humility; His
incarnation
(=
God becoming man!), His birth in a manger by a village
damsel, His life as a carpenter at Nazareth, His Passion and Cross are all
examples of His great humility. Christ taught, " everyone that humbleth
himself shall be exalted," (Lk. 14:11). He condemned the arrogance of His
day, especially as manifested by the scribes and Pharisees. "Woe unto you,
ye scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! For ye love salutation in the market
places and the chief seats in the synagogue," He taught His disciples to
emulate the humility of children, and bade them to refuse titles of honour
(Matt. 23:8,10) and positions of privilege at social gatherings (Lk. 14: 10,11).
As a practical demonstration of His great humility, Christ washed His
disciples' feet, and when they disputed about precedence, Jesus declared;
"If any man would be first, he shall be last of all and minister of all." When
James and John the sons ofZebedee stirred up the anger ofthe rest ofthe
apostles by their ambitious request to sit on either side of Jesus in His
Kingdom, their great Master settled the matter by declaring; "Who sever
will be great among you shall be your minister, and whosoever of you will
be the chiefest shall be servant of all" (Mk. 10:43,44). Finally Jesus declares,
"The Son of man came not be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give
His life a ransom for many" (Mk. 10:45). The conclusion from the above
observation isthat humility is an important Christian virtue, and shows itself
best in our service to our fellowmen including our interactions reactions in
time of crisis.
8. Using Christianity as Instrument of Socialization and Control"
Society is intrinsically tied to religion. Religion is all embracing, promoting
.cohesion and collective actions among members of society; hence, it becomes
an instrument of social activities, an anti-crime agency, and machinery for
social control. This is clearly evident in the Nigerian situation, especially in
the past religious crises that have erupted.
Conclusion
Conflict and violence are the characteristics of human society, Nigeria is
not in exempted. Christians according to the Bible are "peacemakers" and
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John A. Onlmhawo
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Peter O. O. Ottuh
the "light of the world". Therefore, their influence is great in the society.
The principle of universal brotherhood ofhumanity covers a lot of measures
to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts and crisis in society; we therefore,
recommend that this principle which is all embracing should be adopted by
- Christians in Nigeria.
EndnoteslReferences
I. J. Ellul, Violence: Reflectionsfrom a Christian Perspective (New York: The
Seabury Press, 1969), I.
2. Elluh,2.
3. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
4. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.titie=S73&C =712 (2006)
S. J. Lazzerre "Violence" Cahiers de la re 'conciliation, Paris, 1967.
6. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
7. http://www.religion-online.org.show(.hapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
S. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
9. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
10. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
11. T. Aquinas quoted in Ellul, 9S.
12. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
13. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S 73&C =712 (2006)
14. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=S73&C =712 (2006)
IS. P. Regamey, Nonviolence and the Christian Conscience (New York: Herder
& Herder, 1966), 101.
16. Regamey,101.
17. J.M. Homus, Evangile et Labarum (Geneva: Labor& Fides, 1960),22.
IS. Homus, 223.
19. Homus, 223
20. Homus, 223
21. Homus, 224.
22. Homus, 224.
23. Homus,222.
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Conflict Prevention and Management In Nigeria
24. Hornus,222.
25. J. Onaiyekan. "The Strategies for Islam expression in Nigeria and Christian
Response: Notes and Reflections", A paper presented at the 3'd Meeting of
the Ecumenical Association ofNigerian Theologians, Onitsha, 16
111
May, 1987, I.
26. L. Weissbrod, "Religion as National Identity in a Secular Society",
Review of
Religious Research,
Vol. 24, No. 3, March 1983, 189-190.
27. http://www.religion-online.org.showchapter.asp.title=573&C =712 (2006)
28. Cf.
Tell Magazine,
I
ph
July, 2005, 23.
29. R. Ofoegbu, Government for the Certificate Year (London: George Alien &
Onwin, 1978),47.
30. Y.O. Imam,
Religious and Social Disruptions in North-Eastern Nigeria
(Ibadan: Loud Books, 2004),13.
31. Imam, 13.
32. Imam, 53 - 62.
33. Leo Driedger, "Individuality Freedom Vs. Community Control",
Journalfor
the Scientific Study of Religion,
Vol. 21, No. 3, Sept. 1982,229.
34. M.Lupfer and K. Wald, "Religious Orientations and Philosophies of Human
Nature", Journal
for the Scientific Study of Religion,
Vol. 24, No. 3, Sept.
1985,293.
35. D. Hay andA. Morisy, "Secular Society, Religion Meanings: A Contemporary
Paradox",
Review of Religious Research,
Vol.26, No. 3, March 1985,2 I6.
36. G.C. Morgan,
Studies in the Four Gospels
(New Jersey: F. H. Revell Com.,
1990),34ff
37. K. Gyekye,
African Cultural Values: An Introduction
(Accra: SCM Publishing
Co., 1996),23 - 34.
38. B. W. Donnelly, "Social Protest of Christian and Non-Religious Groups",
Journalfor the Scientific Study of Religion,
Vol. 26, No. 3, Sept. 1987, 337ff.
39. J.O.Osasona, "Plurality in the Ways of Salvation: A Theological Problem in
Christian-Muslim Relations",
Epha: Ekpoma Journal of Religious
Studies,
Vo1.2,No. I, June 1998,73.
40. M. I. Isokun, "Religion and Justice: An Enquiry into the Place of Religion in
the Nigerian System of Justice",
Epha: EkpomaJournal of Religious
Studies,
Vo1.2,No. I, June 1998, 154.
126
... The grammatical use of gender implies two usages of it: gender as a synonym for sex hence gender can also means to produce or to procreate. All these three meanings continue to be subjects of debates and fundamental to many feminist studies 9 . Undeniably, the distinction between gender and sex sounds more crucial and it becomes compulsory to investigate what various authors say about it. ...
... This sexgender distinction seems to stand at variance with naturalistic view of masculinity and femininity, which emphasizes the idea that gender, is biologically given. This naturalistic view is rooted on the fact that female's reproductive role and hormones made them naturally vulnerable, and on the other hand, the male physique and hormones make them to be aggressive and competitive in nature (Ottuh, 2010). Most feminists acknowledge sexual dimorphism 10 of human species; they identify the physiological and physical differences between women and men. ...
... This refers to parties working together on their own accord so that peace building can be attained through dialogue and planning, and to execute common projects. 9. Process of conciliation. ...
... The grammatical use of gender implies two usages of it: gender as a synonym for sex hence gender can also means to produce or to procreate. All these three meanings continue to be subjects of debates and fundamental to many feminist studies 9 . Undeniably, the distinction between gender and sex sounds more crucial and it becomes compulsory to investigate what various authors say about it. ...
... This sexgender distinction seems to stand at variance with naturalistic view of masculinity and femininity, which emphasizes the idea that gender, is biologically given. This naturalistic view is rooted on the fact that female's reproductive role and hormones made them naturally vulnerable, and on the other hand, the male physique and hormones make them to be aggressive and competitive in nature (Ottuh, 2010). Most feminists acknowledge sexual dimorphism 10 of human species; they identify the physiological and physical differences between women and men. ...
... This refers to parties working together on their own accord so that peace building can be attained through dialogue and planning, and to execute common projects. 9. Process of conciliation. ...
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This discourse examines such issues as gender mainstreaming peace building process; and role of gender in peace keeping and peace building in modern society. It queries most concepts and approaches to conflict resolution and management which have virtually ignored or marginalized genderism. Gender approach to conflict resolution and peace building challenges non-gender participation in policy making, programmes and institutions of crisis prevention and conflict management. It is also concerned with the balancing the gender’s participatory activities and their new acquired experiences in the course of a conflict would have socio-political and socioeconomic consequences for the post-conflict settlement and peace-building process globally. Gender balance and equality in a wider sense of social justice, is therefore an essential requirement for any sustainable development and peace-building activity in contemporary human society. Keywords: Gender, Peace building, Peacekeeping.
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Do individuals of differing religious orientations also differ in their philosophies of human nature? This question was examined by interviewing a representative sample of the adult population of Memphis, Tennessee. Altogether, 359 adults were questioned about their religious beliefs and practices, their answers yielding scores on four religious dimensions: Christian Orthodoxy, Church Involvement, Devotionalism and Theocracy. Respondents were also administered a revised version of Wrightsman's Philosophies of Human Nature Scale which produced scores on five dimensions: Cynicism, Internal Locus of Control, Goodness, Complexity and Variability. These two sets of measures were submitted to canonical correlation analysis. Two significant correlations were revealed, providing empirical support for the contention that people's religious outlook and their views of human nature are linked. The first canonical correlation of .35 (p < .001) suggested that people who adhere to orthodox Christian tenets, who make a habit of private devotions, and who are active in their churches see others as basically altruistic and truthful, hard to understand, and externally controlled. The second canonical correlation of .21 (p < .01) suggested that high levels of religious activism (in terms of participation in both church activities and private devotions) are associated with a belief in the uniformity of human nature. The demographic background of people exhibiting these patterns of belief was explored in an effort to interpret the correlations.
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A random sample of the adult population of an English industrial city was interviewed to ascertain the proportion of people reporting certain types of human experience which are commonly given a religious interpretation. Whilst the number claiming active membership of a religious institution was very low, a majority of people (62%) said they had this type of experience at least once or twice in their lives. Respondents were asked to give descriptions of their experiences and it was possible to classify these. The coded categories were found to relate to the extent to which an experience was, in fact, interpreted religiously. Furthermore, the more important an experience was judged to be by the individual, the more likely it was to be interpreted religiously. The hypothesis is proposed that interpretations of these experiences are given according to the sector of society within which the experiencer finds himself. There is evidence of a strong taboo against the public admission of these experiences, perhaps because they conflict with currently dominant secular models of reality.
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This study focuses on the political efforts of a random sample of Christian organizations involved in social protests in post Civil War America. It compares the outcomes of those challenges with those of a random sample of 41 nonreligious groups from a similar time period gathered by William Gamson for his study of social protest (1975). Following Gamson's approach, the organizational characteristics of the two samples are explored in an effort to explain differences in their success rates. Concerning the importance of religious identification on the group's abilities to promote successful challenges, it was found that the religious organizations are less likely to be successful than are the nonreligious groups. However, the analysis indicates that, during this period, religious identification was not directly responsible for the Christian groups' relative inability to reach their goals. Instead, their failure was linked with the Christian challengers' choice of multifaceted goals which were more difficult to obtain.
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The article argues that it is the role of religion to provide values that delineate national identity. This role is not universal, but it applies to a great variety of societies, including secular ones. The case chosen is Israel, because secularization was an integral part of its ideology. Nevertheless, national symbols continued to be secular versions of religious symbols, and the secular ideology continued to contain at least one aspect of the Messianic idea, which is religious in nature. The internal contradiction between basing national identity on emphatically secular values that are justified by religious ones caused a crisis of identity. A new religiously-based national identity is becoming increasingly widespread in Israel.
Violence: Reflectionsfrom a Christian Perspective
  • J Ellul
J. Ellul, Violence: Reflectionsfrom a Christian Perspective (New York: The Seabury Press, 1969), I.
Violence" Cahiers de la re 'conciliation
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The Strategies for Islam expression in Nigeria and Christian Response: Notes and Reflections
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Individuality Freedom Vs. Community Control
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Leo Driedger, "Individuality Freedom Vs. Community Control", Journalfor the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 21, No. 3, Sept. 1982,229.
Plurality in the Ways of Salvation: A Theological Problem in Christian-Muslim Relations
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J.O.Osasona, "Plurality in the Ways of Salvation: A Theological Problem in Christian-Muslim Relations", Epha: Ekpoma Journal of Religious Studies, Vo1.2,No. I, June 1998,73.
Religion and Justice: An Enquiry into the Place of Religion in the Nigerian System of Justice
  • M I Isokun
M. I. Isokun, "Religion and Justice: An Enquiry into the Place of Religion in the Nigerian System of Justice", Epha: EkpomaJournal of Religious Studies, Vo1.2,No. I, June 1998, 154.