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Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM): New Standards for Mechanical Characterization

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Abstract

Different materials from polycarbonate to polyetherimide are analyzed to account for the effects of different printing settings on the mechanical properties of parts printed by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). The materials chosen are engineering polymers specifically developed for functional applications. However, the two polymers differ in terms of melt temperature and viscosity thus resulting in different printing quality. The aim of the work is to elucidate the different mechanical performance by selecting the printing and testing settings to obtain statistically significant results. As the result of this study, some useful guidelines are drawn to develop standard procedures for the mechanical characterization of FDM printed parts.

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... The advantages of FDM include its availability, ease of use, low cost, speed of production, and low waste production. These are the main reasons why FDM 3D printing is the ideal choice for prototyping, visualizing, and creating functional parts [52][53][54]. In particular, the Original Prusa MK4 3D printer and polylactic acid (PLA) filament were used for the prototyping of the mechanism's parts. ...
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The research described in this study focuses on the development of an innovative upper-limb adapter for young children aged 1–3 years who have congenital upper-limb defects. The objective was to create a functional and affordable solution that allows children to engage more safely and actively in physical activities such as cycling. The adapter was designed within the DESIGN+ project at the University of West Bohemia in Pilsen in collaboration with the German company Ottobock. The development included a detailed analysis of hand movements during cycling, modelling using CAD software (NX 1888), prototype manufacturing through 3D printing, and subsequent testing. The result is an adapter that allows 360° rotation around the arm axis, provides natural hand movement while turning, and is made of soft material to enhance safety. Despite initial challenges and necessary prototype adjustments, a functional and reliable design was achieved. This adapter will contribute to improving the quality of life for children with upper-limb disabilities, supporting their coordination, strength, and confidence in daily activities.
... We believe that the next step of this work should be the study of the failure of general laminates when loaded in bending. In such a case, interlaminar stresses will play a very important role (Tosto et al., 2021), and thus it is likely that CLT and ULF will not be sufficient to describe failure, and a suitable interlaminar failure criterion should also be included in the theoretical framework. ...
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Purpose The architecture of 3D-printed parts made through fused deposition modelling (FDM) with raster infill resembles that of composite laminates. Classical lamination theory (CLT), the simplest model for composite laminates, has been proved successful for describing the stiffness properties of FDM parts, while strength modeling so far has been limited to unidirectional lay-ups. The aim of this paper is to show that CLT can be used to predict also FDM part failure. Design/methodology/approach Wood flour-filled polyester has been chosen as a model material. Unidirectional specimens oriented at 0°, 90° and ± 45° have been first characterized in simple tension to obtain the properties of the single layer. Next, two quasi-isotropic lay-ups, possessing different layer sequences, have been tested again in simple tension for CLT validation. Findings The measured properties are in good agreement with theoretical predictions, both for stiffness and strength, and an even better agreement can be achieved if a correction for taking the contour lines into account is implemented. Originality/value The paper shows that also the tensile strength of FDM parts can be predicted by using a mathematical model based on CLT. This opens up the possibility of using CLT for studying optimization of raster filled lay-ups, for example in terms of the best raster angles sequence, to better resist applied external loads.
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This study aims to investigate the effect of varying strain rates on the mechanical strength of neat polylactic acid (PLA), focusing on the influence of different strain rates on the material’s failure mechanisms. By examining these variations, this research seeks to optimize the mechanical properties of fusion deposition modeling (FDM) printed PLA, addressing the inherent weaknesses in interlayer bonding. PLA samples were printed with a grid infill pattern at 75% infill density, a 0.16 mm layer height, and a ± 45° printing orientation. Tensile, flexural, and interlaminar shear tests were performed at strain rates ranging from 6 to 10 mm/min according to ASTM standards. The highest tensile strength recorded was 38.89 MPa at a cross-head speed of 8 mm/min, with the highest elongation reaching 4.8%, interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of 76.49 MPa at 9 mm/min, and the maximum flexural strength of 70 MPa at 6 mm/min. At a cross-head speed of 8 mm/min, the highest tensile strength measured was 38.89 MPa, while the elongation measured was 3.8%, the flexural strength measured was 65 MPa, and the interlaminar shear strength was 76.04 MPa, which is very close to the highest recorded value. It can be suggested that a strain rate of 8 mm/min is optimal for testing FDM printed PLA, as it yields balanced and high-performance results across tensile, elongation, flexural, and interlaminar shear properties. This strain rate (8 mm/min) could be effective for analyzing failure mechanisms and material behavior under mechanical loading. This study could be helpful for the researchers working in the area of 3D-printed polymers, in understanding the behaviors of the materials with respect to varying strain rates.
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This paper exposes the initial part of a research consisting in the study of the tensile behavior of the 3D parts printed on two type of 3D printers, one Delta model FLSun QQ-S PRO and other one Cartesian model Tevo Tornado, by using three types of plastic materials, PLA, PLA-CF and PET-G. After a short introduction and a literature review on previous studies reffering to the subject, in the experimental section are exposed the printing parameters selected for printing the samples, toghether with the explanation of the testing procedure. The first set of results obtained is presented, consisting in the values achieved for two parameters, the load sustained by the test specimens at yield and at break, some graphic reprezentation of their variation, respectively a short interpretation of the results. Further tests and analysis will be developed in future work, in order to realize a comparative characterization of the 3D printed parts in function by the printers and materials used.
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Fused deposition modelling (FDM™) is one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies and its application in industrial practice is increasingly spreading. Among its successful applications, FDM™ is used in structural applications thanks to the mechanical performances guaranteed by the printed parts. Currently, a shared international standard specifically developed for the testing of FDM™ printed parts is not available. To overcome this limit, we have considered three different tests aimed at characterizing the mechanical properties of technological materials: tensile test (ASTM D638), flexural test (ISO 178) and short-beam shear test (ASTM D2344M). Two aerospace qualified ULTEMTM 9085 resins (i.e., tan and black grades) have been used for printing all specimens by means of an industrial printer (Fortus 400mc). The aim of this research was to improve the understanding of the efficiency of different mechanical tests to characterize materials used for FDM™. For each type of test, the influence on the mechanical properties of the specimen’s materials and geometry was studied using experimental designs. For each test, 22 screening factorial designs were considered and analyzed. The obtained results demonstrated that the use of statistical analysis is recommended to ascertain the real pivotal effects and that specific test standards for FDM™ components are needed to support the development of materials in the additive manufacturing field.
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The lack of specific standards for characterization of materials manufactured by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) makes the assessment of the applicability of the test methods available and the analysis of their limitations necessary; depending on the definition of the most appropriate specimens on the kind of part we want to produce or the purpose of the data we want to obtain from the tests. In this work, the Spanish standard UNE 116005:2012 and international standard ASTM D638-14:2014 have been used to characterize mechanically FDM samples with solid infill considering two build orientations. Tests performed according to the specific standard for additive manufacturing UNE 116005:2012 present a much better repeatability than the ones according to the general test standard ASTM D638-14, which makes the standard UNE more appropriate for comparison of different materials. Orientation on-edge provides higher strength to the parts obtained by FDM, which is coherent with the arrangement of the filaments in each layer for each orientation. Comparison with non-solid specimens shows that the increase of strength due to the infill is not in the same proportion to the percentage of infill. The values of strain to break for the samples with solid infill presents a much higher deformation before fracture.
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Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a promising additive manufacturing (AM) technology due to its ability to build thermoplastics parts with advantages in the design and optimization of models with complex geometries, great design flexibility, recyclability and low material waste. This technique has been extensively used for the manufacturing of conceptual prototypes rather than functional components due to the limited mechanical properties of pure thermoplastics parts. In order to improve the mechanical performance of 3D printed parts based on polymeric materials, reinforcements including nanoparticles, short or continuous fibers and other additives have been adopted. The addition of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) to plastic and polymers is currently under investigation as a promising method to improve their working conditions due to the good mechanical, electrical and thermal performance exhibited by graphene. Although research shows particularly promising improvement in thermal and electrical conductivities of graphene-based nanocomposites, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of graphene nanoplatelet reinforcement on the mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy and surface texture of 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) structures manufactured by a desktop 3D printer. The effect of build orientation was also analyzed. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images of failure samples were evaluated to determine the effects of process parameters on failure modes. It was observed that PLA-Graphene composite samples showed, in general terms, the best performance in terms of tensile and flexural stress, particularly in the case of upright orientation (about 1.5 and 1.7 times higher than PLA and PLA 3D850 samples, respectively). In addition, PLA-Graphene composite samples showed the highest interlaminar shear strength (about 1.2 times higher than PLA and PLA 3D850 samples). However, the addition of GNPs tended to reduce the impact strength of the PLA-Graphene composite samples (PLA and PLA 3D850 samples exhibited an impact strength about 1.2–1.3 times higher than PLA-Graphene composites). Furthermore, the addition of graphene nanoplatelets did not affect, in general terms, the dimensional accuracy of the PLA-Graphene composite specimens. In addition, PLA-Graphene composite samples showed, in overall terms, the best performance in terms of surface texture, particularly when parts were printed in flat and on-edge orientations. The promising results in the present study prove the feasibility of 3D printed PLA-graphene composites for potential use in different applications such as biomedical engineering.
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The increase in accessibility of fused filament fabrication (FFF) machines has inspired the scientific community to work towards the understanding of the structural performance of components fabricated with this technology. Numerous attempts to characterize and to estimate the mechanical properties of structures fabricated with FFF have been reported in the literature. Experimental characterization of printed components has been reported extensively. However, few attempts have been made to predict properties of printed structures with computational models, and a lot less work with analytical approximations. As a result, a thorough review of reported experimental characterization and predictive models is presented with the aim of summarizing applicability and limitations of those approaches. Finally, recommendations on practices for characterizing printed materials are given and areas that deserve further research are proposed.
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Polyetherimide (PEI) blends modified by either polycarbonate (PC) or polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG) were prepared. The latter modifier (PETG) was an industrial grade widely used for fused deposition modelling (FDM) printing. PEI blends were compared to Ultem 9085, which is the standard PEI grade for FDM printing in advanced applications. All the blends were thoroughly characterized in terms of their rheological, morphological, thermomechanical and tensile properties. Ultem 9085 showed improved rheology for processing over standard PEI. PEI/PC blends with 10 wt % of modifier developed here closely matched the viscosity behavior of Ultem 9085. On the other hand, the blends with low PC content (i.e., less than 20 wt %) outperformed Ultem 9085 in terms of thermal and tensile properties. When PETG was added, similar tensile properties to Ultem 9085 were found. The immiscibility for PC contents higher than 20 wt % deteriorated the tensile properties, making it less attractive for applications, although melt viscosity decreased further for increasing PC contents.
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Background: Among additive manufacturing techniques, the filament-based technique involves what is referred to as fused deposition modeling (FDM). FDM materials are currently limited to a selected number of polymers. The present study focused on investigating the potential of using high-end engineering polymers in FDM. In addition, a critical review of the materials available on the market compared with those studied here was completed. Methods: Different engineering thermoplastics, ranging from industrial grade polycarbonates to novel polyetheretherketones (PEEKs), were processed by FDM. Prior to this, for innovative filaments based on PEEK, extrusion processing was carried out. Mechanical properties (i.e., tensile and flexural) were investigated for each extruded material. An industrial-type FDM machine (Stratasys Fortus® 400 mc) was used to fully characterize the effect of printing parameters on the mechanical properties of polycarbonate. The obtained properties were compared with samples obtained by injection molding. Finally, FDM samples made of PEEK were also characterized and compared with those obtained by injection molding. Results: The effect of raster to raster air gap and raster angle on tensile and flexural properties of printed PC was evidenced; the potential of PEEK filaments, as novel FDM material, was highlighted in comparison to state of the art materials. Conclusions: Comparison with injection molded parts allowed to better understand FDM potential for functional applications. The study discussed pros and cons of the different materials. Finally, the development of novel PEEK filaments achieved important results offering a novel solution to the market when high mechanical and thermal properties are required.
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Continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPCs) are becoming more significant in industrial applications due to their inherit advantages such as excellent mechanical performance, potential use in lightweight structures and being recyclable. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is a promising additive manufacturing technology and an alternative to conventional processes for the fabrication of CFRTPCs due to its ability to build functional parts having complex geometries. However, a major concern affecting the efficient use of 3D printed composites is their weak interlaminar bonding performance compared to conventional pre-preg composites. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of layer thickness and fibre volume content on the interlaminar bonding performance of 3D printed continuous carbon, glass and Kevlar® fibre reinforced nylon composites manufactured by FDM technique. Short beam shear tests were carried out to determine interlaminar shear strength (ILSS). SEM images and cross-sectional micrographs were examined to assess failure mechanics of the different configurations. It was observed that the effect of layer thickness of nylon samples on the interlaminar shear performance was marginally significance. ILSS values decrease as layer thickness increase due to higher porosity. In addition, continuous fibre reinforced samples show higher ILSS values than unreinforced ones but, conversely, the level of increase in ILSS is moderate with continued increase in fibre content, particularly in the case of Kevlar® fibre. Carbon fibre reinforced composites exhibit the best interlaminar shear performance with higher stiffness. On the other hand, Kevlar® fibre reinforced composites have the lowest interlaminar shear performance due to poor wettability of Kevlar® fibre bundles by the nylon, leading to extensive delamination. Finally, the results obtained demonstrate that it is still a challenge to increase shear performance of 3D printed composites with respect to common pre-preg materials. Nevertheless, ILSS values exhibited by 3D printed composites are significantly higher than the usual 3D printed thermoplastics.
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This work aims to characterize the interfacial bonding strength between printed wires of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), carbon nanotube reinforced ABS (CNTABS) and short carbon fiber reinforced ABS (CFABS) specimens fabricated by fused deposition modeling. The in-plane tensile shear test and double notch shear test methods using ±45° specimens were used. The in-plane tensile shear strength of CFABS specimen is close to that of CNTABS specimen, and both of them are greater than that of ABS specimen. Double notch shear strengths are smaller than in-plane tensile shear strength of CFABS specimens at all three printing speeds studied. Also, the shear strengths of CFABS specimens decrease with increasing printing speed and layer thickness. X-ray micro-computed tomography examination concluded that CFABS specimens have the largest porosity compared with ABS and CNTABS specimens at corresponding raster orientation, especially for ±45° specimens. Matrix fracture and fiber pull-out, as well as fiber-matrix interfacial debonding are the dominating failure modes of CFABS specimen.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the mechanisms controlling the bond formation among extruded polymer filaments in the fused deposition modeling (FDM) process. The bonding phenomenon is thermally driven and ultimately determines the integrity and mechanical properties of the resultant prototypes. Design/methodology/approach The bond quality was assessed through measuring and analyzing changes in the mesostructure and the degree of healing achieved at the interfaces between the adjoining polymer filaments. Experimental measurements of the temperature profiles were carried out for specimens produced under different processing conditions, and the effects on mesostructures and mechanical properties were observed. Parallel to the experimental work, predictions of the degree of bonding achieved during the filament deposition process were made based on the thermal analysis of extruded polymer filaments. Findings Experimental results showed that the fabrication strategy, the envelope temperature and variations in the convection coefficient had strong effects on the cooling temperature profile, as well as on the mesostructure and overall quality of the bond strength between filaments. The sintering phenomenon was found to have a significant effect on bond formation, but only for the very short duration when the filament's temperature was above the critical sintering temperature. Otherwise, creep deformation was found to dominate changes in the mesostructure. Originality/value This study provides valuable information about the effect of deposition strategies and processing conditions on the mesostructure and local mechanical properties within FDM prototypes. It also brings a better understanding of phenomena controlling the integrity of FDM products. Such knowledge is essential for manufacturing functional parts and diversifying the range of application of this process. The findings are particularly relevant to work conducted on modeling of the process and for the formulation of materials new to the FDM process.
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The thermal and rheological behaviour of seven random Cl-ended aromatic PES/PEES copolymers (Mn ≈ 9500 g mol−1), at various PES/PEES repeating unit ratios, was studied. The glass transition temperatures (Tg), determined by DSC experiments, showed a dependence on copolymer composition significantly different from the ideal linear behaviour expected on the basis of Fox equation. Degradations were carried out in the scanning mode, under flowing nitrogen, in the temperature range 35–650 °C and a single degradation stage was observed for all copolymers. The initial decomposition temperatures (Ti) and the half decomposition temperatures (T1/2) were directly determined by TG curves, while the apparent activation energies of degradation (Ea) were obtained by the Kissinger method. In addition, the complex viscosity (η∗) of molten copolymers was determined in experimental conditions of linear viscoelasticity. Ti, T1/2, Ea, and η∗ values were depending on copolymer composition, showing a trend simila
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Pyrolysis products with mass of up to 850 Da were detected by direct pyrolysis mass spectrometric (DPMS) analysis of a series of copoly(arylene ether sulfone)s (PES–PPO) synthesized by nucleophilic condensation of either 4,4′-dichlorodiphenylsulfone (CDPS) or 4,4′-bis-(4-chlorophenyl sulfonyl) biphenyl (long chain dichloride, LCDC) with different molar ratios of hydroquinone (HQ) or dihydroxydiphenylsulfone (HDPS). Pyrolysis products retaining the repeating units of the initial copolymers were formed at temperatures ranging from 420 °C to 470 °C (near the initial decomposition temperature). At temperatures higher than 450 °C were observed products containing biphenyl units, formed by the elimination process of SO2 from diphenyl sulfone bridges. Products having biphenyl and dibenzofuran moieties were detected in the mass spectra recorded at temperatures above 550 °C. These units were formed by loss of hydrogen atom from diphenyl ether bridges. Although the EI (18 eV) mass spectra of the pyrolysis products of the samples investigated were very similar, it was found that the relative intensity of some ions reflects the molar composition of the copolymers analysed. Cyclic and linear oligomers with very low molecular mass, present in the crude copolymers, were also detected by DPMS. Thermogravimetric analysis also showed their excellent thermal stability below 400 °C. It indicates that the copolymers yield a char residue of 40–45% at 800 °C, which increases with the PPO mole fraction in the samples.
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Rapid Prototyping (RP) technologies provide the ability to fabricate initial prototypes from various model materials. Stratasys Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a typical RP process that can fabricate prototypes out of ABS plastic. To predict the mechanical behavior of FDM parts, it is critical to understand the material properties of the raw FDM process material, and the effect that FDM build parameters have on anisotropic material properties. This paper characterizes the properties of ABS parts fabricated by the FDM 1650. Using a Design of Experiment (DOE) approach, the process parameters of FDM, such as raster orientation, air gap, bead width, color, and model temperature were examined. Tensile strengths and compressive strengths of directionally fabricated specimens were measured and compared with injection molded FDM ABS P400 material. For the FDM parts made with a 0.003 inch overlap between roads, the typical tensile strength ranged between 65 and 72 percent of the strength of injection molded ABS P400. The compressive strength ranged from 80 to 90 percent of the injection molded FDM ABS. Several build rules for designing FDM parts were formulated based on experimental results. Electronic access The research register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-2546.htm 1.
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