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Does Country Attractiveness Matter in International Competition? The Case of Countries’ Bidding to Host Major Sports Events
International Journal of Public Administration
Abstract
A country’s attractiveness is a factor in its success in many areas of international competition, such as encouraging international investment, but its impact on international sporting events remains unexplored. Using various measurements of country attractiveness, statistical tests of the proposition that a country’s economic, social, and environmental attractiveness are correlated with its success in bidding to host international sporting events were conducted using data on the results of competitions to host 54 world championships in Olympic sports/disciplines from 1990 to 2012. The results presented here affirm the impact of country attractiveness on the success of bids to host such events.
... This approach is justified for several reasons: (1) The Olympics are the world's largest and most influential ISEs, with the highest number of participants [28,33], and China's competitive sports have always centred on the Olympics [46]. (2) The Olympics have a vast qualifying event system [47], and our study considers these qualifying events to be an important part of the city network surrounding the Olympic Games, thus allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of ISEs on various cities in China than did previous studies [26,29]. ...
... First, hosting the Olympics serves as a significant platform for the host country/cities to show their development achievements [38,65], demonstrating the host nation's ability to organize large-scale events [48]. This makes ISFs more inclined to place new events in the host cities of Olympics or other cities within the host country because of the 'promotion-attract' effect [29]. Second, the successful bid to host the Olympics increases the popularity of individual sports within the host country, enhancing training conditions and enabling athletes to qualify for more sports [33,47,52], further increasing the status of various cities within the host country. ...
While studies on World City Networks (WCNs) based on International Sports Events (ISEs) have revealed a nonwesternization evolutionary trend, few studies have focused on high-level ISEs’ long-term spillover effects on promoting nonwestern host countries. This paper aims to fill these gaps by exploring the external connections of Chinese cities in each Olympic Games since 2008 deploying social network analysis and community detection methods. The results show that gateway events, such as the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympic Games and the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, rather than gateway cities, play essential roles in promoting Chinese cities’ status in sports diffusion. Specifically, after the successful hosting of Olympic games, international sports federations (ISFs) witnessed Chinese cities’ ability to organize ISEs; consequently, ISFs would try to select Chinese host cities considering China’s rapid development and the relatively lower popularity of certain sports domestically. Additionally, as ISEs offer significant opportunities for city marketing, many Chinese cities have incorporated hosting ISEs as important urban development strategies. The promotion of the "events globalization" strategy by ISFs and the attraction measures taken by Chinese city governments for ISEs have ultimately led to a continuous increase in the number of Chinese cities and their direct external connections in ISE-based WCNs. This finding fully reveals the long-term spillover effect of high-level ISEs on promoting cities in nonwestern host countries. This further indicates that the nonwesternization trend in ISE-based WCNs may be because an increasing number of high-level ISEs, such as the Olympics and the World Cups, were held in nonwestern countries.
... With the rapid development of Internet technology and data technology, the broadcasting mode of "data technology + sports events" has caused increasing public attention to sports events, but more and more new types of network stealing and infringing behaviors have followed [1,2]. The legitimate rights and interests of sports event broadcast subjects are constantly violated, so protection from the legal level is an urgent demand for legal construction and healthy development of sports industry at the present stage [3]. ...
... In contrast, in China, due to the unclear definition of the legal status of sports event programs, there are different opinions on the right attribute of sports event network broadcasting right, and the regulation of illegal broadcasting has always been on the edge of the law. The next work should be studied (2) The research on the network broadcasting right of sports events needs to clearly define the definition of the network broadcasting right of sports events, and then start from the source of the network broad-casting right of sports events, and gradually analyze the attribute and structure of the network broadcasting right of sports events, which can be further studied in the future (3) The great economic value contained in the network broadcasting of sports events directly affects the development of sports industry. Its broadcasting process not only condenses the labor achievements of producers and communicators, but also promotes sports culture and competitive spirit, which is related to the national image. ...
In order to avoid the influence of uncertain factors on the network broadcasting of sports events, a legal protection model of network broadcasting right of sports events based on data technology is proposed. Based on the network broadcasting right of sports events itself, this paper analyzes the subject and object of the network broadcasting right of sports events, and establishes a “three-step” trial thinking model. Deploy the legal protection risk monitoring micro base station and integrate the data technology gateway module through data technology to complete the data collection of legal protection risk. After data standardization, establish the legal protection risk evaluation index system, obtain the comprehensive score of each risk index of sports events by using the principal component analysis method, and input data technology to realize the legal protection modeling of broadcasting rights. The experimental results show that this method has good risk prediction performance of legal protection of network broadcasting rights of sports events, the predicted value is almost consistent with the actual value, and has good protection effect.
... (Dickson et al., 2015;Emery, 2010;Knott & Tinaz, 2022;Meridan, 2019). In fact, the decision to host these kinds of events has grown extremely difficult and requires different research on the highest level to assess challenges and capabilities (Hautbois et al., 2012;Lee & Chappelet, 2022). Moreover, it demands substantial financial and material resources, as well as persuading the different stakeholders of its significance and the certainty of its positive outcomes (Chappelet, 2012;Chappelet & Parent, 2015;Hautbois et al., 2012). ...
Mega sport events are promoted to generate long-term public value for local communities as legacy. This paper uses an embedded single-case study to examine legacy-oriented strategic practices within the MilanoCortina2026 ecosystem from a local perspective. The analysis reveals that a partially centralized ecosystem design shapes strategizing practices, making intangible-oriented legacy initiatives more inclusive than tangible ones. Political-institutional barriers and multi-level coordination challenges hinder collaborative practices, while cultural factors and informal communication enhance trust among ecosystem actors. These findings offer critical insights into how ecosystem design shapes strategizing in mega sport events and provide practical implications for legacy-driven public value creation.
This paper explores the intersection of public administration and its administrative state, transnational and global policy, and international sports governance. We start by exploring autonomy and self-governance in international sport before sharing the structures, legal personalities, and nature of transnational private law interaction with international sport. The implications are illustrated through three examples. The first is the legal-policy interactions of the FIFA World Cup 2022 with Qatar. The second are new interactions of human rights with future World Cups and future Olympics. The third is the role of the Court of Arbitration for Sport and the World Anti-Doping Agency. This leads to three implications for administrative scholarship: lex sportiva implications for public administration, a stretching of the autonomy and self-governance concepts, and expanding the evaluation stage of a policy cycle to include the governance legacies of mega sports events.
Events and sports events are perceived as having the potential to contribute to a number of benefits for the host country and its communities. The socio-political and economic environment of the host is an important consideration for both prospective hosts and event owners when allocating hosting rights. It is therefore, unsurprising that concerns have been raised over the relatively recent relocation of events to developing countries which, by their nature, frequently lack the economic, political and social stability of the traditional industrialized host. Developing nations are less affluent and arguably less prepared to deliver large scale sports events than developed nations. Therefore, this paper asks, ‘are governing bodies, when equipped with this knowledge, ethically obliged to withhold hosting rights from developing countries?’ The paper argues that denying sovereign States the right to make their own decisions would appear to compound the disadvantaged status of countries that mega-event hosting is perceived to address. The paper contends that event hosts–particularly those in the developing world–are potentially vulnerable to exploitation by the event owner.
Event Bidding aims to develop a comprehensive, critical understanding of the bidding processes surrounding the award of major peripatetic events. This is achieved by drawing together existing knowledge on the subject of event bidding, combining this with historical and contemporary examples. This timely volume brings theory and practice together in one place to produce a critical appraisal of a phenomenon with a relatively recent history and is particularly suitable for students, researchers and academics of sports, events, tourism, and related subject fields focusing on the strategic and political dimensions of major events.
As bidding for the rights to host sport events has become increasingly competitive, more and more countries, regions and cities have been employing public strategies and policies for promoting attractiveness of their locations to host sport events, which can be termed as ‘sport-event-hosting strategy’ (SEHS). However, from an academic standpoint, minimal effort has been made to conceptualise the notion of SEHS. This paper, thus, attempts to systematically examine such strategy by integrating the main findings of prior theoretical and empirical research. To this end, the paper begins by defining the concept of SEHS and proceeds to examine its constituent elements such as strategic goals, targets, stakeholders, tools, and management process. National variations of SEHS, including the emergence of public hosting policies, are also explored. The conclusion suggests future research directions for SEHS.
When the athletes enter the stadium and the Olympic flame is lit, the whole world watches. Billions will continue to follow the events and to share in the athletes' joys and sorrows for the next sixteen days. Readers of this book, however, will watch forthcoming editions of the Olympic Games in a completely different light. Unlike many historical or official publications and somewhat biased commercial works, it provides -- in a clear, readable form -- informative and fascinating material on many aspects of what Olympism is all about: its history, its organization and its actors. Although public attention is often drawn to various issues surrounding this planetary phenomenon -- whether concerning the International Olympic Committee, the athletes, the host cities or even the scandals that have arisen -- the Olympic System as such is relatively little known. What are its structures, its goals, its resources? How is it governed and regulated? What about doping, gigantism, violence in the stadium? In addition to providing a wealth of information on all these subjects, the authors also show how power, money and image have transformed Olympism over the decades. They round off the work with thought-provoking reflections regarding the future of the Olympic System and the obstacles it must overcome in order to survive. © 2008 Jean-Loup Chappelet and Brenda Kübler-Mabbott. All rights reserved.
This article will effectively place blame on Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, as it represents the latest Olympic host city to raise the stakes in matters of environmental protection and sustainability. Subject to isomorphic pressures operating within the organizational field, Bid Organizing Committees (BOCs) are encouraged to prescribe environmental programmes that are not only similar to, but are increasingly more ambitious than, previously successful bids. Rio's bid, by extension, represents the latest Olympic host city that has been driven to replicate, and then expand upon, elements of environmental protection and sustainability. This article will apply a range of institutional and organizational management theories to explain why BOCs have emerged as the actor responsible for enhancing the prospect of sustainability in the Olympic Movement while the International Olympic Committee's attempts at doing so have been considerably less effective.
This study examines two different types of vacation experiences as the experimental factors and empirically incorporates a context specific approach into the measurement of destination attractiveness. A total of 400 respondents were interviewed by telephone. Three areas were examined for two different vacation experiences: (1) the relative importance of touristic attributes in contributing to the attractiveness of a travel destination, (2) the variations in the perceived ability of destinations to satisfy tourists' needs, and (3) the influence of previous visitation experience with each destination on perceived attractiveness. A multiattribute situational attitude measurement model was employed to obtain a numerical index of the touristic attractiveness for each of the five destinations studied. Finally, the implications of these findings concerning marketing and development initiatives to improve the physical and perceptual attractiveness of the various destinations under study are discussed.
Introduction: the mixed economy and the nascent commercialization of the Olympic Games The Olympics has become such a high-profile global phenomenon that it attracts some of the world's most prominent cities and capitals to bid for the prize of hosting a Games, particularly the Summer Games. Recognising this, and not wanting to give its product away all in one go, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) separated the summer and the winter Games after the Barcelona Summer Games and the Albertville Winter Games of 1992. This decision had been taken in 1986, in the wake of the euphoria of the profile and the profitability of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics; and no doubt as a way of giving better value to those companies signing up to be preferred partners in the IOC's new sponsorship programmes. The bidding process and the marketing strategy of the IOC might seem to be separate processes, but as the IOC has exploited its products in increasingly successfully ways in the two decades since the pivotal LA Games, it has become clearer that the processes are two dimensions of a single process: the intensifying commercialization and commodification of the Olympic product. The spectre of commerce was conspicuous in its absence at the first Olympic Games staged after the Second World War. The president of the IOC, Avery Brundage, was a right-wing businessman from the USA; but he opposed with a messianic vehemence any moves to develop the Olympics on a more
We examine some issues in the estimation of time-series cross-section models, calling into question the conclusions of many published studies, particularly in the field of comparative political economy. We show that the generalized least squares approach of Parks produces standard errors that lead to extreme overconfidence, often underestimating variability by 50% or more. We also provide an alternative estimator of the standard errors that is correct when the error structures show complications found in this type of model. Monte Carlo analysis shows that these “panel-corrected standard errors” perform well. The utility of our approach is demonstrated via a reanalysis of one “social democratic corporatist” model.
The Olympic Winter Games are partly held in mountain resorts and are thus closer to nature, a fact that has frequently led them to encounter strong opposition from environmental organizations. This paper recalls these episodes and explores how the ideas of environmental protection and sustainable development have been slowly incorporated in the Olympic rhetoric. It shows how a set of environmental principles developed through the experiences of local organizers at most Winter Games since the 1970s, and how the International Olympic Committee adopted them in the 1990s and incorporated them in the Olympic ideal. The article also explains why Olympic environmental concerns can be considered as one of the major non-material legacies that the winter games have bequeathed to the Olympic movement.
The paper reports the results of regressions testing hypotheses concerning the medalwinning success of Olympic teams. It is found that while traditional economic and political factors are important, many inherent national characteristics such as geographical, demographic and cultural factors have a significant and pronounced impact. It is concluded that scope for public sports policy exists and the degree to which the inherent characteristics limit it are discussed.
february 2001), Point and interval estimation of the population size using the truncated Poisson regression model, Utrecht. Summary A method to derive point and interval estimates for the total number of in-dividuals in a heterogenous Poisson population is presented. The method is based on the Horvitz-Thompson approach (Kendall and Stuart, 1991). The zero-truncated Poisson regression model is fitted and results are used to obtain point and interval estimates for the total number of individuals in the population. The method is assessed by performing a simulation experiment computing coverage probabilities of Horvitz-Thompson confidence intervals for cases with different sample sizes and Poisson parameters. We illustrate our method using capture-recapture data from the police registration system providing information on ille-gal immigrants in four large cities in the Netherlands.
In this article, we focus on the question of target management resistance and the incidence of subsequent bids. A Poisson
count data model is used where the dependent variable represents the number of bids (count) received and the independent variables
comprise target management actions and firm specific characteristics. Of the target management actions considered, legal defense
and the entry of a white knight are associated with additional bids. With respect to firm specific characteristics, we find
that a high initial bid premium deters subsequent bids. Firm size is also significant and has an interesting relationship
with the number of bids received. Larger target firms tend to receive more bids; however, the number of bids tails off for
firms with assets exceedng $12 billion.
The most frequently used climate classification map is that of Wladimir Köppen, presented in its latest version 1961 by Rudolf Geiger. A huge number of climate studies and subsequent publications adopted this or a former release of the Köppen-Geiger map. While the climate
classification concept has been widely applied to a broad range of topics in climate and climate change research as well as in physical geography, hydrology, agriculture, biology and educational aspects, a well-documented update of the world climate classification map is still missing. Based
on recent data sets from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia and the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) at the German Weather Service, we present here a new digital Köppen-Geiger world map on climate classification, valid for the second half of
the 20 century.
German
Die am häufigsten verwendete Klimaklassifikationskarte ist jene von Wladimir Köppen, die in der letzten Auflage von Rudolf Geiger aus dem Jahr 1961 vorliegt. Seither bildeten viele Klimabücher und Fachartikel diese oder eine frühere Ausgabe
der Köppen-Geiger Karte ab. Obwohl das Schema der Klimaklassifikation in vielen Forschungsgebieten wie Klima und Klimaänderung aber auch physikalische Geographie, Hydrologie, Landwirtschaftsforschung, Biologie und Ausbildung zum Einsatz kommt, fehlt bis heute eine gut dokumentierte
Aktualisierung der Köppen-Geiger Klimakarte. Basierend auf neuesten Datensätzen des Climatic Research Unit (CRU) der Universität von East Anglia und des Weltzentrums für Niederschlagsklimatologie (WZN) am Deutschen Wetterdienst präsentieren wir hier eine neue digitale
Köppen-Geiger Weltkarte für die zweite Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts.
This article statistically estimates the impact of different countries` softpower on the results of Olympic Games bidding in the post-Cold War era. Allbid results for the Olympic Summer and Winter Games between 1990 and 2011are analyzed by panel regression methods. The empirical results reveal that sportingsuccess, higher transparency, lower CO2 and particle emissions, and fastereconomic growth are likely to increase the probability of a bidding countrywinning an Olympic bid. These results have several implications regarding theimpact of soft power on choice of Olympic host site. First, if a country has ahigh number of Olympic gold medalists, this could attract International OlympicCommittee (IOC) members and influence their decisions. Second, a country`sethical reputation is likely to persuade the IOC to choose it as the rightful hostcountry. Third, the environmental record of a country may also be regarded as adesirable value by IOC members, who prefer a ``Green Games`` ecological legacy.
This article statistically estimates the impact of different countries’ soft
power on the results of Olympic Games bidding in the post-Cold War era. All
bid results for the Olympic Summer and Winter Games between 1990 and 2011
are analyzed by panel regression methods. The empirical results reveal that sporting
success, higher transparency, lower CO2 and particle emissions, and faster
economic growth are likely to increase the probability of a bidding country
winning an Olympic bid. These results have several implications regarding the
impact of soft power on choice of Olympic host site. First, if a country has a
high number of Olympic gold medalists, this could attract International Olympic
Committee (IOC) members and influence their decisions. Second, a country’s
ethical reputation is likely to persuade the IOC to choose it as the rightful host
country. Third, the environmental record of a country may also be regarded as a
desirable value by IOC members, who prefer a ‘Green Games’ ecological legacy.
This conceptual paper proposes a new framework for evaluating the two central facets of Olympic Games performance: their delivery and their legacy. This framework, which I call the “Olympic diamond”, is based on classic concepts of managerial performance and public policy evaluation, developed over many years by managers and political scientists to measure public action. Indeed, the Olympic Games, which are now attributed seven years before they take place, have become a sort of public policy/programme or, more accurately, a partnership between the public authorities and private actors within a given territory (city, region, country). This partnership requires public bodies to work closely with private non-profit organisations and for-profit companies over a period of 12 years or more to implement a vast series of measures. Section 1 shows how the Games have evolved from a purely private affair to a true public policy, and discusses what is meant by Games performance. Section 2 reviews recent attempts to measure or evaluate this performance. The final section presents an approach to evaluating Olympic performance – the Olympic diamond – and describes its four vertices and five evaluation criteria, drawing on the 2012 London Olympics to illustrate how this framework can be applied. The conclusion discusses the Olympic diamond’s potential for evaluating and comparing other editions of the Games or other Olympics-related projects and facilities.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the development of the idea of "stakeholder management" as it has come to be applied in strategic management. We begin by developing a brief history of the concept. We then suggest that traditionally the stakeholder approach to strategic management has several related characteristics that serve as distinguishing features. We review recent work on stakeholder theory and suggest how stakeholder management has affected the practice of management. We end by suggesting further research questions.
This article examines 147 variables’ potential to discriminate successful from unsuccessful Olympic bids. Our stepwise, rank-ordered logistic regression model includes 10 determinants supporting the contention that economic, political and sports/Olympic factors are important for winning the host city election. IOC members favour cities if more than 2/3 of the population support the bid, but disfavour bidding cities of fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants and bids lacking a sufficient number of existing stadiums. Hosts are characterized by larger markets and higher medium-term growth economies. Olympic bids that follow a political liberalization are rewarded with additional votes.
Marketing and the world of sport overlap in two main ways: in the marketing of sports related products and services, and in the use of sports events to market a broader range of products and services. Marketing the Sports Organisation introduces the most effective marketing methods and tools available to sports organizations, and offers practical, step-by-step advice for sports organizations in the use of relationship marketing techniques. Comprehensive and innovative in its approach, the book includes: A practical framework for implementing relationship marketing throughout the product and service range. An in-depth examination of tools and methods that increase the value of the product for the consumer. A genuinely international approach, applicable in all countries. Detailed international case studies from the world of sport. Offering a thorough introduction to first principles in sports marketing, and focused throughout on best practice, this book is essential reading for all students of sport and business marketing, and for all professionals seeking to improve their sports marketing activity, in both commercial and non-profit contexts.
Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach was first published in 1984 as a part of the Pitman series in Business and Public Policy. Its publication proved to be a landmark moment in the development of stakeholder theory. Widely acknowledged as a world leader in business ethics and strategic management, R. Edward Freeman’s foundational work continues to inspire scholars and students concerned with a more practical view of how business and capitalism actually work. Business can be understood as a system of how we create value for stakeholders. This worldview connects business and capitalism with ethics once and for all. On the 25th anniversary of publication, Cambridge University Press are delighted to be able to offer a new print-on-demand edition of his work to a new generation of readers.
This articles describes three models which played a key role in the evolution of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and all the organizations which contribute to the staging of the Olympic Games and constitute the Olympic System, from its beginnings in 1894 to the present day. This evolution and the addition of many stakeholders has increased the complexity of the management of the Olympic System over the years from pure Olympic administration (when the IOC headquarters moved to Lausanne in 1915) to Olympic network governance which must take into consideration more than 24 types of stakeholders, including goverments and intergovernmental organizations.
Despite the growth of literature on country attractiveness covering a wide range of research areas, minimal effort has been expended on its conceptualization in public administration. This article seeks to add to previous scholarly works by clarifying the concept and operationalizing its multi-dimensions to explain the effects of the attractiveness of nations based on theoretical grounding. More specifically, by examining prior studies in international business, tourism and migration research, the article attempts to reorganize the constituent elements of the concept into a multi-dimensional framework from a sustainable development perspective. This can be broken down conceptually into three spheres: economic, social and environmental attractiveness. The theoretical background for each dimensional effect is taken from signaling and soft power theories. The article presents a synthesis of the concept intended to cover all aspects of the empirical findings.
Points for practitioners
As globalization results in more and more competition, it is imperative that every country employ marketing and promotion strategies/policies to raise global public awareness of its image to stakeholders including companies, customers, citizens, tourists and highly-skilled migrants. Therefore, public administration researchers and policy makers must take into account the concept of country attractiveness, the core element of a country’s soft power, as it can play a key role in enhancing the success of the strategies and policies of countries in the various fields of international competition.
This article addresses the relationship between legislative success and failure and participation in bureaucratic policy making. It specifically examines the hypothesis that the parties upon which regulations are expected to impose costs participate more extensively in the rule-making process than the expected beneficiaries of regulations do. The analysis focuses on the submission of comments on a regulation, promulgated by the Health Care Financing Administration, that reformed the way in which the Medicare program pays for physician services. The results provide little evidence that physician specialties that expect decreases in payment under the new system submitted more comments than specialties that expect increases in payment. This finding is contrary to expectations drawn from prospect theory, research on benefits, costs, and political participation, and the conventional wisdom on participation in rule making. More broadly, it highlights the need for additional research on the use and influence of participatory instruments, which potentially enhance the extent to which bureaucratic agencies are accountable to elected officials and their constituents.
Cet article étudie les déterminants de la probabilité de réussite dans la campagne d’attribution des Jeux Olympiques aux villes organisatrices. A partir des 48 candidatures à l’organisation des Jeux Olympiques d’été entre 1992 et 2012, nous utilisons un modèle dont les variables clefs sont la distance entre les lieux de compétition et le village olympique, les températures locales et les taux de chômage, et nous prédisons correctement la décision pour 100% des offres non fructueuses et 50% des offres réussies.
The Winter Olympics at Nagano, Japan, in 1998 marked the first Games at which the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had a clearly articulated environmental protection policy that was to be followed by the organizing committee. This article attempts to explain the conditions under which this policy came to be, arguing that it was the widespread environmental damage at the 1992 Albertville and the Savoie Region Games, and the subsequent environmentally conscious Green Games of Lillehammer, Norway (1994), that were the historical benchmarks for the development of this policy. The importance of human/environment interaction in the creation of global sport policy is developed and demonstrates the primacy of local initiatives (Albertville, Lillehammer) upon transnational global concerns (IOC environmental policy), an example of the so-called disjuncture debate. The IOC declaration that environmental protection has become the third dimension of the Olympic movement, alongside sport and culture, is problematic; the IOC policy statements suggest that the IOC led in the development of environmental protection. The authors argue that, after Albertville, the IOC was pressured into developing an environmental policy but had little understanding of how to address this global issue. The Norwegian people, with their long-standing and well-developed respect for nature, provided an example that the IOC embraced. The local initiative of Lillehammer has become the global policy that all future Olympic Games organizing committees must follow if they are to win the bid to organize an Olympiad.
As the Olympic Games have turned gradually into a mega event, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) have tried to professionalise the planning process related to the Games. As a part of this endeavour the IOC has launched the OGGI project (Olympic Games Global Impact Study), which aims to safeguard three dimensions of sustainability: environmental, social and economic values. Host cities are asked to monitor developments along these dimensions by means of social indicator analyses. In this article the author welcomes the monitoring efforts but raises critical questions regarding the strong focus on social indicator analysis. Using examples from past mega events, he argues theoretically and empirically for the use of qualitative data in impact studies.
This article treats the analysis of "time-series - cross-section" (TSCS) data, which has become popular in the empirical analysis of comparative politics and international relations (IR). Such data consist of repeated observations on a series of fixed (nonsampled) units, where the units are of interest in themselves. An example of TSCS data is the post-World War II annual observations on the political economy of OECD nations. TSCS data are also becoming more common in IR studies that use the "dyad-year" design; such data are often complicated by a binary dependent variable (the presence or absence of dyadic conflict). Among the issues considered here are estimation and specification. I argue that treating TSCS issues as an estimation nuisance is old-fashioned; those wishing to pursue this approach should use ordinary least squares with panel correct standard errors rather than generalized least squares. A modern approach models dynamics via a lagged dependent variable or a single equation error correction model. Other modern issues involve the modeling of spatial impacts (geography) and heterogeneity. The binary dependent variable common in IR can be handled by treating the TSCS data as event history data.
The Olympic Games have become the definitive sports event, with an unparalleled global reach and a remarkably diverse constituency of stakeholders, from the IOC and International Federations to athletes, sponsors and fans. It has been estimated, for example, that 3.6 billion people (about half of the world population) watched at least one minute of the Beijing Games in 2008 on television. The driving force behind the rise of the modern Olympics has been the Olympic marketing programme, which has acted as a catalyst for cooperation between stakeholders and driven the promotion, financial security and stability of the Olympic movement.
This book is the first to explain the principles of Olympic marketing and to demonstrate how they can be applied successfully in all other areas of sports marketing and management. The book outlines a strategic and operational framework based on three types of co-productive relationships (market, network and informal) and explains how this framework can guide professional marketing practice. Containing case studies, summaries, insight boxes and examples of best practice in every chapter, this book is important reading for all students and practitioners working in sports marketing, sports management or Olympic studies.
http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415587877/
Over the last 20 years bidding for the rights to host sport events has become increasingly competitive. While a range of factors underpin successful bids, political support, particularly in the context of bidding for mega sport events such as the Olympics or the FIFA World Cup, is essential. This has resulted in an increasingly politicized bidding process. The role of government policy and the impact on sport-event bidding therefore plays a key role in determining whether a national governing body of sport (NGB) is competitive during the bid process. Two central issues are considered within this article. First, it considers the ways in which the UK government is supportive of NGBs during the bidding process. Second, it focuses specifically on government taxation policy and discusses how the tax environment in the UK has the potential to undermine the competitiveness of UK NGBs when bidding to host sport events. Drawing on semi-structured interview data from 10 individuals representing nine national governing bodies of sport and six other stakeholders involved in the bidding process, the article illustrates that NGBs receive bid support from central government through the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, from local government, in addition to non-departmental public bodies including regional development agencies and UK Sport. The interview analysis also illustrates that this support is offset by the adverse impact of income tax and VAT policy of HM Treasury. The article concludes with the identification of four key issues which require further research. First, should HM Treasury introduce legislation to relinquish the right to tax a percentage of worldwide endorsement income from overseas sports people? Second, when bidding for one-off sport events, should HM Treasury provide exemptions from player tax and HMRC guarantee that they will not pursue the tax liability? Third, is there a need for HM Treasury to create a specialist sports events unit, and fourth, should a reduced VAT rate of 5% on spectator entry fees be introduced.
On-air promotion is a key tool for gaining audiences and networks spend millions of dollars each year to promote upcoming programs. Prior to the 1996 Summer Olympics, NBC conducted extensive research to determine a programming and promotional strategy that would yield the highest ratings. Research results indicated which sports should get extended television coverage and which should be promoted on-air during their 17 prime-time broadcasts. The strategy that NBC employed apparently was effective, suggesting the Olympics to be a successful vehicle for promoting some prime-time series in NBC's post-Olympic line-up. The question is: was the Olympics an equally successful vehicle for promoting itself? This paper explores NBC's on-air promotional strategies during the 1996 Summer Olympic broadcast. Understanding successful strategy has potential value for promoting future Olympics and for promoting megasports in general. It also can contribute to the growing body of research on salience theory related to sports programming.
Previous scholarship has relied on case study analysis and anecdotal evidence to explain the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Olympic host city selection process. This has resulted in several provocative claims regarding why the IOC selects particular cities to host the Olympics. Large-n analysis can dispel some of these assertions by identifying the systematic tendencies in the IOC's host city choices. After reviewing the selection process and the different influences on the IOC's choice of a host city, rank-ordered conditional logit estimation is applied to data proxies of bid candidate characteristics from 1959 through 2005. The IOC shows a statistical tendency to base its decision on the economic vitality of a bid city's home country and on the need to maintain continental diversity.
The financial success of the Los Angeles 1984 Olympic Games, coupled with the dramatic increase in the revenues from the sale of television broadcasting rights and the sponsorship by international companies, have brought about a growing interest by cities to host the Games. This article contends that it is possible to identify the beginning of a new phase in the development of the Olympic Games. The question asked is why are cities like New York and London so interested in hosting the Olympic Games. In the case of those world cities, the emphasis appears more on strengthening their global status in an era of growing inter–urban competition and to finance large–scale planned construction projects in those cities.
Sponsorship has become a core issue in sport marketing and a critical concern for event management. It is now an integral part of major events and involves an ongoing commitment by Olympic partners who need to find new ways to gain the maximum returns from their investment. Complementary promotions with tourism organisations of the host country represent one such opportunity. There is also growing recognition that service delivery by tourism and hospitality industries may determine the success of many sponsor activities, such as guest hospitality programs. The dynamic nature of Olympic sponsorship is reviewed in the context of the marketing policy framework of the International Olympic Committee. Factors affecting sponsorship at the Sydney 2000 Games are considered with reference to AMP, Ansett Australia, and Visa. It is shown that tourism organisations can play a more active role in attracting sponsors and achieving positive outcomes for the host country.
In this paper a count data regression model accounting for endogenous censoring with household specific censoring thresholds
is presented. The presented modelling approach is utilized in an analysis of household choice of total number of nights to
spend on monthly recreational trips. The empirical study reveals that the suggested approach is feasible and that accounting
for endogenous censoring gives a better fit to the data.
The canonical parameterization of the negative binomial derives directly from the exponential form of the negative binomial probability distribution function. Unlike the NB-2 and NB-1 parameterizations, it is not derived as a Poisson-gamma mixture model, and has the heterogeneity or ancillary parameter as a term in the mean and variance functions. However, the canonical negative binomial can be used effectively to model count response data. The Heterogeneous Canonical Negative Binomial command is similar to Stata's gnbreg command, allowing the ancillary parameter to itself be parameterized. The value of this option is that one may better understand which predictors influence model heterogeneity. That is, it assists in identifying the source of correlation in the data. The command also displays both the AIC and Deviance statistics to aid in model comparison and provides use of Stata's maximum likelihood and survey options.
This chapter discusses job market signaling. The term market signaling is not exactly a part of the well-defined, technical vocabulary of the economist. The chapter presents a model in which signaling is implicitly defined and explains its usefulness. In most job markets, the employer is not sure of the productive capabilities of an individual at the time he hires him. The fact that it takes time to learn an individual's productive capabilities means that hiring is an investment decision. On the basis of previous experience in the market, the employer has conditional probability assessments over productive capacity with various combinations of signals and indices. This chapter presents an introduction to Spence's more extensive analysis of market signaling.
I. Introduction, 488. — II. The model with automobiles as an example, 489. — III. Examples and applications, 492. — IV. Counteracting
institutions, 499. — V. Conclusion, 500.
Why is the entry flow of the manufacturing sector extremely high in Taiwan, and does it contribute to the prevailing entrepreneurship? This article aims to explore what factors inspire potential entrants to go into an industry. Based on a theoretical formulation of the Poisson probability entry model, a count data model is employed to investigate the determinants of entry flows. The empirical results reveal that traditional entry barriers indeed lower the entry flow. The entry incentives, including price cost margin and industry growth, play a lesser role at attracting new firms, while alternatively the market size acts as a better proxy of an entry incentive in explaining entry flows. Incumbents' responses to entry, R&D and advertising intensity are found to be associated with a significant negative impact on entry flows. This article also finds that there is a higher bound of covariate of entry, about 10%, that can be attributed to the immeasurable personality of entrepreneurs-entrepreneurship. Rather be the chicken's beak than be the cow's behind.1 The trade that might cause life hazard will be dealt, while the trade that might cause a loss will not be dealt. Two traditional Chinese proverbs