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Journal of Environmental Planning and Management
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjep20
Role of religious beliefs of tribal communities from
Jharkhand (India) in biodiversity conservation
Vibha Singhal, Jyotirmoy Ghosh & Sheeraz Saleem Bhat
To cite this article: Vibha Singhal, Jyotirmoy Ghosh & Sheeraz Saleem Bhat (2021): Role of
religious beliefs of tribal communities from Jharkhand (India) in biodiversity conservation, Journal of
Environmental Planning and Management, DOI: 10.1080/09640568.2020.1861587
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2020.1861587
Published online: 09 Feb 2021.
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Role of religious beliefs of tribal communities from Jharkhand
(India) in biodiversity conservation
Vibha Singhal
a
, Jyotirmoy Ghosh
b
and Sheeraz Saleem Bhat
c
a
ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India;
b
ICAR–Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India;
c
ICAR–Indian
Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Research Station, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
(Received 15 November 2019; revised 26 November 2020; final version received 30
November 2020)
Jharkhand is one of the most biodiversity-enriched regions in India because of its
origin and diverse physiographic and climatic conditions. It comprises 29.61%
forest area which exceeds the national average of 23%. However, the biodiversity
rich status of this region may also be attributed to its higher tribal population.
Jharkhand has 26.3% tribal population of the total population in the state belong to
32 different groups. Santal, Munda and Ho are the dominant tribal groups in this
area. They protect and conserve the plant and animal diversity in the landscape
through their religious belief system which encompasses the concept of totemism,
sacred trees and groves. However, intrusion of modernization, commercialization
and weakening of indigenous belief systems has raised serious concerns in the
conservation and management of floral and faunal biodiversity. Religion is a potent
tool to convince people; hence their religious values and associated taboos must be
protected against erosion
Keywords: Biodiversity; conservation; Jharkhand; sacred groves; totemism; tribal
1. Introduction
India is one of 12 megabiodiverse countries and possesses four biodiversity hotspots
that are the richest and most highly endangered eco-regions in the world (Myers et al.
2000). From time immemorial, traditional societies have played a pivotal role in the
conservation of India's biodiversity across a wide spectrum of habitats, ranging from
tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and coastal wetlands (Anthwal et al. 2010).
India is an amalgam of various cultures and traditions and has a substantial tribal
population engaged in diverse livelihood-sustaining activities, such as shifting cultiva-
tion, hunting, pastoralism and the collection and sale of minor forest products. Tribal
populations are spread throughout India from Jammu and Kashmir to Kerala. The total
population of Scheduled Tribes in India is 104,545,716 constituting 8.6 per cent of the
country’s population (Anonymous 2011). India is blessed with 227 ethnic groups,
which comprise around 573 tribal communities (Pushpagandhan 1994). The different
tribes found in various parts of India are unique and distinct in their traditions and cul-
ture. About 15% of the country’s area has been estimated to be occupied by Scheduled
Tribes spread throughout the length and breadth of India in different eco-geographical
Corresponding author. Email: singhalvibha76@gmail.com
ß2021 Newcastle University
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2021
https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2020.1861587
zones. According to the most recent Census of India (2011), Madhya Pradesh has the
highest tribal population (14.7%), followed by Maharashtra (10.1%), Odisha (9.2%),
Rajasthan (8.9%), Gujarat (8.6%), Jharkhand (8.3%), Chattisgarh (7.5%), and Andhra
Pradesh (5.7%,) with the remaining 27 per cent distributed in West Bengal, Karnataka,
Assam, Meghalaya and others, respectively (Anonymous 2011). Jharkhand is one of
the regions with a notable tribal population. It is an irrefutable fact that it is also one
of the most biodiverse regions in the world (Singh and Pandey 2019). This status of
Jharkhand can be linked to its high tribal population who share an amicable bond with
nature. The tribes live a harmonious life in close association with nature and depend
on it to sustain their lives. Their religious beliefs and taboos have evolved accordingly
to protect and conserve nature and natural resources. In general, religions have histor-
ically promoted ethical and moral codes of conduct, including support for environmen-
tal conservation (Bhagwat, Nigel, and Harrop Stuart 2011). The role of religion and
traditional belief systems in the conservation of natural resources by indigenous com-
munities has been appreciated throughout the world (Bhagwat, Nigel, and Harrop
Stuart 2011; Rim-Rukeh, Irerhievwie, and Agbozu 2013; Niroula and Singh 2015; Gao
et al. 2018; Sinthumule and Mashau 2020). The potential of these traditional practices
and beliefs to conserve biodiversity would suggest that conservationists should inte-
grate them within conservation strategies (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006; Verschuuren et al.
2010; Reimerson 2013; Allendorf, Brandt, and Yang 2014). However, with the advent
of commercial interests in forests and biodiversity in most parts of the world, the indi-
genous philosophy and religious practices followed by the local communities for con-
servation of biodiversity have generally been overlooked. Further, the weakening of
traditionally inherited biocultural practices over time has invited several irregularities
and concerns in the conservation and management of natural resources (Manjula and
Selvin Jebaraj Norman 2017; Ekka 2018). The present study reviewed i) tribal status
in Jharkhand ii) the religious belief system for conservation and management of bio-
diversity iii) erosion indicators, and iv) ways and means to sustain tribal
belief systems.
2. Status of the tribal population in Jharkhand and their religious beliefs
Of the total tribal population in the country, 8.3 per cent resides in Jharkhand and the
state ranks 6
th
in terms of ST population. The two notable features of Jharkhand are
its high population of Scheduled Tribes, which is about 26.3 per cent, against an all
India average of 8 percent, and a high percentage area under forest cover, which is
about 29.61 percent against the Indian average of 23 per cent (FSI 2019). Jharkhand
has around 30 Scheduled Tribes (Anonymous 2011); major among them are Santhal,
Munda, Oraon and the Ho. The percentage distribution of different tribes in Jharkhand
is presented in Figure 1. Eight out of the thirty tribes in Jharkhand fall under the
Primitive Tribal Group (PTG) (Roy 2012). They are Asur, Birhor, Birajia, Korwa,
Savar, Pahariya (Baiga), Mal Pahariya and Souriya Pahariya. The tribes in Jharkhand
have been classified into hunter-gatherer types (Birhor, hill Kharia and Korwa), simple
artisans (Lohra, Karmali and Chik Baraik, etc.), shifting agriculturists (Sauria Paharia)
and settled agriculturists (Oaron, Bhumij, Santhal, Munda, etc.). The tribal population
(% of district population) in each district of Jharkhand is shown in Figure 2, and this
reveals that the majority of the tribal population resides in Ranchi, Lohardaga, Gumla,
West Singhbhumi, Dumka and Pukur districts. Dependency on forests is very high in
2V. Singhal et al.
Jharkhand because there are 17 tribal districts out of the total 24 districts (FSI 2017).
The tribes mostly reside near the fringes of forest areas and depend chiefly on forests
to meet their daily needs for food, fuel, herbs, materials for making their dwellings,
tools and implements, and feed for their animals (Roy 2012). As most of their needs
are met by natural resources, they consider them sacred and associate their religious
taboos with a wide range of plant species, animals and particular patches of land and
water bodies. They manage, conserve and regulate their use of these resources to pro-
tect them from overexploitation (Singh and Pandey 2019). Despite their apparent
irrationality, religious restrictions, such as taboos in the form of totemism, sacred spe-
cies and sacred groves may constitute highly rational ways of conserving resources
(Anthwal et al. 2010)
3. Totemism and biodiversity conservation
In different parts of India, many plant and animal species have been protected and
conserved through totemism among different tribes (Timung and Singh 2016; Sarma
and Barpujari 2011; Murugesan 2014; Alawa and Ray 2018; Sanjita, Singh, and Singh
2017). Totemism is a practice in which a tribe believes that some specific plants or
animals, or even rivers and mountains, are their ancestors, and therefore they protect
them. A totem can be defined as a being, object, or symbol indicating a plant or an
animal that refers to a group of people, a family, clan, group, lineage, or tribe, symbol-
izing their ancestry (or mythic past). If the apical ancestor of a clan is non-human in
the kinship and descent, it is called a totem. A totem is a religious association that
links the lineage of a group/cluster to a non-human being (a bird or animal) or a nat-
ural object (Dagba, Sambe, and Shomkegh 2013). The concept of totemism relates
indigenous people closely to other living and non-living components of nature.
Different geographical places have their own totems based on flora, fauna and topo-
graphical features of that particular place. In Jharkhand, the Santhals have more than
100 totemistic clans, Hos more than 50, Mundas 64 and Bhils 24 (Priyadarshi 2013;
Figure 1. Percentage distribution of different tribes in Jharkhand (Anonymous 2011).
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 3
Sarma and Mukherjee 2019). The Birhor, another tribe in Jharkhand, is organized into
patrilineal, exogamous totem groups. According to one imperfect list of 37 clans for
Birhor, 12 are based on animals, 10 on plants, 8 on Hindu castes and localities, and
the rest on objects (Bains 2017). The tribe of a particular clan do not harm the plant/
animal associated with their clan name but try to conserve and enhance its population.
Totems are often venerated and used in various rituals. The tribes propagate the belief
that any offense against the totems will cause a significant reduction in their clan size
(Tirkey and Jain 2006). A study of the totems for different clans among the major tri-
bal communities in Chhotanagpur region indicated that 95.8% of them are based on
living objects (animal/birds/plants); whereas only 4.2% are non-living objects
(Minz 2017).
Hence, the practice of totemism ensures the protection and conservation of a large
population of flora and fauna in this region, many of which are either threatened or in
the category of endangered species (Sarma and Mukherjee 2019)(Table 1). The
anthropologists of modern times look at totemism as a recurring way of conceptualiz-
ing relationships between kinship groups and the natural world. The practice of totem-
ism by tribes not only maintains the ecosystem balance, conserving and protecting
biodiversity, but also sustains their amicable relationship with nature.
4. Festivals
The nature-based traditional festivals celebrated by indigenous people at particular pla-
ces of worship (sacred groves) are significant in terms of socio-economic and cultural
stabilization and biodiversity conservation (Banerjee 2014). Celebration of festivals
Figure 2. Tribal population (percent of total district population) in each district of Jharkhand
(Anonymous 2011).
4V. Singhal et al.
and organization of local fairs have conserved the traditional practices and sociocul-
tural heritage of local inhabitants of Jharkhand to a significant extent. During the cele-
bration of festivals, tribal people repeat vows in front of their deity to save nature and
the environment. Festivals are an expression of regulated communal behavior in a soci-
ety (Schulte-Droesch 2014). Tribes celebrate festivals to show reverence to nature and
pass on their traditions, culture and religious beliefs to the next generation. At the fes-
tivals, they express their feelings through songs and dances. The prominent characteris-
tic of the songs composed and sung by the major tribal communities (Santals, Lodhas
and Ho) of Jharkhand is that all of them are linked to the forest or nature, either dir-
ectly or indirectly. The tribal women of the region compose lyrics about the sun (sin
chando), the moon (nindochando), cloud (rimi), forests, birds, animals, the undulating
land, streams and rivers (Mahata and Kalpana 2014). Various songs reflect their emo-
tional attachment to the forest and the environment. Their major festival is Baha or
Sarhul in which they worship the flowering tree of Sal (Shorea robusta) as a Goddess.
The theme song at the Baha festival in their local dialect means ‘Felling of flowering
branches will destroy life’. This song indirectly preaches about protecting flowering
branches of the trees to ensure reproduction (Banerjee 2014). Many festivals are asso-
ciated with worship of a particular tree species or animal (FSI 2019)(Table 2). These
trees are considered sacred, worshipped and used in rituals during the celebration of
different festivals. Tribal communities associate some taboos with the sacred trees,
which helps in their conservation (Table 3). It is believed that violation of taboos will
bring misfortune to the community in the form of disease, natural calamity and disaster
(Pal 2016). Obedience to these taboos facilitates growth and development, regeneration
and protection of these trees. In Jharkhand, trees such as Karam (Adina cordifolia), Sal
(Shorea robusta), Kendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) and Amla (Emblica officinalis) are
venerated, and marriage ceremonies are held under the shade of these plants. They
also plant branches of bamboo (Bambusa sp.), sidha (Legerstromeia parviflora),
bhelwa (Semecarpus anacardium), mango (Mangifera indica) and mahua (Madhuca
indica) at the place of marriage (Mishra 2019). Sal is grown in their sacred groves.
Sal leaves (leaf cups and plates) are used for ceremonial worship. Different sacred
trees promulgate different beliefs; for example, mango denotes perpetuity of descend-
ants, bamboo signifies reproduction, the sidha represents loyalty between married cou-
ples, the bhelwa gives protection from the evil eye and the mahua is associated with
love in the marital relationship. The marriage ritual would not be considered complete
without this invocation of trees and plants. Specific trees are used and venerated in the
rituals performed at birth, marriage and death. Such cultural practices have been
Table 1. Plant based totems of different tribes in Jharkhand.
Totem Common name Scientific name
Pusra Kusum Schleicher aoleosa
Madgi Mahua Madhuca longifolia
Rori Malu Mallotus philippensis
Putri Chuka Croton oblongifolius
Bara Banyan Ficus bengalensis
Kiro Bhelwa Semecarpus anacardium
Kujur Jyotishmati Celastrus paniculatus
Jojo Imli Tamarindus indica
Chitkha Pepul Ficus religiosa
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 5
Table 2. Plants/trees/animals associated with various festivals/rituals.
Festival
Time of
celebration Trees/animals associated with Remarks
Sarhul April Sal Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae This festival is celebrated when the sal tree
blossoms It is the worship of the village deity
who is considered to be the protector of the
tribe. It is believed that the Sal tree is the
holy abode of the Sarna Devi, the mother
goddess that protects and nurtures the Oraon
tribe and others. The sal flowers are used in
worship and distributed among tribals by a
priest. The sal (Shorea robusta) flowers
represent the brotherhood and friendship
among villagers. It is believed that the earth
becomes fertile after this festival hence
sowing is taken up. Santhals, the largest
community in Jharkhand, celebrates the same
festival as the festival of flowers and calls it
Baha. Besides sal, mahua (Madhuca
longifolia) flowers are also used as an
important item for the rituals.
Mahua Madhuca longifolia Sapotaceae
Phaggu Feb-March Young castor Ricinus Communis Euphorbiaceae In this festival, a castor and a semar branch is
planted and a heap of firewood and dry leaves
are gathered all around them. A priest sets fire
to the heap and once it starts burning brightly,
the castor is cut into pieces. Once that is
done, young boys of the village light torches
from the fire and throw them toward the fruit
trees invoking them to bear more fruits
semar Bombax malabaricum Malvaceae
Karma September-
October
Kurum/
DhuliKadamba
Adina cordifolia Rubiaceae It is celebrated usually on the eleventh day of
the bright full moon of the month of Bhado
(September). It is organized in the hope of
improving the harvest. Karma is a beautiful
example of tree worship among the tribal
Sal Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae
DharaKadamba Naucleaparvifolia/
Mitragyna parvifolia
Rubiaceae
(Continued)
6V. Singhal et al.
Table 2. (Continued).
Festival
Time of
celebration Trees/animals associated with Remarks
people in central and eastern India. The
numerous tribes of the states namely, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal
celebrate the festival. The adorable deity of
Karma festival is Karamsani who is
represented by a twig branch called Karma
dal. Karamsani has been regarded as the
goddess of vegetation, fertility and destiny.
The saplings of Zea mays or Sorghum
vulgaris are offered to Karam deity for
healthy life, and the fruits of Cucumis sativus
(Kheera) are offered to obtain good and
healthy children from the deity.
Maize Zea mays Poaceae
Sorghum Sorghum vulgaris Poaceae
Kheera Cucumis sativus Cucurbitaceae
Jawa September-
October
Bamboo Bambusa sp. Poaceae The ritual Jawa is celebrated during Karma
festival only.The unmarried tribal girls
celebrate the Jawa festival, which has its own
kind of songs and dance. This is held mainly
for the expectation of good fertility and better
households. The unmarried girls decorate a
small basket of bamboo with germinating
seeds. It is believed that the worship for good
germination of the grains will increase
fertility. The girls offer green melons to the
Karam deity as a symbol of 'son'
Melon Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae
MaghePorob January –March Palas Butea monosperma Fabaceae It is celebrated when the palas (Butea
monosperma) tree is in full bloom in honor of
the mythological God as creator of the
universe and his incarnation like Singi (The
Sun), Chandu (The moon), Deshauli (Sacred
groove of trees), Nage- Bindi era (A deity of
(Continued)
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 7
Table 2. (Continued).
Festival
Time of
celebration Trees/animals associated with Remarks
river, pond and spring, etc.), Marang Bonga
(A deity as protector of the village) Pauri
Bonga (A deity as guide to marriage life) and
Bagia Bonga (A deity as protector of cattle)
etc. by the 'Ho' community, at Ashura (sacred
groove). The ‘Ho ’people are a Scheduled
tribe of India and mainly reside in Jharkhand,
Odisha and West Bengal.
Marriage ceremony Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Traditionally males and females of marriageable
age are first symbolically married off to
mango and mahua trees respectively.
Thereafter married couples are expected to
look after their respective trees.
Mahua Madhuca longifolia Sapotaceae
Bandana November Cows and bulls Bos taurus Bovidae Bandana is one of the most famous festivals.
mainly for the animals. Tribals are very close
to animals and pets. In this festival, people
wash, clean, paint, decorate, feed well and put
ornaments on their cows and bulls. The song
dedicated for this festival is called Ohira
which is an acknowledgement of animals’
contribution in their day-to-day life. The
belief behind this festival is that animals are
an integral part of their life and have souls as
human beings do.
8V. Singhal et al.
observed for generations and are looked upon as promising sustainable biodiversity
conservation measures (Barik and Darlong 2001).
5. Sacred groves
Sacred groves define the social and cultural consciousness of tribal people. Sacred
groves in Jharkhand are known as sarna, and each is associated with a specific deity
Table 3. Role of religious beliefs in biodiversity conservation.
Spatial and
Temporal Taboos Restriction Conservation
Sacred trees (species
specific taboos)
Plucking of leaf buds and
tender leaves
Growth and Development
Plucking reproductive parts such as
bud, fruits and seeds
Regeneration
Collection of immature underground
parts of certain species and
leaving propagating material to
ensure regeneration in the
next season.
Reproduction
Plucking of all the flowers and
fruits from single plants
Regeneration
Stripping of bark around the tree
i.e. girdling more than once in 2-
3 years
Protection
Felling of flowering branches Reproduction
The younger plants are not
exploited for the collection of
resin, gum, latex and sap.
Growth and development
Sacred groves
(habitat taboo)
Removal of leaf litter or dead wood
from floor
Nutrient cycling
Cutting/felling the tree Protection
Removal of any
regenerating saplings.
Regeneration
Hunting the birds and animals Protection and conservation
Restricted visits with the permission
of a priest
Protection and conservation
Grazing Regeneration
Entry of menstruating women Restriction for a few days
to ease pressure on
natural resources as
women are the one to
collect minor forest
products and
medicinal plants
Temporal (time
bound taboos)
The Santals do not harvest any part
of the sal (Shorea robusta) tree
until their Salui/Sarhul festival is
over in March-April.
Regeneration
No part of the Karam (Adina
cordifolia) tree is harvested by
the Santals until the Karam
festival is celebrated in is
celebrated August-September
Regeneration
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 9
tree and a particular purpose (Singh and Pandey 2019). A description of prominent sar-
nas in Jharkhand is given in Table 4. Often, patches of forest are protected because
they support sacred totem or taboo species that are believed to have special spiritual or
cultural values and associations. Literally, the term Sarna is a Mundari word meaning
the ‘Sacred grove’and the term Dharma is an Indo-Aryan linguistic term, ordinarily
meaning ‘religion’. It is a religious place of the Mundas, where there is a sal tree
(sakua in the local language) present. Usually, only one Sarna is located in a village.
Munda people believe that when their ancestors came to Chhotanagpur plateau, they
Table 4. Different types of sarnas in Jharkhand.
Sarna Deity Role Restriction/taboos
Sarhul sarna Sarna Bhuria Female deity looks
after agricultural
production of
the village.
No taboo or
prohibition is
associated with this
Sarna. Collection
of fallen twigs,
fruits and other
material is allowed.
Women can also
go into this Sarna.
Pat sarna Pat Devta Deity (malevolent in
nature) is protector
of the village from
sickness and other
misfortunes.
Women and children
are restricted from
entering this grove
Phool sarna Sarna Mata This Sarna is a source
of flowers for the
village, which are
exclusively used in
religious
ceremonies
performed in the
other Sarnas of
the village.
The villagers are
prohibited from
using the flowers
from this Sarna for
household worship.
Kadamara sarna Darha Desauli This spirit acts as the
guard or gatekeeper
of the village, who
is believed to
protect the village
from the incursions
of outside spirits.
Women and children
are strictly
prohibited from
entering the Sarna.
Collection of dry
wood and non-
timber forest
produce (NTFPs)
in the Sarna is
a taboo.
Mahadani sarna Mahadania Devta Male God saves the
village and its
possessions from
natural disasters
and diseases.
Extraction of biomass
and collection of
NTFP in this Sarna
was prohibited
earlier, but allowed
recently. Women
and children are
prohibited from
entering this grove.
10 V. Singhal et al.
left an uncleared patch of forest in the belief that the Gods would reside in this patch
of forest (Srivastava 2007). Sarnas vary greatly in size. Solanky (2017) reported sarnas
with a minimum area of 1.5 dismil (0.065 hectare) to a maximum area of 150 dismil
(6.534 hectare). These sacred groves are owned by individuals, clans or communities,
and are under the direct control of the clan councils. Cutting the Sarna tree (Sal), or
other trees around it, is prohibited (Pal 2016). Even birds in the sarnas are considered
auspicious. As, Gindari (Ardeidae family) birds that visit the sarna in Gararajabasa vil-
lage in Khutpani block during the monsoon are believed to bring prosperity to the vil-
lage (Niyogi 2018). Sacred groves shelter rare, endangered and threatened species of
plants, including a rich diversity of medicinal plant species. Some of them are reminis-
cent of the species composition that once existed in the region (Khan et al. 2008;
Hemrom and Sharma 2015). Prominent trees found in sarna are listed in Table 5. The
concept and practice of Sarna also extends to other major tribal communities (Oraon,
Santhals and Ho) residing in Jharkhand. Tribal communities consider that their phys-
ical/psychological health and well-being, as well as their economic prosperity (e.g.
agricultural productions), are intertwined with their engagement and commitment to
protect sacred groves (locally referred to as Jaher-Thaan by Santhals) and other envir-
onmental resources (Dutta 2020). Sarna Sthal is a common religious place for the
whole village and almost all kinds of ceremonies in the village are held at this place.
These ceremonies are performed by the whole village community at a public gathering
with the active participation of village priests known by different names (Pahan,
Ojhas, Baiga etc) by different tribal communities in Jharkhand. The most prominent
ritual associated with the Sarna is Sarhul (a festival) which is celebrated in the New
Year (March-April) according to their local calendar, at the time when Sal trees blos-
som. A number of people gather at sarna to celebrate the festival. Out of six selected
Sarna Sthal of Kanke Block, the maximum gathering was observed at Jatra Tand
Mishir Gonda (2500 3000) and the minimum at Jidu Sarna Sthal (75 80 in num-
ber) in the Ormanjhi Block of Ranchi district (Solanky 2017). Some other important
agricultural festivals such as Kadleta, Hareiyali, and Nawakhani are also celebrated at
Sarna. Kadleta is associated with oxen worship, Hareiyali with crop growth and
Nawakhani with crop harvest. The tributes and prayers are also offered to deities for
good production and protection of agricultural crops from pests and diseases. These
deities also protect villagers and their possessions from natural calamities and diseases.
Sometimes sacred groves such as Mahadani sarana are used for conducting village
panchayat (meetings). It is believed that the judgment delivered in the grove will be
fair and the deity of the grove would punish the judge if he showed any partiality. The
Pahan or Baiga (religious head of the village) looks after the plants/trees of the Sarna
and perform the rituals there. Akhra is another sacred place for tribal communities in
Jharkhand. This place is characterized by the presence of a tamarind tree (Tamarindus
indica) and large stones to sit on. This place is mainly a hub for political activity and
sorting out associated problems. Some religious ceremonies and cultural activities are
also held here (Singh and Pandey 2019). Jadur Akhra is a kind of religious place for a
particular tribe known as Sarna Munda and is located in the center of the village,
while the Christian Akhra is for the Christian Mundas (a tribe) and present in the
vicinity of the forest near to the village. The place where Mundas bury their relatives
is called Sasandiri. The word ‘Sasandiri’is made up of two words: Sasan, which
means the place of reburial and diri, which means a large stone. The relatives and
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 11
villagers in Sasandiri bury their dead. Women do not participate in this activity. After
burial there is a custom of erecting stones over the grave.
Like other traditional conservation approaches, sacred groves and sanctuaries are
protected, conserved and maintained through a combination of taboos, prohibitions,
beliefs and restrictions. Cutting and felling of trees is prohibited in most of the scared
groves in Jharkhand; however local communities establish rules that vary from grove
to grove. In some groves, like one in the Torpa block of Jharkhand, lopping a branch
or even plucking a leaf in the grove is prohibited (Niyogi 2018) whereas in others,
activities such as the collection of fodder, medicinal plants and some of the minor for-
est products by local people is allowed. As a result of ‘divine’protection, a large num-
ber of tree species that have otherwise been recklessly exploited from the forests
continue to exist in these groves. This is a traditional way to conserve these species in
their natural habitat (Ekka 2018). The taboos associated with these groves, which are
important from a biodiversity conservation viewpoint, are listed in Table 3. Tribal
communities believe that any violation of taboos will annoy the residing deity and
cause them suffering which may surface in the form of disease, accident or even death.
Religious beliefs and taboos around sarnas are a way of protecting the forest, its eco-
systems and wildlife from undue human interference.
The present status of sacred groves throughout the world is a matter of grave con-
cern, as they are slowly shrinking and vanishing from the countryside. Their presence
in agricultural lands, grazing, ecotourism, fragmentation of the grove-owning families,
greed, poverty, overexploitation, development, Government policies, irresponsible
behavior by corporations and erosion of cultural and religious beliefs are the major
reasons for their decline (Blicharska et al. 2013; Ormsby and Bhagwat 2010; Kandari
et al. 2014; Daye and Healey 2015). Sarnas in Jharkhand have also shrunk in size for
the above reasons. One such example is the Kalyanpur sarna in the Namkum block of
the Ranchi district, which was originally spread over three acres and 85 decimals of
land, has shrunk to around five decimals. Most industries in Jharkhand have been
developed against the cost of sarnas as forests. For instance, the steel city of
Jamshedpur was established on 8,900 ha of rich forest that had 100 villages
Table 5. Prominent plants/trees in Sarna (sacred grove in Jharkhand).
Number Local name Botanical name Family
1 Indian plum Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae
2 White Marudah Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Combretaceae
3 Indian gooseberry Phyllanthus emblica Phyllanthaceae
4 Tulsi Ocimum sanctum Lamiaceae
5 Sal Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae
6 Peepal Ficus religiosa Moraceae
7 Bargad Ficus bengalensis Moraceae
8 Behara Terminalia belerica Combretaceae
9 Neem, Azadirachta indica Meliaceae
10 Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae
11 Malabar nut Adhatoda vasica Acanthaceae
12 Thorn apple Datura stramonium Solanceae
13 Champak Magnolia champaca Magnoliaceae
14 Indian black plum Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae
15 Tamarind Tamarindus indica Fabaceae
16 Bael Aegle marmelos Rutaceae
12 V. Singhal et al.
(Chattopadhyay 2004). Sarnas are village property owned by individuals, clans or com-
munities. Their management is regulated by the traditions and customs of the tribal
communities. They are not governed by the forest department and no forest law is
applicable to them. In many places, sarnas have been merged into land banks owned
by the Government and then cleared for all sorts of projects (Chandra 2013). The
influences of mainstream faiths are also eroding the sarna institution. About 10 per
cent of the tribal population (most of them among the Mundas and the Oraons) of
Chhotanagpur have changed their religion (Sarna dharma) to Christianity. As a result
of the weakening of religious belief systems and the erosion of traditional values, sar-
nas have shrunk to nothing more than symbols. Owing to their shrinking size, the need
was felt for demarcation and fencing of these groves to save them from grazing pres-
sures and facilitate regeneration of the understorey to maintain its vegetational struc-
ture. Recently, the Jharkhand government launched an initiative to protect and beautify
sarnas outside forest areas. Under the initiative, known as gherabandi (fencing), the
government has identified sarnas on community or individual lands and has begun the
process of fencing and setting up platforms around trees that are worshiped (Niyogi
2018). The maintenance of sarnas is needed for social, cultural and religious beliefs, as
well as ecological benefits to the environment.
6. Erosion
The present scenario has totally changed in India. Tribal habitats have shrunk into small
pockets and modernization has swept away tribal communities’religious beliefs, taboos
and eroded their culture. Indicators for the erosion of religious belief systems are pre-
sented in Table 6. Tribal people have fewer employment opportunities in their native
places and are poverty stricken. A World Bank Report (2007) entitled ‘Jharkhand:
Addressing the Challenges of Inclusive Development’has identified Jharkhand as one of
the most poverty-stricken states in the country, with a sharp contrast between rural and
urban poverty. The incidence of poverty in the state stands at 44 per cent, as against the
all India average of 26 percent. Agriculture and minor forest product collection in the
state are hardly remunerative. Most of Jharkhand lies on the Chhotanagpur plateau. The
undulating topography of the plateau and the soil structure do not support canal-based
irrigation systems. As much as 92% of the cultivated area in the state is not irrigated.
The lack of irrigation facilities, in addition to small farm holdings and economic limita-
tions has restricted the growth of the agricultural sector in the state. Only 12% of the
rural laborers make their living from agricultural activities, whereas 48% of the laborers
are engaged in non-agricultural and casual waged employment. 83% of the agricultural
land in the state belongs to small and marginal farmers and only 1% of landholdings are
above 10 hectares (Department of Agriculture and Sugarcane Development 2011). Forest
in Jharkhand has long been under pressure due to mining and for meeting demands for
fuel. Mining activities and mineral transportation mostly take place in close proximity to
forests, resulting in damage to forest resources. Rampant mining for decades has turned
large tracts of forests in Jharkhand into wastelands. A case study reported a sharp
decrease in the population of Birhors, a nomadic group who reside in the Saranda forest,
due to the mining that has devoured Saranda, the largest Sal forest (Shorea robusta)in
Asia. The Birhors are a dwindling race, accounting for only 0.06% of the 8.64 million
tribal population in Jharkhand (Gautam 2020; Focus Magazine 2018). The contribution
of the forestry sector to GDP in the State is low, and has declined from 2% (2001–02)
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 13
Table 6. Erosion Indicators of religious belief system.
Indicators Parameters Justification
Migration Number of people
migrating per year
Migration is a major reason for dilution
of tribal religious belief systems. The
majority migrate in cases when the
agriculture and forestry sector are no
longer profitable to them and they are
not able to meet their ends through
these sectors.
Displacement Number of people/
villages displaced
Jharkhand is very rich in minerals.
Mining and industrialization are the
major reasons for displacement of
tribal communities causing their
cultural erosion.
Agriculture Cultivated area The proportion of agricultural land area
in a region represents the population
agriculture can support. Less
agriculture area means migration of
people to other places
for employment.
Irrigation facility Agricultural production and its
profitability increase with the
irrigation facilities.
Soil fertility Soil fertility is generally associated with
high yield and more remuneration
through agriculture.
Nuisance of
wild animals
Sometimes wild animals create nuisance
making farming very difficult. In such
cases people withdraw from the
farming profession.
Proximity to
the town
Accessibility to markets is important for
profitable agriculture. Proximity to
markets provides easier access to
agricultural inputs. Better networks
develop for selling and marketing of
agricultural products. On the contrary,
communities living in isolated areas
face difficulties in accessing
market facilities.
Forestry
Forest Area Forest area in proximity to the village
indicates availability of forest wealth
to tribal communities. If the forest
areas have shrunk as a result of
urbanization, tribal communities will
no longer be dependent on the forest
for their livelihood and lose their
amicable relationship with the forest.
Shrinking of the forest will pave the
way for their migration in search of
a livelihood.
Joint forest
management
(Involvement of
tribal- Yes/No)
Active participation of tribal in forest
management programmes right from
planning up to the execution will
strengthen their bond with forest
resources and support their religious
values toward trees and animals.
(Continued)
14 V. Singhal et al.
to 1.5% (2009–10) (World Bank Institute 2005). The low productivity of the forest has
resulted in abject poverty in regions of the state where communities are highly depend-
ent on forest resources (minor forest products) for sustenance and income generation. A
survey reported that 55% food security has declined in Jharkhand due to a decline in
NTFP, something attributed to deforestation and forest degradation (Centre for
Environment and Food Security 2005). Even collection of NTFP is only marginally prof-
itable, as most of the minor forest products sell at very meager rates. There is no min-
imum support price, so villagers get very low prices for them. Moreover, there is no
proper market for the sale of forest produce; hence farmers have to depend on mediators
(Islam and Quli 2017). All these factors are forcing tribal people to migrate to cities to
earn their livelihoods. Migration in and out of the villages is the main reason for the ero-
sion of tribal belief systems. Migration is gender biased. It is mostly men who migrate
in search of livelihoods, leaving behind women as the household head to take care of
Table 6. (Continued).
Indicators Parameters Justification
Government Policy
(tribal favored/
disfavored policy)
Migration of tribal communities will
also depend on government policies
regarding their rights to the
forest resources.
Availability of
MSP(Minimum
Support Price) for
minor
forest products
Collection and marketing of minor forest
products should be profitable to the
tribal communities to enable them to
live at their respective
indigenous places.
Population Structure Sex ratio Women are mainly indulged in religious
activities and play a major role in
sustaining religious values.
Occupation Agriculture and forest-related work keep
people close to nature and develop an
amicable relationship.
Religion Intrusion of other religions weakens the
tribal belief system
Old to young ratio Old people are repositories of religious
values and ethno medicine
knowledge. Their high proportion in a
society ensures conservation and
percolation of religious values and
knowledge to younger people.
Infrastructure facility Road network Availability of roads is crucial for
connectivity with markets and for
access to basic necessities. Presence
of roads decreases the chances
of migration.
Availability of radio/
Television/Cinema
halls/
Shopping malls
Tribal communities used to promulgate
their religious beliefs through festivals
and fairs. Festivals and fairs used to
be the only sources of entertainment
for tribal communities. But
availability of radio/Television/
Cinema halls has lessened their
interest in age old traditional
recreational activities.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 15
agricultural and other natural resources. Women remain closer to nature because of their
significant involvement in major agricultural activities and the collection of fuelwood
and fodder. They are the heirs of culture and traditional values. Therefore, they can play
an important role in the conservation of natural resources by propagating religious
beliefs in the society. Strengthening and recognizing the importance of women in the
conservation of religious values and, thus, biodiversity is very important in avoiding the
erosion of tribal culture and traditions (Praveen 2014). Tribal communities have been
displaced in large numbers on account of various large development projects such as
irrigation dams, hydro-electric and thermal power plants, coal mines and mineral-based
industries in Jharkhand. The total number of people displaced in Jharkhand from the
year 1951-95 is 1,503,017 of which 620,372 (42%) belong to the Scheduled Tribes,
212,892 (14%) belong to a scheduled caste and 676,575 belong to other categories.
(Thakur 2014). Jharkhand has been the largest producer of ecological refugees. This dis-
placement has caused more than economic losses to the indigenous communities. They
are likely to suffer far more than their counterparts in the general population, as dis-
placement has led not only to impoverishment, but also “cultural genocide, since every
aspect of the social structure of indigenous communities is fundamentally affected,
including the economy, political system, material culture, relationship with the environ-
ment, religion and system of values”(Government of Jharkhand 2014, 45). Thus, dis-
placement is gradually weakening their traditional institutions because they fail to retain
the link with their tradition and society, and also their tribal identity (Malkhandi 2018).
Ecological devastation amounts to the cultural devastation of indigenous people (Gautam
2020). Younger generations have not inherited the culture and traditions from their
ancestors, weakening the belief system of the community or clan under the influence of
modernization. Young people are attracted to the urban lifestyle, as it symbolizes high
social status in the society. The dominant official endeavor of “mainstreaming”all indi-
genous cultures has successfully sown a feeling of inferiority into the “backward”ethnic
cultures (Doshi 1992). Earlier tribal people used to celebrate fairs and festivals with
great enthusiasm as there was no other source of entertainment. But now other ways of
entertainment exist, so they are slowly shifting toward these. Knowledge about the festi-
vals is fading away due to the impacts of globalization. According to a field survey,
more than 35% of people among sample households in the study area of Santhal are not
following and do not have strong ideas about their ancestral festivals under modern
influences (Guha and Ismail 2015). Tribal communities revered the natural resources as
their survival used to depend on them. But slowly their amicable relationship with nature
is ending because they are no longer solely dependent on nature, as globalization has
brought them many more earning opportunities. Therefore, there is continuous erosion of
traditional beliefs and religious practices of tribal communities which are viewed as sus-
tainable biodiversity conservation measures.
7. Discussion
Jharkhand is blessed with the rich cultural heritage of indigenous people who practice
their own traditional belief systems interwoven around sustainable utilization and man-
agement of natural resources. They believe in totemism. They revere their totems and
do not harm them. As most of their totems are either plants or animals, the practice of
totemism thus preserves a large population of flora and fauna in the region. In India,
totemism is most widely practiced among tribal groups. The majority of the totems in
16 V. Singhal et al.
the Karbi tribe of Assam were reported to be animal-based while others plant-based
(Timung and Singh 2016). Totemism plays an important role in biodiversity conserva-
tion and is a genuine tool for the management of natural resources. Such methods of
conservation must be promoted, as there is no element of enforcement for them. These
are voluntary practices carried out by indigenous communities. The totemic beliefs of
different tribal communities must be recorded and documented to identify plants, ani-
mals and sites under cultural protection and conservation. Tribal communities associate
some spatial or temporal taboos with sustainable utilization of resources. They restrict
the use of plants and trees at certain times and avoid hunting particular animals in a
particular season. These temporal taboos relate to resource utilization. This invariably
relates to sustainable resource management (Negi 2010a). In Jharkhand, the Santhals
do not harvest any part of the sal (Shorea robusta) tree until their Salui/Sarhul festival
is over in March-April. Similarly, no part of the Karam (Adina cordifolia) tree is har-
vested by the Santals until the Karam festival is celebrated in August-September.
These festivals probably indicate the termination of harvesting restrictions for import-
ant resources. Similar types of temporal taboo were reported by Negi 2010b in
Uttarakhand where the Nanda Astami festival (celebrated in praise of the local goddess
Nanda Devi, the highest peak in the western Himalayas) is associated with the harvest-
ing of the sacred flower, the brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata). It is celebrated only
after the flowering and shedding of seeds by the species (Saussurea obvallata) have
taken place, and hence collection of the same does the least damage in terms of regen-
eration. The imposition of temporal taboos regulates access to resources on either a
sporadic, weekly, monthly, or even a seasonal basis. Spatial taboos of tribal commun-
ities relate to habitat protection where a patch of forest is dedicated to their deities and
known as a sacred grove. Sacred groves known as Sarna in Jharkhand, and by different
names in different parts of the country, also offer divine protection to flora and fauna
that inhabit them. More recently, scientists have shown that sacred sites act as de facto
protected areas (Pungetti, Oviedo, and Hooke 2012). The potential of sacred groves in
biodiversity conservation and management has been recognized by many researchers
throughout the world (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006; Dudley, Higgins-Zogib, and
Mansourian 2009). However, sacred species and landscapes in India have been in
decline in the last few decades and exist as a remnant of the country’s rich heritage
due to developmental activities, urbanization, exploitation of resources, changes in reli-
gious beliefs, invasion of exotic weeds, ecotourism and increases in the human popula-
tion. Threats to sacred groves vary from region to region as well as from one type of
grove to another. For example, sacred groves in Jharkhand are facing major pressure
from rampant mining activities in the state (Narasimham and Subbarao 2018); sacred
groves in the Kodagu districts of Karnataka are threatened by conversion into coffee
plantations and human habitation (Kushalappa and Raghavendra 2012); the Mawsmai
sacred groves of Cherrapunjee are vulnerable due to limestone mining and lime kilns
and the sacred groves in Peepasar and Khejarli villages of the Rajasthan by uncon-
trolled grazing (Jha et al. 1998). The government capture of common lands has further
undermined community controls. Commercial interests have overpowered ecological
and cultural ones. Continuation and propagation of traditional belief systems and reli-
gious practices of indigenous people, encompassing the concepts of totemism, social
taboos and sacred groves are crucial for local sustainability and biodiversity protection
(Ekblom et al. 2019).
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 17
8. Conclusion
Religion is a powerful tool to motivate a community for a particular cause. Jharkhand
is inhabited by a large number of ethnic groups. Their religious belief systems, like
any other indigenous community, are built around their dependence on natural resour-
ces for sustenance and survival. A number of scientific reports from different parts of
the world suggest that the religious practices and traditional belief systems of indigen-
ous society helped in biodiversity conservation through the concept of totems, sacred
groves and some taboos. The potential of traditional institutions of indigenous com-
munities in biodiversity conservation has led conservationists to suggest their integra-
tion into conservation strategies. Religious practices can foster the biodiversity
conservation agenda more successfully, as these are voluntary practices without any
enforcement. But abject poverty, cultural alienation of young people, modernization,
religious conversion, migration, displacement and other factors are eroding the trad-
itional values and social structures of tribes. Indigenous communities in Jharkhand are
also facing grave consequences because of similar factors. Being a new state, the
development agenda is overpowering the ecological and cultural ones. A special pro-
tribal policy is necessary to protect and promote the livelihood system of tribal com-
munities, their relationship with nature, autonomy equity and culture. Government
agencies, corporate organizations and NGOs should work jointly to rejuvenate and
propagate tribal culture and traditional belief systems.
Recommendations
Participatory approach: Whenever the Government proposes any program of bio-
diversity conservation, it should follow a participatory approach. Tribal communities
should be involved at every step, right from initial planning, to management and moni-
toring, so that they do not feel alienated and participate actively.
Interactions between tribal communities, scientists, policy makers
There should be frequent interaction between indigenous people and other members of
society responsible for biodiversity conservation. The cultural values, taboos and
knowledge relating to the use of traditional medicines must be well documented,
refined and made more usable with the intervention of the scientific community.
Sincere efforts should be made to rejuvenate traditional values and culture. Pro-tribal
policies should be developed with the help of indigenous specialists, anthropologists
and sociologists targeted at cultural and economic development in regions where there
are ethnic communities.
Government support for organizing local fairs: The fairs and festivals are an
integral part and showcase of tribal culture. But with time, the organization of fairs/
festivals is taking place at a small scale with low enthusiasm. To sustain the rich heri-
tage of tribal culture, it is important that the Government should promote and finan-
cially support these types of events.
Popularization of fairs/festivals by giving them national status: The
Government can empower these fairs and festivals by giving them national status.
Employment generation to stop migration: Migration is taking place at a very
high rate among tribal communities. Most of the tribal villages have been abandoned
18 V. Singhal et al.
or deserted due to severe migration. The Government should provide employment
opportunities in order to prevent migration.
Agriculture and minor forest product collection should be made more profit-
able: To continue the amicable relationship between the tribal communities and natural
resources, agricultural and forest product collection activities should be made more
profitable by encouraging integrated farming systems, horticulture and cash crop rais-
ing. The MSP (minimum support price) should be fixed for minor forest products.
Proper market and storage facilities should also be provided.
Generating interest in the younger generation: The younger generation is not keen
to carry forward their religious belief system under the influence of modernization. Efforts
should be made by governmental and non-governmental agencies to generate the interest
of the young generation in the religious belief system by supporting it with scientific facts
Organizing workshops on biodiversity conservation: Informal interactions, meet-
ings and workshops should be organized with the help of village leaders and learned
people to make them understand how sustaining their belief system can help in bio-
diversity conservation.
Developing textbooks of indigenous knowledge: School and textbooks should
include proverbs, folk tales, folk songs and folk stories relating to biodiversity conser-
vation and environmental management to generate the interest of the younger gener-
ation in age-old religious practices. Academics in the education system should actively
participate in these projects, helping to produce textbooks and expand programs.
Indigenous knowledge should be collected and documented for the production of text-
books with the help of local people.
Role of folk music and drama and oral legends
Folk music and drama and oral legends that have a profound impact on biodiversity
conservation exist in all parts of the country. However, this rich material is scattered
and often very difficult to access. It is recommended that such materials from libraries
and other places should be retrieved and a database be created.
Respecting and maintaining their belief system: Finally, respecting and facilitat-
ing tribal communities in maintaining their belief system will be of great help in sus-
taining natural resources.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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