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Global environmental goals mandate the expansion of the protected area network to halt biodiversity loss. The European Union’s Natura 2000 network covers 27.3% of the terrestrial area of Greece, one of the highest percentages in Europe. However, the extent to which this network protects Europe’s biodiversity, especially in a biodiverse country like Greece, is unknown. Here, we overlap the country’s Natura 2000 network with the ranges of the 424 species assessed as threatened on the IUCN Red List and present in Greece. Natura 2000 overlaps on average 47.6% of the mapped range of threatened species; this overlap far exceeds that expected by random networks (21.4%). Special Protection Areas and Special Areas of Conservation (non-exclusive subsets of Natura 2000 sites) overlap 33.4% and 38.1% respectively. Crete and Peloponnese are the two regions with the highest percentage of threatened species, with Natura 2000 sites overlapping on average 62.3% with the threatened species’ ranges for the former, but only 30.6% for the latter. The Greek ranges of all 62 threatened species listed in Annexes 1 and II to the Birds and Habitats Directives are at least partially overlapped by the network (52.0%), and 18.0% of these are fully overlapped. However, the ranges of 27 threatened species, all of which are endemic to Greece, are not overlapped at all. These results can inform national policies for the protection of biodiversity beyond current Natura 2000 sites.
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Biodiversity and Conservation (2021) 30:945–961
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02125-7
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ORIGINAL PAPER
The Natura 2000 network andtheranges ofthreatened
species inGreece
KonstantinaSpiliopoulou1,2 · PanayiotisG.Dimitrakopoulos3 ·
ThomasM.Brooks4 · GabrielaKelaidi2· KaloustParagamian5 · VassilikiKati6 ·
AnthiOikonomou1 · DimitrisVavylis2· PanayiotisTrigas7 · PetrosLymberakis8 ·
WilliamDarwall9 · MariaTh.Stoumboudi1· KostasA.Triantis2
Received: 8 June 2020 / Revised: 13 January 2021 / Accepted: 20 January 2021 /
Published online: 13 February 2021
© The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
Global environmental goals mandate the expansion of the protected area network to halt
biodiversity loss. The European Union’s Natura 2000 network covers 27.3% of the ter-
restrial area of Greece, one of the highest percentages in Europe. However, the extent to
which this network protects Europe’s biodiversity, especially in a biodiverse country like
Greece, is unknown. Here, we overlap the country’s Natura 2000 network with the ranges
of the 424 species assessed as threatened on the IUCN Red List and present in Greece.
Natura 2000 overlaps on average 47.6% of the mapped range of threatened species; this
overlap far exceeds that expected by random networks (21.4%). Special Protection Areas
and Special Areas of Conservation (non-exclusive subsets of Natura 2000 sites) overlap
33.4% and 38.1% respectively. Crete and Peloponnese are the two regions with the high-
est percentage of threatened species, with Natura 2000 sites overlapping on average 62.3%
with the threatened species’ ranges for the former, but only 30.6% for the latter. The Greek
ranges of all 62 threatened species listed in Annexes 1 and II to the Birds and Habitats
Directives are at least partially overlapped by the network (52.0%), and 18.0% of these are
fully overlapped. However, the ranges of 27 threatened species, all of which are endemic to
Greece, are not overlapped at all. These results can inform national policies for the protec-
tion of biodiversity beyond current Natura 2000 sites.
Keywords Protected areas· IUCN red list· Threatened species· Greece· Natura 2000
Communicated by Stephen Garnett.
This article belongs to the Topical Collection: Biodiversity protection and reserves.
* Konstantina Spiliopoulou
k.spilio@hcmr.gr
* Kostas A. Triantis
ktriantis@biol.uoa.gr
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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Introduction
Biodiversity is severely threatened and declining in many parts of the world (Joppa etal.
2016b; Maxwell etal. 2016; IPBES 2019), raising concerns that an era of mass extinction
is beginning (Dirzo etal. 2014; Lewis and Maslin 2015). According to the IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species, more than 27% of the 105,700 species assessed, face “a high risk of
extinction in the wild” (IUCN 2019). Over recent years, in response to this increasing bio-
diversity loss, great effort has been allocated in implementing strategies for the protection
of nature. Protected areas have long been regarded as one of the most valuable tools for the
protection of biodiversity (Chape etal. 2008; Watson etal. 2014), and so play a major role
in these strategies. The 2011–2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity’s Aichi Target 11 states
that, by 2020, at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of coastal and
marine areas, should be effectively managed by protected areas and “other effective area-
based conservation measures” (OECMs; CBD 2010). According to the Protected Planet
live-report (www.prote ctedp lanet .net), 15% of terrestrial and freshwater environments and
7.8% of the marine environment are protected (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2020). In addition
to Aichi Target 11, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 14 and 15 call for protec-
tion of the planet’s marine, terrestrial and freshwater biota (United Nations 2015). These
global targets and goals, as well as the post-2020 agenda (CBD 2020), advocate expansion
of the protected area network at the regional and national level in order to halt biodiversity
loss.
Although protected areas are considered a critical tool to conserve biodiversity, there is
still no comprehensive answer to whether they actually deliver on this commitment. While
some analyses have revealed impacts of protected areas in reducing rates of habitat loss
(Andam etal. 2008; Joppa and Pfaff 2011; Geldmann etal. 2013) and reducing increases in
extinction risk for species (Butchart etal. 2012), for most taxa the conservation outcomes
of protected areas are unknown (Joppa etal. 2016a). Generally, the greater the overlap of
a species distribution by protected areas, the higher the chances for long term persistence
ought to be (e.g. Rodrigues etal. 2004a, b); but the overall conservation outcome is highly
dependent on the specific environmental context (e.g. hydrology), as well as the particular
protected area planning, management scheme, governance and budget allocation (Rodri-
gues etal. 2004a, b; Watson etal. 2014).
The European Union has the largest coordinated network of protected areas in the world
(European Commission 2020). The Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas that was
established in 1992, operating under the European Union’s Birds and Habitat Directives.
It is comprised of two non-mutually exclusive site types, Special Protection Areas (SPAs)
and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) (European Commission 1992, 2009). By 2019,
one year before the end of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, Natura 2000 sites
had covered 18% of the terrestrial, and almost 9.5% of the marine, European Union terri-
tory. Terrestrial coverage of the Natura 2000 varies among the European Union countries
between 8.4% and 37.8% (European Environment Agency 2019).
While the Natura 2000 network aims to “ensure the long term survival of the most valu-
able and threatened species and habitats in Europe” (European Commission 2020), bio-
diversity is not evenly distributed throughout Europe. The southern European countries,
which belong to the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, are characterized by higher lev-
els of threat to biodiversity and have higher levels of endemism than the rest of Europe
(Médail & Quézel 1999; Myers etal. 2000). Greece is exceptionally diverse. Despite its
relatively small size (131,940 km2; 1.3% of Europe and 3% of the European Union’s area),
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it contributes significantly to the European biodiversity with almost 32% of the known
European species being present in Greece (Aravanopoulos 2010). Due to its high topo-
graphic heterogeneity, complex paleogeographic history, fragmented landscape, and loca-
tion at the crossroad of three continents, i.e. Europe, Asia and Africa, Greece hosts a very
high number of species and has high levels of endemism (Legakis and Maragkou 2009;
Sfenthourakis etal. 2018; Legakis etal. 2018). It is estimated that Greece has about 50,000
animal species, more than 20% being endemic (e.g. Legakis etal. 2018) and more than
5800 vascular plant species, more than 22% endemic (Flora of Greece Web 2018). The
degree of endemism for some taxonomic groups, especially those that have diversified in
insular systems, exceeds 50% (e.g. Sfenthourakis etal. 2018). However, Greece also has
the second highest number of threatened species in Europe as well as in the Mediterranean
biodiversity hotspot, after Spain (BirdLife International 2017; IUCN 2019).
In Greece, the Natura 2000 network covers 27.3% of the terrestrial area. This is one of
the highest levels of protected area coverage in Europe, and is far above the 17% coverage
mandated by Aichi Target 11. However, it remains unclear how well this represents the
threatened biodiversity of Greece. Two studies have evaluated representation of species by
protected areas in Greece. One, focused on 1624 native plant species in Crete, found that
SAC sites do not represent satisfactorily the regional plant biodiversity (Dimitrakopoulos
etal. 2004). The other, on 395 vascular plant species and subspecies endemic to Pelopon-
nese found low overlap with selected networks from complementarity analysis (Trigas
etal. 2012). Here, we assess the overlap between the 424 extant, native, resident species
assessed as threatened on the IUCN Red List and present in Greece, and the country’s
Natura 2000 network. We then compared our results against null models obtained by plac-
ing equivalent “Natura 2000” sites at random over the land area of Greece.
Materials andmethods
Natura 2000
Of 1288 (overlapping) protected areas in Greece (UNEP-WCMC 2020), 446 sites are part
of the Natura 2000 network, including 239 Special Areas of Conservation, 181 Special
Protection Areas, and 26 sites that are both (Fig.1). Special Areas of Conservation are des-
ignated to ensure the favorable conservation status of each habitat type and species listed
in the Annexes of the Habitats Directive (European Commission 1992), while Special Pro-
tection Areas are designated for 194 particularly threatened species and all migratory bird
species listed in the Annexes of the Birds Directive (European Commission 2009). These
sites together cover 36,000 km2 (27.3%) of the country’s land territory; SACs cover 16.6%
and SPAs cover 20.9% with overlaps between the two site types of 10.2%. Geographical
Information System (GIS) data on Natura 2000 sites were downloaded from the European
Environmental Agency (2019).
Threatened species
We considered all species with known presence in Greece, according to the IUCN Red
List (IUCN 2019). As of March 2019 there were 3280 species assessed for Greece, of
which 2809 are terrestrial and freshwater species. Of all species assessed, animals rep-
resent 73.1% (2055 species; ~ 4% of the entire Greek fauna) and plants represent 26.8%
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(753 species; ~ 13% of the entire Greek flora). For some taxonomic groups (e.g., tetrapod
vertebrates, freshwater fishes, land snails), almost all Greek species has been assessed for
the IUCN Red List; for others (including most invertebrate and plant groups), assessments
are not comprehensive, and may be biased (e.g., towards species a priori considered likely
to be threatened, or towards particular regions). Throughout, we used the global extinc-
tion risk status for each species, not the national one (e.g., Phitos etal. 1995; Legakis and
Maragkou 2009), consistent with our objective to evaluate the contribution of the Natura
2000 network of Greece to the protection of the global biodiversity, and thus the progress
of the country towards global environmental targets.
The threatened species, i.e. those assigned to Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN) and Crit-
ically Endangered (CR) categories, total 476 species (Table1). We followed the taxonomy
used by the IUCN Red List, but we grouped the plant classes of Liliopsida and Magnoliop-
sida into Magnoliopsida (following Euro + Med 2006). Four Greek species, all gastropods,
Fig. 1 The Natura 2000 network in Greece. Yellow represents Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), light
blue stripes represent Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and purple represents sites that are designated as
both SAC and SPA
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assessed as Extinct, Zonites santoriniensis, Zonites siphnicus, Vitrea storchi and Graecoana-
tolica macedonica, were excluded from the analyses.
Among species groups comprehensively assessed, Actinopterygii, Gastropoda, and
Amphibia have the highest threat prevalence of threatened species: 36.6%, 26.7%, and 21.7%
respectively (Table1).
For all threatened species, we downloaded the available range maps from the IUCN Red
List website (www.iucnr edlis t.org). Range maps represent the ‘current known limits of distri-
bution of a species, accounting for all known, inferred or projected sites of occurrence’ (IUCN
2016). We only considered species that have extant, resident and native distributions which
account for code 1 in Presence (extant), Origin (native) and Seasonality (resident) following
the IUCN Red List mapping standards (IUCN 2018), yielding 424 extant, native, resident
threatened species with mapped Greek ranges. Of these, 323 are terrestrial, 97 are freshwater
species and four are amphibious species. Out of the 424 threatened species, 303 (71.5%) are
endemic to Greece. According to Annexes 1 and II of the Birds and Habitats Directives, 62 of
the 424 threatened species in this study are formally protected by the Natura 2000 network.
For Aves, since we included only species with permanent presence in the country, we
excluded from the analysis the migrating species (summer, winter and passage visitors) and
vagrants.
Table 1 Numbers of terrestrial and freshwater species in each Class assessed on the IUCN Red List, in each
threat category, and the percentage (%) of threatened species
Classes/groups with the majority (> 90%) of their species assessed are highlighted in bold.
a All totals exclude Data Deficient (DD) species.
Class/group Number of
assessed speciesa
Number of threat-
ened species
VU EN CR % of threat-
ened species
Gastropoda 647 173 113 24 36 26.7
Insecta 423 124 66 45 13 29.3
Actinopterygii 123 45 13 15 17 36.6
Magnoliopsida 633 69 29 25 15 10.9
Aves 435 25 17 4 4 5.7
Reptilia 58 11 8 3 0 19.0
Mammalia 99 9 7 2 0 9.1
Amphibia 23 5 3 1 1 21.7
Bivalvia 19 5 2 3 0 26.3
Polypodiopsida 15 3 2 1 0 20.0
Malacostraca 8 3 3 0 0 37.5
Lycopodiopsida 4 2 0 1 1 50.0
Cephalaspidomorphi 1 1 0 0 1 100.0
Agaricomycetes 1 1 1 0 0 100.0
Pinopsida 17 0 – – – 0.0
Total 2506 476 264 124 88 19.0
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Measuring theactual andexpected overlap ofthreatened species ranges
withtheNatura 2000 network
Following existing approaches (Rodrigues etal. 2004b; Araújo et al. 2007; Watson etal.
2010; Beresford etal. 2011; Cantú-Salazar etal. 2013; Trochet and Schmeller 2013; Venter
etal. 2014; Abellán and Sánchez-Fernández 2015; Klein etal. 2015; Shanee etal. 2017),
we overlapped the Natura 2000 network with the species range maps, and we calculated the
percentage of overlap using the formula:
where areanatura is the size of the species range that overlaps with the Natura 2000 network
in Greece, and arearange is the size of the species range in Greece.
We calculated the overlap of the Greek ranges of threatened species by the whole of
the Natura 2000 network and the individual site types, SACs and SPAs separately. This is
because SPA and SAC sites have been designated to protect different taxa (SPAs solely for
the protection of bird species, while SAC sites for the rest of the species). For calculating
the overlap by the individual Natura 2000 site types, we used the sites designated as SAC/
SPA in the calculations for the overlap both with SACs and SPAs. For the overlap with
the whole of the Natura 2000 network we considered all overlapping areas of the sites as a
single area value. The above analysis was repeated only for the classes/groups comprehen-
sively assessed (see Table1), in order to test for potential biases due to the fact that some
classes have a low percentage of species assessed in the IUCN Red List.
We evaluated the overlap against random, simulated protected area systems (e.g. Guil-
haumon etal. 2015; Rosso etal. 2018) in order to explore whether the overlap of the Natura
2000 network in Greece with the ranges of threatened species differs from that expected by
chance. We used a null model to generate 999 random networks of protected areas across
Greece, with the same land coverage and configuration (i.e. shape) of existing Natura 2000
sites. The algorithm used, randomly changes the centroid—therefore the location—and
rotates each Natura 2000 site on the terrestrial part of Greece. The model is constrained to
ensure that each site has a location that does not overlap with marine areas, nor with other
Natura 2000 sites and big cities, and that the total land coverage of the random networks
is the same to the current Natura 2000 network (see Guilhaumon etal. 2015; Rosso etal.
2018). Probability values were estimated as the proportion of mean overlap values from
random systems that are equal or greater than the observed overlap value (P hereafter, with
P = P (Random Observed)), by inspecting the positions of the observed value in the cor-
responding null distributions.
The analysis was conducted using the R programming language version 3.6.1 (https ://
www.r-proje ct.org/) and the “sf” R package. The code for the analysis is available at https
://zenod o.org/depos it/44363 99.
Results
The mean percentage overlap between the ranges of threatened species in Greece and
the Natura 2000 network is 47.6% (recall that Natura 2000 sites cover 27.3% of Greece’s
land area; for the respective median values see Table S1). The individual site types that
area
natura
area
range
×
100
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comprise Natura 2000, SPAs and SACs, overlap the ranges of threatened species by 33.4%
and 38.2% respectively (compared to 20.9% and 16.6% coverage of land area, respectively;
Table2). For the percentage overlap for each individual species’ Greek range by the Natura
2000 network see supplementary materials (TableS2).
Among the most comprehensively assessed classes/groups (Table 1), Actinopterygii
(51.3%), Gastropoda (48.8%) and Reptilia (46.1%) have the highest overlap with the Natura
2000 network. Our focus on resident species may explain the relatively low overlap for
Aves (29.3%), given that 13 threatened bird species occur in Greece only as winter visitors,
migrants, or vagrants.
Among the 62 threatened species listed in the Annexes of the Birds and Habitats Direc-
tives, all have at least part of their range within the Natura 2000 network in Greece. The
majority of these species (51) are partially overlapped and 11 of them (18%) are fully over-
lapped (> 99%). The mean overlap for the 62 Annexed species is 52.0%.
Twenty-seven (6.4%) out of the 424 species in this analysis had no overlap with the
Natura 2000 network (overlap < 0.1%), while 46 (10.8%) species had less than 10% over-
lap. All of these species belong to the class Gastropoda, except for two Magnoliopsida and
nine Insecta. Almost half (19) of the species with < 10% overlap are present in Peloponnese
(12 species) and Crete (7 species). There are no threatened species with < 10% overlap pre-
sent in Western Macedonia, Central Macedonia and Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, while
species with 0% overlap are present in the islands, Epirus, Central Greece, Attica and Pelo-
ponnese (Fig.2). We estimate that 4.8% increase of the Natura 2000 network will result in
covering at least 10% of the ranges of all threatened species in Greece.
The mean overlap of species ranges among the threatened categories is 51.2% ± 4.1
(mean ± Standard Error) for Critically Endangered species, 46.5% ± 2.8 for Endangered
species, and 47.1% ± 2.3 for Vulnerable species. We found no significant difference on the
overlap among the three threat categories (one-way ANOVA, p-value = 0.59). Similarly,
we found no significant difference between the terrestrial and freshwater species (t-test,
p-value = 0.67), using data on habitat and ecology for each species from the IUCN Red
List to divide into “terrestrial” (n = 327 species) and “freshwater” (n = 101 species) sys-
tems (four species are coded as both). The overlap of their ranges with the Natura 2000
network, but also the SPAs and SACs, is generally similar, although SPAs overlap the
ranges of threatened freshwater species to a greater extent than they do for terrestrial spe-
cies (Table3). Analyses using only the comprehensively assessed classes/groups yield very
similar results (Tables S3–S5; Figs. S1, S2).
The percentage of overlap with the Natura 2000 for the ranges of threatened species in
Greece is higher than offered by random networks (P = 1;Fig.3). This is also the case for
all classes individually, except from Malacostraca (the largest crustacean Class, for which
only two threatened species have been documented in Greece), for which the overlap by
the Natura 2000 is lower than expected considering random networks (P = 0.969; Fig. S3).
One-hundred and twelve species (26.4%) are expected by random networks to have < 0.1%
overlap with the Natura 2000 network (compared to 27 or 6.4% observed).
The percentage of overlap with the Natura 2000 network for each one of the threat cate-
gories (Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered) is also higher to that offered by
random networks (P = 1). For terrestrial and freshwater species, the percentage of overlap
with the Natura 2000 is again higher than that offered by random networks (P = 1).
The 62 threatened species listed in Annexes 1 and II to the Birds and Habitats Direc-
tives are expected by random networks to have 22.9% (compared to 52.0% observed) over-
lap with the Natura 2000 network. No annexed species (compared to 11 species or 18%
observed) is expected by random networks to have 100% overlap with the network.
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Table 2 Mean percentage (%) overlap of species ranges per class with the Natura 2000 network, the Special Protection Areas (SPAs) sites and the Special Areas of Conserva-
tion (SACs) sites separately
Percentages are not directly comparable between classes which have not been comprehensively assessed.
Class/Group Threatened
species
Species in the
Annexes
Mean range (km2) SPAs (%) SACs (%) Natura 2000 (%) Species with 0%
overlap
Species with
10% overlap
All species 424 62 33.4 38.1 47.6 27 46
Bivalvia 2 0 1558.8 61.9 58.9 65.7 0 0
Magnoliopsida 60 23 3819.2 34.9 51.8 58.4 2 2
Actinopterygii 43 26 4469.2 40.7 41.4 51.3 0 0
Gastropoda 166 0 1067.5 37.2 39.1 48.8 24 35
Reptilia 9 2 4014.1 34.0 38.6 46.1 0 0
Polypodiopsida 3 0 4284.8 12.6 40.4 45.3 0 0
Insecta 119 2 4822.9 26.9 30.3 41.2 1 9
Amphibia 5 1 2750.3 13.9 39.1 41.1 0 0
Mammalia 9 7 25,152.8 28.4 27.3 39.8 0 0
Aves 3 1 5739.7 18.3 22.4 29.3 0 0
Malacostraca 2 0 61,626.7 23.3 17.0 28.8 0 0
Agaricomycetes 1 0 93,338.5 19.5 14.4 24.2 0 0
Cephalaspidomorphi 1 0 9702.8 21.7 11.1 23.9 0 0
Lycopodiopsida 1 0 239.6 6.0 20.4 22.3 0 0
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The percentage of threatened species in Greece across the 13 administrative regions
increases southwards. Crete and Peloponnese are the two regions with the highest per-
centage of threatened species (12.0% and 9.7% respectively). To the north, although
species richness increases, the percentage of threatened species per region decreases
(Fig.4; TableS6). Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (5.5%) and North Aegean (4.9%) are
the two regions with the lowest percentage of threatened species. The mean overlap per
Fig. 2 The location of threatened species ranges (Red) that have no overlap with the Natura 2000 network
and the Natura 2000 sites (Green) in Greece
Table 3 Mean percentage (%) overlap of threatened species ranges with the Natura 2000 network, SPAs
and SACs for terrestrial and freshwater species
System Natura 2000 (%) SPAs (%) SACs (%)
Terrestrial 47.7 31.6 38.3
Freshwater 46.0 38.3 36.4
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Class with the Natura 2000 in each administrative region can be found at the supple-
mentary materials (TableS7).
Regions contribute at different levels to the total overlap for threatened species ranges
in Greece (Fig.4). Crete provides the highest mean overlap of threatened species’ ranges
(62.3%), followed by South Aegean (54.3%). The regions with the lowest percentages are
Western Greece (29.4%) and Attica (18.6%).
Discussion
Protected areas are a critical tool for the protection of nature. However, the effectiveness
of protected areas still remains a highly debated topic (Watson et al. 2014; Joppa etal.
2016a; Acreman etal. 2019). Several indices have been used to evaluate protected areas,
e.g. governance, budget allocation and management plans. Although these parameters pro-
vide an indirect evaluation of protected area performance, some correlation with favorable
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Overlap (%)
Density
Null model
distribution
Mean overlap
null model
Mean observed
overlap
Observed Value: 47.6
P (Random = Observed): 1
Fig. 3 The distribution of the percentages of overlap between the Greek ranges of threatened species (424)
and the 999 random networks obtained by the null model (light grey), the mean percentage overlap obtained
by the null model (grey dashed line) and the mean percentage overlap observed between the Greek ranges
of threatened species (424) and the current Natura 2000 network in Greece (black dashed line)
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conservation outcomes has been shown (Bruner etal. 2001; Leverington etal. 2010; Geld-
mann etal. 2018; Coad etal. 2019). Other approaches use representation targets for indi-
vidual species, based on the area they occupy and on the percentage of the global distribu-
tion range occurring in the focal regions (Rodrigues etal. 2004a; Maiorano etal. 2015), or
calculate an index of representation for Annex II species of the Habitats Directive in the
Natura 2000 network (Gruber etal. 2012).
The percentage of overlap of species ranges is another metric used to evaluate protected
areas. In comparison to other metrics, this uses distribution data for multiple species. The
percentage of overlap of species ranges with protected areas has been used in studies at the
global scale (e.g. Rodrigues etal. 2004a, b; Cantú-Salazar etal. 2013; Venter etal. 2014),
regional scale (e.g. Watson etal. 2010; Trochet and Schmeller 2013; Abellán and Sánchez-
Fernández 2015) and national scale (Araújo et al. 2007; Shanee et al. 2017). However,
these studies mainly focused on the better known chordate taxa (birds, mammals, reptiles
and amphibians).
Our study evaluates the whole of the Natura 2000 network in Greece—which pro-
vides a better coverage than provided by random networks (Fig.3)—using all threatened
species data available, for 424 species encompassing both vertebrate and invertebrate,
Fig. 4 Percentage (%) of threatened species per administrative region in Greece. Darker hue of purple rep-
resents higher percentage of threatened species. Numbers under the names of the regions represent the total
number of species (first number in brackets; derived from IUCN Red List range maps), the total number
of threatened species (second number in brackets; again derived from IUCN Red List range maps) and the
mean percentage (%) overlap of threatened species’ ranges with the Natura 2000 per region (TableS7)
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Biodiversity and Conservation (2021) 30:945–961
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as well as plant, taxa; thus we have not focused solely on the species listed in the
Annexes of the Habitats and Birds Directives, but all threatened species and not to spe-
cific regions but the whole country. No difference on the overlap between terrestrial and
freshwater species was observed. A similar study at the European scale, using data from
300 species overall, with the most being fish, showed 35% overlap between the ranges
of 76 threatened species and the Natura 2000 network in Greece (Trochet and Schmel-
ler 2013). Our results show a higher degree of overlap of species ranges with the Natura
2000 network probably due to many more IUCN Red List assessments being conducted
since 2013, and due to the Natura 2000 network in Greece being expanded in 2017.
Our finding that the SPA and SAC sites separately overlap the ranges of threatened
species in Greece at 33.4% and 38.2% respectively, is consistent with expectations based
on the fact that these two categories have been established based on different criteria and
with different aims. Specifically, SACs should have a higher overlap of threatened spe-
cies ranges compared to SPAs, which are designed for the protection of birds only. The
fact that there is no significant difference in the overlap among the three threat catego-
ries (CR, EN and VU) with the Natura 2000 network (one-way ANOVA, p-value = 0.59)
is also interesting. Re-analyzing the percentages of overlap for each species using the
data provided by Trochet and Schmeller (2013; Appendix1), the pattern remains the
same (one-way ANOVA, p-value = 0.33). The overlap of all threatened species ranges
with the Natura 2000 network—regardless of the level of threat they face—is important
to the conservation of threatened biodiversity. That said, the expansion of the network,
in order to increase the overlap with the ranges of species facing imminent extinction,
could be considered as a policy response. Additionally, as we saw an increase of 4.8%
would result to the coverage of at least 10% of all the threatened species.
Greece has higher species richness in the northern part of the country and higher
endemism in the south. Endemic species are more sensitive to changes (e.g. Gaston
1994) which could explain the higher number of threatened species in southern admin-
istrative regions (e.g. Crete and Peloponnese). Although the overlap between threatened
species and the Natura 2000 network in Crete is quite high (62.3%), that in Peloponnese
is only 30.6% (the third lowest in Greece), highlighting the need to expand and poten-
tially re-structure the conservation network in this part of the country. Western Greece
and Attica regions provide the lowest overlap between threatened species and Natura
2000. Increasing the conservation efforts in these regions, and also in regions that have
high percentages of threatened species but relatively low overlap with the Natura 2000
network (e.g. Peloponnese) will contribute substantially to the protection of threatened
biodiversity in Greece. Such efforts could be achieved through multiple pathways: for
example, through expansion of the Natura 2000 network, as was achieved in 2017 (Joint
Ministerial Decision 50743/2017), or by implementation of complementary conserva-
tion approaches such as community protected areas (Dudley 2008), or “other effective
area-based conservation measures” (IUCN WCPA 2019), or by restoration (Carrizo
etal. 2017).
For Greece, the protection of threatened species—the majority of which are endemics
(71.5%)—offers significant contribution to the global biodiversity. The results presented
herein can inform national policies for the protection of biodiversity. Five aspects can be
identified: (a) determine the threatened species that have zero or low overlap with the Nat-
ura 2000 network in Greece; (b) increase the levels of protection for the species with the
most imminent threat of extinction; (c) restore critical ecosystems; (d) pinpoint the regions
that are of critical importance for the biodiversity of Greece, as they contain the highest
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Biodiversity and Conservation (2021) 30:945–961
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percentages of threatened species; (e) highlight the regions with low mean Natura 2000
overlap with their threatened species ranges.
In order to accomplish more efficient protected area networks, several prioritiza-
tion and planning tools are available. One such tool is Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs),
which implements the long-standing concept of important areas for the persistence
of biodiversity, across all taxonomic groups. The Standard for the Identification of
KBAs was recently released (IUCN 2016) and it could be used to identify sites that
will strengthen the protected area network in Greece, possibly also through harnessing
“other effective area-based conservation measures” as a complement to the Natura 2000
network. KBAs themselves can also provide benefits to threatened species—even if they
are not within protected areas—as they can stimulate environmental safeguards.
Conclusion
Greece has met the percentage coverage of area specified by Aichi target 11 and has
one of the most extensive Natura 2000 networks in the European Union. Moreover, the
current network is demonstrably superior to a random placement of the sites. However,
it fails to adequately represent all threatened species that are of priority for protection
globally, with 27 endemic species wholly unrepresented. Expansion of the network to
encompass populations of these species would put Greece at the forefront of countries
fulfilling their EU’s Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, and their responsibility to safe-
guard global biodiversity, which would be a remarkable result given its concentration
of endemic and threatened biodiversity. Results herein should be complemented with
other available approaches such as habitat restoration and approaches that evaluate pro-
tected areas such as governance, institutional framework and stability, budget allocation,
management plans and gap analysis for species listed in the annexes of the Habitats and
Birds Directives, in the case of Europe.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https ://doi.
org/10.1007/s1053 1-021-02125 -7.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Francois Guilhaumonand Stephen Garnett for theirvalua-
ble contribution to this paper. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 766417. This
communication reflects only the authors’ view and the Research Executive Agency of the European Union is
not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains
Funding This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innova-
tion programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 766417.
Data availability The datasets analysed during the current study are available in the Euro-
pean Environmental Agency, https ://www.eea.europ a.eu/data-and-maps/data/natur a-11 and
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https ://www.iucnr edlis t.org/searc h.
Code availability The code developed for the purpose of this study is available at https ://
zenod o.org/depos it/44363 99.
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958
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Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interests The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/.
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Authors and Aliations
KonstantinaSpiliopoulou1,2 · PanayiotisG.Dimitrakopoulos3 ·
ThomasM.Brooks4 · GabrielaKelaidi2· KaloustParagamian5 · VassilikiKati6 ·
AnthiOikonomou1 · DimitrisVavylis2· PanayiotisTrigas7 · PetrosLymberakis8 ·
WilliamDarwall9 · MariaTh.Stoumboudi1· KostasA.Triantis2
1 Institute ofMarine Biological Resources andInland Waters, Hellenic Centre forMarine Research,
19013Anavissos, Greece
2 Department ofEcology andTaxonomy, Faculty ofBiology, National andKapodistrian University
ofAthens, 15784Athens, Greece
3 Biodiversity Conservation Laboratory, Department ofEnvironment, University oftheAegean,
81100Mytilene, Greece
4 Science andKnowledge Unit, International Union forConservation ofNature (IUCN),
1196Gland, Switzerland
5 Hellenic Institute ofSpeleological Research, 71409Irakleio, Crete, Greece
6 Department ofBiological Applications andTechnology, University ofIoannina, 45110Ioannina,
Greece
7 Faculty ofCrop Science, Agricultural University ofAthens, 11855Athens, Greece
8 Natural History Museum ofCrete, University ofCrete, 71409Irakleio, Greece
9 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, The David Attenborough
Building, CambridgeCB23QZ, UK
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6.
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... Despite covering up to ca. 28% of the Greek territory [66], the Greek protected areas network includes no more than 41% of the Aegean L1 bee SR/CWE hotspots and this proportion is projected to decrease over time (Table S7). This overlap is lower than the one reported for the threatened insects occurring in Greece for any Aegean administrative region [71] and significantly lower than the one reported for Greek endemic plants [46]. This means that the conservation gap in Greece regarding bees is substantial and conservation actions are urgently needed if we are to halt the expected biodiversity declines in the Aegean. ...
... This means that the conservation gap in Greece regarding bees is substantial and conservation actions are urgently needed if we are to halt the expected biodiversity declines in the Aegean. Our results lend further weight to recent studies suggesting a critical reassessment of the established Greek protected areas network [46,71,72] and its potential expansion via the establishment of Key Biodiversity Areas or other effective area-based conservation measures [167,168], which are included in the post-2020 agenda [169]. The focus should thus be on the areas identified as bee diversity hotspots across time, which are not included in the Greek protected areas network since these areas might constitute climate refugia [39]-at least for the bees occurring in the Aegean archipelago. ...
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Pollinators’ climate change impact assessments focus mainly on mainland regions. Thus, we are unaware how island species might fare in a rapidly changing world. This is even more pressing in the Mediterranean Basin, a global biodiversity hotspot. In Greece, a regional pollinator hotspot, climate change research is in its infancy and the insect Wallacean shortfall still remains unaddressed. In a species distribution modelling framework, we used the most comprehensive occurrence database for bees in Greece to locate the bee species richness hotspots in the Aegean, and investigated whether these might shift in the future due to climate change and assessed the Natura 2000 protected areas network effectiveness. Range contractions are anticipated for most taxa, becoming more prominent over time. Species richness hotspots are currently located in the NE Aegean and in highly disturbed sites. They will shift both altitudinally and latitudinally in the future. A small proportion of these hotspots are currently included in the Natura 2000 protected areas network and this proportion is projected to decrease in the coming decades. There is likely an extinction debt present in the Aegean bee communities that could result to pollination network collapse. There is a substantial conservation gap in Greece regarding bees and a critical re-assessment of the established Greek protected areas network is needed, focusing on areas identified as bee diversity hotspots over time.
... None of the Cretan endemic Arthropods are listed in the annex of the HSD (driven by taxonomical, geographical and other biases -Cardoso 2012). Crete has by far the highest percentage of overlap between threatened species' ranges ( ora and fauna) and N2K in Greece (Spiliopoulou et al. 2021 In this study we aim to identify the cretan hotspots 1) of the endemic taxa and 2) of the threatened (by preliminary assessment) taxa, and examine 3) their overlap with the N2K areas and 4) their relation with the anthropogenic pressures/threats in these sites. To do so, we combined the accumulated knowledge from the last 200 years of PACA is an approximation of the IUCN assessment procedure based on Criterion B, i.e. on the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) and Area of Occupancy (AOO) and cannot be used as a replacement of a full IUCN assessment. ...
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Arthropods' decline has been documented in global and local studies, yet they are still not sufficiently protected on a global scale. Crete (Greece), a Mediterranean hotspot is a continental island, renowned for its diverse geology, ecosystems and endemicity of flora and fauna, with many studies on all of the above disciplines dating back to the 19th century. Here we investigate the conservation status of the Cretan Arthropods using Preliminary Automated Conservation Assessments (PACA) and the overlap of Cretan Arthropod distributions with the Natura 2000 protected areas. In order to perform this analysis, we assembled occurrences of the endemic Arthropods in Crete located in the collections of the Natural History Museum of Crete together with literature data. These assessments resulted in 75% of endemic Arthropods as potentially threatened. The hotspots of endemic and threatened taxa are distributed mostly on the mountainous areas where the Natura 2000 protected areas have great coverage. Yet human activities have significant impact even in those areas, while some taxa are not sufficiently covered by Natura 2000. These findings call for countermeasures and conservation actions.
... Nowadays, several places of Peloponnese that Sibthorp visited in 1795 are included in the European network Natura 2000-i.e., the cornerstone of European Union nature conservation policy-of designated sites (https://eunis.eea.europa.eu/sites, accessed on 18 October 2022) relevant for flora and habitat protection [63][64][65], e.g., mountainy landscapes such as Parnonas: GR2520006, Mainalo (Arcadia): GR2520001, and Taygetos: GR2550006, as well as Folois plateau: GR2330002 and Olympia: GR2330004. Other progression was also recorded; that is, information linked to the current distribution of the considered plants, confirmed via the Flora of Greece web, contributed to our knowledge about natural stands of wild plants. ...
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As the interest in natural, sustainable ecosystems arises in many fields, wild plant diversity is reconsidered. The present study is based on extant literature evidence from the journey of John Sibthorp (Professor of Botany, Oxford University) to Peloponnese (Greece) in pre-industrial time. In the year 1795, Peloponnese was a botanically unknown region, very dangerous for travellers and under civil unrest, in conjuncture with a pre-rebellion period. Our study reveals approximately 200 wild plant taxa that were collected from Peloponnese localities in 1795, transported to Oxford University (UK), and quoted in the magnificent edition Flora Graeca Sibthorpiana of the 19th century. Moreover, these plants currently constitute a living collection in Peloponnese, confirmed according to updated data on the vascular Flora of Greece. The presented lists constitute a source of information for plant biologists, linking the past to the present, shedding light on the study of adaptive traits of wild Mediterranean plants and revealing the temporal dimension of natural history. Nowadays, increasing and thorough understanding of the considered plants’ functionality to abiotic and biotic environmental stimuli provides a new framework of sustainability and management options.
... En outre, les réseaux de zones protégées ont historiquement été établis pour la conservation terrestre (Herbert et al. 2010 ;Leal et al. 2020). Dans l'UE, une grande partie de la biodiversité d'eau douce menacée n'est pas couverte de manière adéquate par la directive Natura 2000, avec seulement 14 % des poissons d'eau douce européens, 3 % des mollusques non marins et 19 % des libellules répertoriées comme menacées dans la liste rouge de l'UICN désignée dans le cadre de la directive Habitats (van Rees et al. 2021 ;Spiliopoulou et al. 2021). ...
Chapter
Les progrès récents des méthodes d’analyse en biologie, impliquant différentes disciplines, ouvrent un large panel d’études qui fait aujourd’hui de la biogéographie une approche intégrative de l’évolution du vivant. En tant que telle, la biogéographie va bien au-delà d’une simple description de la répartition des espèces vivantes sur Terre.La biogéographie est une discipline où écologistes et évolutionnistes cherchent à comprendre la manière dont les espèces vivantes s’organisent en relation avec leur environnement. Face aux défis majeurs tels que le réchauffement climatique, l’extinction massive d’espèces ou les pandémies, la biogéographie fournit les éléments indispensables à l’élaboration des solutions.La biogéographie présente un large aperçu des différents domaines de cette discipline. Les auteurs internationaux y développent différentes analyses sur la base de leurs connaissances et de leur expérience, illustrant les vastes domaines couverts par la biogéographie.
... In situ conservation measures: Expanding the protected area is an important key to lock the biodiversity loss and is one of the strategic plans of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11, to conserve biodiversity (Spiliopoulou et al., 2021;CBD, 2012). Special need-based conservation drive especially for the non-competitive species is a real concern that requires multiple strategies and action plan. ...
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Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773), also known as the harlequin ladybird, is an invasive alien species intentionally introduced to many countries as a biological control agent of agricultural pests. In Greece, H. axyridis was first introduced as a biological control agent in 1994, with releases taking place between 1994 and 2000. For many years there was no evidence to indicate that H. axyridis had established self-sustaining populations. Following introduction to Greece in 2008, a recording scheme was launched but unfortunately failed to yield results and was discontinued meanwhile several online platforms have become available. Our study examines records from iΝaturalist and other databases, such as Alientoma and social media demonstrating that H. axyridis has been established in Greece since 2010. The distribution, phenology and presence of H. axyridis in different habitat types and protected areas are investigated, using both citizen science data and literature records. H. axyridis is present in 13 administrative districts of Greece, most of them in considerable distance from the initial release sites, and mainly inhabits urban and agricultural habitats as well as 17 NATURA 2000 sites. The adverse socioeconomic and environmental impacts of H. axyridis are briefly discussed alongside suggestions for action. Based on our findings, we propose the establishment of a national monitoring scheme for H. axyridis and native ladybirds, encouraging public participation in recording ladybird observations that will provide information on the distribution, spread and impact of this invasive alien species.
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Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773), also known as the harlequin ladybird, is an invasive non-native species intentionally introduced to many countries as a biological control agent of agricultural pests. In Greece, H. axyridis was first introduced as a biological control agent in 1994, with releases taking place between 1994 and 2000. For many years there was no evidence to indicate that H. axyridis had established self-sustaining populations. In 2008, a citizen science campaign was initiated aimed at raising awareness regarding the invasive status of H. axyridis to farmers and agronomists. The campaign did not yield results, and it was discontinued in 2011. During this study, the distribution, phenology, and presence of H. axyridis in different habitat types and protected areas in Greece are investigated, using both citizen science data and literature records. Records from iΝaturalist, the Alientoma database and social media examined herein demonstrate that H. axyridis has been established in Greece since 2010. Harmonia axyridis is currently present in 13 administrative districts of Greece, most of them at a considerable distance from the initial release sites. The harlequin ladybird is present in urban and agricultural habitats as well as seventeen NATURA 2000 sites. The adverse socioeconomic and environmental impacts of H. axyridis are briefly discussed alongside suggestions for management activities. Based on our findings, we propose the establishment of a national monitoring scheme for H. axyridis and native ladybirds that will also encourage public participation in recording ladybird observations and provide information on the distribution, spread and impact of this invasive non-native species.
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Quantifying the capacity of protected area networks to shield multiple marine megafauna with diverse life histories is complicated, as many species are wide-ranging, requiring varied monitoring approaches. Yet, such information is needed to identify and assess the potential use of umbrella species and to plan how best to enhance conservation strategies. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of part of the European Natura 2000 protected area network (western Greece) for marine megafauna and whether loggerhead sea turtles are viable umbrella species in this coastal region. We systematically surveyed inside and outside coastal marine protected areas (MPAs) at a regional scale using aerial drones (18,505 animal records) and combined them with distribution data from published datasets (tracking, sightings, strandings) of sea turtles, elasmobranchs, cetaceans and pinnipeds. MPAs covered 56% of the surveyed coastline (~1500 km). There was just a 22% overlap in the distributions of the four groups from aerial drone and other datasets, demonstrating the value of combining different approaches to improve records of coastal area use for effective management. All four taxonomic groups were more likely to be detected inside coastal MPAs than outside, confirming sufficient habitat diversity despite varied life history traits. Coastal habitats frequented by loggerhead turtles during breeding/non-breeding periods combined overlapped with 76% of areas used by the other three groups, supporting their potential use as an umbrella species. In conclusion, this study showed that aerial drones can be readily combined with other monitoring approaches in coastal areas to enhance the management of marine megafauna in protected area networks and to identify the efficacy of umbrella species.
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Protected areas are a global cornerstone of biodiversity conservation and restoration. Yet freshwater biodiversity is continuing to decline rapidly. To date there has been no formal review of the effectiveness of protected areas for conserving or restoring biodiversity in rivers, lakes, and wetlands. We present the first assessment using a systematic review of the published scientific evidence of the effectiveness of freshwater protected areas. Systematic searches returned 2,586 separate publications, of which 44 provided quantitative evidence comprising 75 case studies. Of these, 38 reported positive, 25 neutral, and 12 negative outcomes for freshwater biodiversity conservation. Analysis revealed variable relationships between conservation effectiveness and factors such as taxa assessed, protected area size and characteristics, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) protected area category, and ecoregion. Lack of effectiveness was attributed to many anthropogenic factors, including fishing (often with a lack of law enforcement), water management (abstraction, dams, and flow regulation), habitat degradation, and invasive non‐native species. Drawing on the review and wider literature we distil eight lessons to enhance the effectiveness of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation. We urge policymakers, protected area managers, and those who fund them to invest in well‐designed research and monitoring programs and publication of evidence of protected area effectiveness.
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Protected areas (PAs) are a key tool in efforts to safeguard biodiversity against increasing anthropogenic threats. As signatories to the 2011–2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, 196 nations pledged support for expansion in the extent of the global PA estate and the quality of PA management. While this has resulted in substantial increases in PA designations, many sites lack the resources needed to guarantee effective biodiversity conservation. Using management reports from 2167 PAs (with an area representing 23% of the global terrestrial PA estate), we demonstrate that less than a quarter of these PAs report having adequate resources in terms of staffing and budget. Using data on the geographic ranges of the 11,919 terrestrial vertebrate species overlapping our sample of PAs, we estimate that only 4–9% of terrestrial amphibians, birds, and mammals are sufficiently represented within the existing global PA estate, when only adequately resourced PAs are considered. While continued expansion of the world's PAs is necessary, a shift in emphasis from quantity to quality is critical to effectively respond to the current biodiversity crisis.
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Protecting important sites is a key strategy for halting the loss of biodiversity. However, our understanding of the relationship between management inputs and biodiversity outcomes in protected areas (PAs) remains weak. Here, we examine biodiversity outcomes using species population trends in PAs derived from the Living Planet Database in relation to management data derived from the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) database for 217 population time-series from 73 PAs. We found a positive relationship between our METT-based scores for Capacity and Resources and changes in vertebrate abundance, consistent with the hypothesis that PAs require adequate resourcing to halt biodiversity loss. Additionally, PA age was negatively correlated with trends for the mammal subsets and PA size negatively correlated with population trends in the global subset. Our study highlights the paucity of appropriate data for rigorous testing of the role of management in maintaining species populations across multiple sites, and describes ways to improve our understanding of PA performance.
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The conservation of freshwater ecosystems has lagged behind that of marine and terrestrial ecosystems and often requires the integration of large-scale approaches and transboundary considerations. This study aims to set the foundations of a spatial conservation strategy by identifying the most important catchments for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity in Europe. 2.Using data on 1296 species of fish, mollusc, odonate and aquatic plant, and the Key Biodiversity Area criteria (species Red List status, range restriction, and uniqueness of species assemblages), we identified a network of Critical Catchments for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Applying spatial prioritisation, we show how the prioritised network differs from the ideal case of protecting all Critical Catchments and how it changes when protected areas are included, and we also identify gaps between the prioritised network and existing protected areas. 3.Critical Catchments (n = 8423) covered 45% of the area of Europe, with 766 qualifying (“trigger”) species located primarily in southern Europe. The prioritised network, limited to 17% of the area of Europe, comprised 3492 catchments mostly in southern and eastern Europe and species targets were met for at least 96% of the trigger species. 4.We found the majority of Critical Catchments to be inadequately covered by protected areas. However, our prioritised network presents a possible solution to augment protected areas to meet policy targets while also achieving good species coverage. 5.Policy implications. While Critical Catchments cover almost half of Europe, priority catchments are mostly in southern and eastern Europe where the current level of protection is not sufficient. This study presents a foundation for a Europe-wide systematic conservation plan to ensure the persistence of freshwater biodiversity. Our study provides a powerful new tool for optimising investment on the conservation of freshwater biodiversity and for meeting targets set forth in international biodiversity policies, conventions and strategies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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The threats of old are still the dominant drivers of current species loss, indicates an analysis of IUCN Red List data by Sean Maxwell and colleagues.
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The first international goal for establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to conserve the ocean's biodiversity was set in 2002. Since 2006, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has driven MPA establishment, with 193 parties committed to protecting >10% of marine environments globally by 2020, especially 'areas of particular importance for biodiversity' (Aichi target 11). This has resulted in nearly 10 million km 2 of new MPAs, a growth of ∼360% in a decade. Unlike on land, it is not known how well protected areas capture marine biodiversity, leaving a significant gap in our understanding of existing MPAs and future protection requirements. We assess the overlap of global MPAs with the ranges of 17,348 marine species (fishes, mammals, invertebrates), and find that 97.4% of species have <10% of their ranges represented in stricter conservation classes. Almost all (99.8%) of the very poorly represented species (<2% coverage) are found within exclusive economic zones, suggesting an important role for particular nations to better protect biodiversity. Our results offer strategic guidance on where MPAs should be placed to support the CBD's overall goal to avert biodiversity loss. Achieving this goal is imperative for nature and humanity, as people depend on biodiversity for important and valuable services.
Article
The Iberian Peninsula is a major European region of biodiversity, as it harbours more than 30% of European endemic species. Despite a number of studies having evaluated the ability of nature reserves to protect certain taxa, there is still a lack of knowledge on how Iberian endemic fauna are represented in these reserves. We detected biodiversity hotspots of Iberian endemicity and evaluated the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 network (N2000) in representing 249 endemic species from eight animal taxonomic groups (amphibians, mammals, freshwater fishes, reptiles, water beetles, butterflies, lacewings and dung beetles). We found that only the 10% of these Iberian endemic species are considered species of community interest (i.e. species included in the Annexes of the Habitats Directive). We conducted gap analyses and null models of representativeness in N2000. Generally, N2000 is effective in its representation of Iberian endemic fauna, although we detected species and few hotspots of endemism that were still not represented. It is necessary to declare a few new protected areas, thus enhancing N2000's effectiveness in the conservation of the Iberian endemic fauna. Although the aim of N2000 is to protect species listed in the Birds and Habitats Directives, the conservation status of endemic species from one of the most important areas of Europe in terms of biodiversity, could be also a concern for the European Union. Our results are useful in the context of the recent European Commission mandate calling for a ‘fitness check’ of the Birds and Habitats Directives. This approach could be also applicable to other regions with high value of endemicity.
Article
Protected areas (PAs) are a conservation mainstay and arguably the most effective conservation strategy for species protection. As a ‘megadiverse’ country, Peru is a priority for conservation actions. Peruvian legislation allows for the creation of state PAs and private/communal PAs. Using publicly available species distribution and protected area data sets we evaluated the coverage of Threatened terrestrial vertebrate species distributions and ecoregions provided by both kinds of PA in Peru. Peru's state PA system covers 217,879 km² and private/communal PAs cover 16,588 km². Of the 462 species of Threatened and Data Deficient species we evaluated, 75% had distributions that overlapped with at least one PA but only 53% had ≥10% of their distributions within PAs, with inclusion much reduced at higher coverage targets. Of the species we evaluated, 118 species are only found in national PAs and 29 species only found in private/communal PAs. Of the 17 terrestrial ecoregions found in Peru all are represented in PAs; the national PA system included coverage of 16 and private/communal PAs protect 13. One ecoregion is only protected in private/communal PAs, whereas four are only covered in national PAs. Our results show the important role private/communal PAs can play in the protection of ecological diversity.