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Analogiczne środowiska ekstremalne – stacje polarne a misje kosmiczne
Abstract
Analogiczne środowiska ekstremalne-stacje polarne a misje kosmiczne Wprowadzenie Charakterystyka i uwarunkowania adaptacji człowieka do ekstremalnych i nietypowych środowisk stanowi centrum zainteresowań znacznej liczby psychologów, a także osób odpowiedzialnych za planowanie i prowadzenie wypraw w takich warunkach. Istniej wiele pytań, na które badacze wciąż poszukują odpowiedzi, np.: Czy skrajne warunki środowiskowe oddziałują na wszystkie przebywające w nim osoby w jednakowy sposób? Jak weryfikować indywidualne predyspozycje sprzyjające do adaptacji do ekstremalnych śro-dowisk? Do jakiego stopnia można przygotować człowieka do wyzwań zwią-zanych ze skrajnymi warunkami? Poszukując odpowiedzi na powyższe i inne pytania, można dokonywać bezpośrednich badań adaptacji do konkretnego środowiska lub też można eksplorować tzw. środowiska analogiczne. 48 Adres so korespondencji: agnieszka.skorupa@us.edu.pl
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It is inevitable that individuals and groups will experience stress and distress in the harsh and extreme environment of deep space. When these occur, we now have a mission in jeopardy -- not due to hardware failure, but because a psychological breaking point has been reached. It will happen. The question is when. This paper seeks to identify signs of impending breakdowns and suggests strategies for a crew to minimize its impact when it does. This paper begins to create definitions and qualities of breaking points, define the impact on group dynamics, and identify post-breakdown recovery strategies that will be used as a foundation for predictive model development.
An evidence review was conducted to examine individual differences in adaptability for long duration missions. Deep space missions will expose astronauts to more intense stressors than previously encountered. Isolation will be greater and more prolonged, living and work areas more confined, and communications and resupply channels to earth longer and less reliable. These are compounded by prolonged exposure and greater distance from home and help. Astronauts on long duration missions also need to function more autonomously, with less guidance and support from earth. It is thus important to select and train future astronauts who can adapt and function effectively under extreme and variable conditions. It is well known that individuals differ in their ability to adapt, both physically and psychologically, to differing environments and changing conditions. This evidence review first provides a brief survey of the broad scientific literature on adaptability, focusing on the individual level. We next conduct a systematic review of the literature on cognitive and behavioral adaptability in ICE (Isolated, Confined, Extreme) environments. Finally, nine Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) with operational experience in spaceflight or analog ICE environments were interviewed in order to gain additional insights on factors associated with individual adaptability. Results identify personal attributes associated with adaptability, as well as contextual and organizational factors that can influence individual adaptability. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations for selection, training, and support of astronauts for long duration space missions. Recommendations for needed research are also provided.
This investigation assessed an international two-woman team engaged in a 97-day traverse of Antarctica. Measures consisted of preexpedition personality assessments; expedition weekly ratings of individual and team status and work performance; postexpedition semistructured interview. Both participants scored relatively highest on the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) Absorption scale, the Personality Characteristics Inventory (PCI) Work and Positive Expressivity scales and lowest on the PCI Verbal Aggressiveness scale. One member reported sensed presence experiences, which served as an important motivating factor when fatigued or disappointed about daily progress. Enjoyment and awe of the environment were significant aspects of the daily trek and sources of psychological strength. Advantages of the co-equal dyad were evident in the cooperative nature of decision making and substantial similarities in approach to solving problems. Differences from the usual military command structure in decision-making processes and implications for planetary expeditions are discussed.
The spaceflight environment is characterized by temperature extremes, microgravity, solar and galactic cosmic radiation, lack of atmospheric pressure, and high-speed micrometeorites. While these factors induce a host of physiological , biomedical, and environmental stressors to flight crews, long duration spaceflight has revealed an additional group of stressors that impact crew performance and health. This paper will provide members of the medical community with a basic understanding of human-related stressors in the spaceflight environment, the effects of these stressors, and the role that the behavioral sciences (e.g., psychology, human factors, sociology, habitability) play in supporting crew health in space. Some of the current tools and methodologies used by behavioral scientists for countering spaceflight stressors and promoting crew health, productivity, and mission success will also be discussed.
The seasonal variations of psychological reactions in isolated and confined environments have been studied and theorized in terms of the third-quarter phenomenon; the third quarter of the isolation period is the moment when the most discomfort is reported by the winterers. Referring to Rivolier's comparative study, this article examines the manifestations of the third-quarter phenomenon by analyzing the data collected with an observation grid completed by the mission's doctor. The stress reactions of 27 winterers are observed during a 50-week period. The results show that the third-quarter phenomenon does not appear after the middle of the stay but more precisely after the middle of the isolation period. Changes in moods and personal reactions are reported but also in social and physical reactions. The results are discussed in terms of externalization of stress reactions and the influence of the data collection method emphasized.
This paper presents a review of personality research conducted by investigators at The University of Texas at Austin and the University of Bergen. Over the past several years, personality data have been collected on active duty NASA astronauts (N=66), final stage astronaut applicants (N=259), Australian Antarctic station personnel (N=111) and Norwegian polar scientists (N=34). Analyses of the astronaut data have demonstrated that astronauts and astronaut applicants possess atypical personality profiles characterized by positive affect, low neuroticism and high levels of conscientiousness and achievement motivation. Analyses of the Antarctic personnel data have suggested a cross culturally consistent profile of low interpersonal negativity and low neuroticism. These two populations differ primarily on measures of achievement motivation, with astronauts scoring higher than both the Antarctic personnel and a comparative student population on scales assessing those traits. Implications for the generalization of research findings from space analogue environments are discussed.
This paper reviews literature on psychosocial adaptation in isolated and confined extreme (ICE) environments, focusing on
polar work groups and expedition teams, and simulation and actual space crews. Long-duration missions may involve chronic
exposure to many stressors that can negatively impact behavioral health, performance and even safety. In the last decades,
anecdotal evidence has been replaced by scientific studies, identifying temporal, social, and individual determinants of psychosocial
adaptation, and pointing to countermeasures that may minimize or prevent potential problems. Still, many issues remain that
require additional investigation, specifically in relation to the integration of psychosocial and neurobiological adaptation.
A recognition of ICE environments as natural laboratories for studies of fundamental questions within psychology may attract
more scientists to the field.
Absorption scores were found to increase significantly for Ss exposed to brief summer Antarctic isolation. Contrary to wintering-over research, no significant increases in hypnotic susceptibility were found.
To determine which, if any, characteristics should be incorporated into a select-in approach to screening personnel for long-duration spaceflight, we examined the influence of crewmember social/ demographic characteristics, personality traits, interpersonal needs, and characteristics of station physical environments on performance measures in 657 American men who spent an austral winter in Antarctica between 1963 and 1974.
During screening, subjects completed a Personal History Questionnaire which obtained information on social and demographic characteristics, the Deep Freeze Opinion Survey which assessed 5 different personality traits, and the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) Scale which measured 6 dimensions of interpersonal needs. Station environment included measures of crew size and severity of physical environment. Performance was assessed on the basis of combined peer-supervisor evaluations of overall performance, peer nominations of fellow crew-members who made ideal winter-over candidates, and self-reported depressive symptoms.
Social/demographic characteristics, personality traits, interpersonal needs, and characteristics of station environments collectively accounted for 9-17% of the variance in performance measures. The following characteristics were significant independent predictors of more than one performance measure: military service, low levels of neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness, and a low desire for affection from others.
These results represent an important first step in the development of select-in criteria for personnel on long-duration missions in space and other extreme environments. These criteria must take into consideration the characteristics of the environment and the limitations they place on meeting needs for interpersonal relations and task performance, as well as the characteristics of the individuals and groups who live and work in these environments.
To gain knowledge about psychological issues in space, data have been collected from groups in isolated and confined settings on Earth. This study examines the possibility of generalizing psychological findings across such environments.
Psychological reactions among personnel in different Antarctic environments show similar time patterns. Antarctic personnel differ in personality from submariners to crews confined in hyperbaric chambers to military recruits.
Psychological reactions were evaluated by the Revised Antarctic Questionnaire. The Personality Characteristic Inventory was used to measure personality.
Personnel stationed on a ship (n = 19) showed high coping during the whole mission, whereas personnel on land bases (n = 18) showed a marked decline around the third quarter. Reduced coping in the land-based groups was associated with stress from interpersonal relationships. Compared with submariners (n = 54) and hyperbaric chamber crews (n = 20), Antarctic personnel scored lower on competitiveness and higher on achievement striving.
Similarities in physical, individual and group characteristics should be considered before extrapolating psychological findings across settings.
Analyses of data collected in Antarctica since 1963 were conducted to identify features of behavior and performance likely to occur during long-duration missions in space.
The influence of mission duration and station latitude on POMS mood scores was examined in 450 American men and women who wintered-over in Antarctica between 1991 and 1998. The influence of crewmember social characteristics, personality traits, interpersonal needs, and station environments on measures of behavior and performance at the end of the austral winter was examined in 657 American men who wintered-over between 1963 and 1974. Both data sets were used to examine the influence of crew social structure on individual performance.
Seasonal variations in mood appear to be associated with the altered diurnal cycle and psychological segmentation of the mission. Concurrent measures of personality, interpersonal needs, and coping styles are better predictors of depressed mood and peer-supervisor performance evaluations than baseline measures because of the unique features of the station social and physical environments and the absence of resources typically used to cope with stress elsewhere. Individuals in crews with a clique structure report significantly more depression, anxiety, anger, fatigue and confusion than individuals in crews with a core-periphery structure. Depressed mood is inversely associated with severity of station physical environment, supporting the existence of a positive or "salutogenic" effect for individuals seeking challenging experiences in extreme environments.
Behavior and performance on long-duration spaceflights is likely to be seasonal or cyclical, situational, social, and salutogenic.
Humans who work in Antarctica display deficits in cognition, disturbances in mood, increased energy requirements, a decline of thyroid hormone products, and an increase of serum TSH. We compared measurements in 12 subjects, before deployment (baseline), with 11 monthly studies during Antarctic residence (AR). After 4 months of AR (period 1), half of the subjects (T(4) group) received L-thyroxine [64 nmol.day(-)(1) (0.05 mg.day(-)(1))]; and the other half, a placebo (placebo group) for the next 7 months of AR (period 2). During period 1, there was a 12.3 +/- 5.1% (P < 0.03) decline on the matching-to-sample (M-t-S) cognitive task and an increase in depressive symptoms, compared with baseline. During the intervention in period 2, M-t-S scores for the T(4)-treated group returned to baseline values; whereas the placebo group, in contrast, showed a reduced M-t-S score (11.2 +/- 1.3%; P < 0.0003) and serum free T(4) (5.9 +/- 2.4%; P < 0.02), compared with baseline. The change in M-t-S score was correlated with the change in free T(4) (P < 0.0003) during both periods, and increases in serum TSH preceded worsening scores in depression, tension, anger, lack of vigor, and total mood disturbance (P < 0.001) during period 2. Additionally, the submaximal work rate for a fixed O(2) use decreased 22.5 +/- 4.9% in period 1 and remained below baseline in period 2 (25.2 +/- 2.3%; P < 0.005) for both groups. After 4 months of AR, the L-thyroxine supplement was associated with improved cognition, which seems related to circulating T(4). Submaximal exercise performance decrements, observed during AR, were not changed with this L-thyroxine dose.
This study examined the range of positive and negative themes reported by 104 Australian Antarctic winter personnel at four stations during two austral winters. Reports from the expeditioners were subjected to a content analysis using the TextSmart software from SPSS, Inc. Results indicated that, although the list of negative experiences is lengthy, most events are relatively rare. On the other hand, although the list of positive experiences is short, the frequencies with which they are reported are much greater than for most of the problems. Possible explanations for these themes and for future directions are discussed.
Psychosocial adaptation to isolated and confined environments exhibits 4 distinct characteristics. First, it is seasonal: Variations in mood are associated with the altered diurnal cycle and psychological segmentation of the mission. Second, it is situational: Concurrent measures of personality, interpersonal needs, and coping styles are better predictors of mood and performance than are predeployment measures. Third, it is social: Members of expeditions with low social coherence report significantly more depression, anxiety, and anger than individuals belonging to expeditions with high social coherence. Fourth, it is salutogenic: Depressed mood is inversely associated with the severity of the physical environment of the station, and the winter-over experience is associated with reduced subsequent rates of hospital admissions, suggesting positive benefits for individuals seeking challenging experiences.
This paper presents personality testing data from final stage applicants to the NASA astronaut program. Questions addressed include whether personality predicted final selection into the astronaut corps, whether women and men demonstrated typical gender differences in personality, and whether three characteristic clusters found in other high performance populations replicated in this group.
Between 1989 and 1995, 259 final stage astronauts completed the Personal Characteristic Inventory (PCI) which assesses personality characteristics related to the broad traits of Instrumentality and Expressivity. In addition, 147 of these individuals also completed an abbreviated version of the NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) which assesses the "Big Five" traits of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, And Conscientiousness.
Three previously identified trait clusters (Right, Wrong, and No Stuff) were found to replicate in this population. No differences were found on the PCI or on the modified NEO-FFI between applicants who were chosen to become astronauts (n = 63) and those who were not (n = 196). Men scored higher than women on competitiveness, but lower on expressivity and achievement strivings.
These analyses suggest that the "Right Stuff," "Wrong Stuff" and "No Stuff" clusters originally described in airline pilots and other high performance groups also exist within this population. Consistent with findings from other high performance populations, men and women tend to differ to a lesser extent than found in the general population, particularly on traits related to achievement motivation. Personality trait testing did not predict which applicants were most likely to be accepted into the astronaut corps.
The effects of repeated exposure to cold temperature on cognitive performance were examined in 10 male subjects who were exposed to control (25 degrees C) and cold (10 degrees C) conditions on 10 successive days. A cognitive test battery (ANAM-ICE) was administered each day to assess complex and simple cognitive functioning accuracy, efficiency and response time. Rectal (T(rect)) and skin temperatures, thermal sensations, metabolic rate (M) and cardiovascular reactivity were also recorded. With the used cold exposure, inducing cold sensations and discomfort, superficial skin cooling (6-7 degrees C) and a slightly lowered T(rect) (0.4 degrees C) we observed three distinct patterns of cognitive performance: 1) negative, reflected in increased response times and decreased accuracy and efficiency; 2) positive, reflected in decreased response time and increased efficiency; and 3) mixed, reflected in a pattern of increases in both accuracy and response time and decreases in efficiency, and a pattern of decreases in both accuracy and response time. T(rect), thermal sensations, diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) were independent predictors of decreased accuracy, but also decreased response time. Cognitive performance efficiency was significantly improved and response times shorter over the 10-d period both under control and cold exposures suggesting a learning effect. However, the changes in cognitive performance over the 10-d period did not differ markedly between control and cold, indicating that the changes in the thermal responses did not improve performance. The results suggest that cold affects cognitive performance negatively through the mechanisms of distraction and both positively and negatively through the mechanism of arousal.
Anecdotes from astronauts and cosmonauts suggest that spaceflight can be an enriching experience with enduring positive effects. These positive mental health effects may help protect flight crews from the psychological stress inherent in such high-risk missions. The goal of this study was to identify areas of personal growth likely to result from traveling in space and explore how they were patterned.
We developed a Positive Effects of Being in Space (PEBS) Questionnaire, which included a section adapted from the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) as well as original items addressing experiences unique to spaceflight. We sent the anonymous questionnaire to 175 astronauts and cosmonauts who had flown on at least 1 mission; completed surveys were returned by 39 individuals.
Every respondent had a positive reaction to being in space, the strongest of which related to the Earth's beauty and fragility. Respondents reported changes in both attitudes and behaviors. Respondents appeared to cluster into two groups based on the intensity of their reported changes. Response patterns did not vary by demographic group, number of missions flown, or total elapsed time in space.
Overall, our findings support the idea that being in space is a meaningful experience that makes an enduring positive impression on astronauts and cosmonauts. An enhanced understanding of the salutogenic effects of space travel will contribute to the education, training, and support of future space crewmembers.
Polar expeditions include treks and stays at summer camps or year-round research stations. People on such expeditions generally undergo psychological changes resulting from exposure to long periods of isolation and confinement, and the extreme physical environment. Symptoms include disturbed sleep, impaired cognitive ability, negative affect, and interpersonal tension and conflict. Seasonal occurrence of these symptoms suggests the existence of three overlapping syndromes: the winter-over syndrome, the polar T3 syndrome, and subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. About 5% of people on expeditions meet DSM-IV or ICD criteria for psychiatric disorders. However, they also experience positive or so-called salutogenic outcomes resulting from successfully coping with stress and enhanced self-sufficiency, improved health, and personal growth. Prevention of pathogenic psychological outcomes is best accomplished by psychological and psychiatric screening procedures to select out unsuitable candidates, and by providing access to psychological support, including telephone counselling. Promotion of salutogenic experiences is best accomplished by screening for suitable personality traits, and training participants in individual coping strategies, group interaction, and team leadership.
Antarctic stations have for decades been used as research analogues of spacecraft, especially space stations such as Skylab, Mir, and the International Space Station. It is time to review this practice. True, the two environments generally share isolation, confinement, novelty, discomfort, danger, and remoteness. Assuming them to be analogues is attractive to both researchers and space agencies as an economy measure: research in space is expensive, complicated, and limited in research time, facilities, and subjects. Although research in Antarctica has some of the same problems, they are much less severe there; significant savings in effort, time, and money are possible. But analogues should not merely look similar, they should have similar effects. Is this true of Antarctica and space? Data from multi-year studies conducted in the two environments should compare both the stressful and adverse and healthful, positive effects of the two environments on human psychology in order to evaluate this question.
Topics discussed in this book include: adaptation of sensory-motor, cardio-vascular, bone and muscle systems to the microgravity of spaceflight; psychological and sociological issues of living in a confined, isolated and stressful environment; operational space medicine, such as crew selection, training and in-flight health monitoring, countermeasures and support; results of space biology experiments on individual cells, plants, and animal models; and the impact of long-duration missions such as the human mission to Mars. The author also provides a detailed description of how to fly a space experiment, based on his own experience with research projects conducted onboard Salyut-7, Mir, Spacelab, and the Space Shuttle.
When one reads Mutiny on the Bounty (Nordhoff & Hall, 1932), one develops the concept that Captain Bligh was a sadistic tyrant and that Fletcher Christian was a noble defender of the rights of the downtrodden English seaman. Henry Cooper’s A House in Space (Cooper, 1978) would lead the reader to believe that the crew of Skylab 4 was a mutinous lot and that this unastronaut — like behavior was, in some ways, a result of living in the mysterious environment of outer space. The fictional representation of life aboard the Bounty has been reinforced so strongly by several cinematic versions of this exciting bit of history that fiction has gradually replaced fact. Tom Wolfe’s The Right Stuff (Wolfe, 1979) and the motion picture version have also implanted a totally erroneous, but widely believed concept of test pilots and of astronauts in the public mind, and, I am sad to say, in the minds of many professionals. Almost forgotten is the detailed account of the Bounty’s voyage that Bligh wrote upon his return to England (Bligh, 1961). More overlooked than forgotten are the objective reports of many astronauts that tell their own versions of their experiences.
The Antarctic context is an analogue of Space travel, with close similarity in ambience of extreme climate, isolation, constrained living spaces, disrupted sleep cycles, and environmental stress. The present study examined the impact of the harsh habitat of Antarctica on human physiology and its metabolic pathways, by analysing human serum samples, using (1)H-NMR spectroscopy for identification of metabolites; and quantifying other physiological and clinical parameters for correlation between expression data and metabolite data. Sera from seven adult males (of median age 36years) who participated in this study, from the 28th Indian Expeditionary group to the Antarctica station Maitri, were collected in chronological sequence. These included: i) baseline control; ii) during ship journey; iii) at Antarctica, in the months of March, May, August and November; to enable study of temporal evolution of monitored physiological states. 29 metabolites in serum were identified from the 400MHz (1)H-NMR spectra. Out of these, 19 metabolites showed significant variations in levels, during the ship journey and the stay at Maitri, compared to the base-line levels. Further biochemical analysis also supported these results, indicating that the ship journey, and the long-term Antarctic exposure, affected kidney and liver functioning. Our metabolite data highlights for the first time the effect of environmental stress on the patho-physiology of the human system. Multivariate analysis tools were employed for this metabonomics study, using (1)H-NMR spectroscopy.
Erikson (1959) proposed a theoretical basis for healthy psychosocial development. His theory posits eight critical conflict situations throughout one's lifetime, each of which can result in a favorable or unfavorable resolution. Autobiographies, memoirs, interviews, personal diaries, and oral histories of 97 international astronauts were content analyzed to assess reported resolutions of Erikson's psychosocial crises, regardless of chronological sequence. We made comparisons across flight phases (before, during, and after), gender, nationality of home space agency, and flight duration. Astronauts reported more favorable than unfavorable outcomes across flight phases and demographic variables. Differences across demographic variables and flight phases, as well as the changes as a result of the flight are discussed.
Mental and physical health are both at risk under conditions of prolonged remoteness from home and removal from normal social support networks. This article examines relevant data from small groups isolated in (a) Antarctic summer stations, (b) a Transantarctic traverse expedition, and (c) a spacecraft simulator capsule.
The relationship between group adaptation and individual adjustment has been the focus of recent research on the long-term effects of prolonged isolation in the Antarctic. A series of studies conducted at the Naval Health Research Center examined the health and service records of enlisted Navy personnel who applied to the Operation Deep Freeze Program between 1963 and 1974. The objective of these studies was to determine if follow-up incidence rates and performance criteria were significantly different between a group of winter-over personnel and a control group of enlisted personnel who were screened and qualified for winter-over duty but assigned elsewhere. Results indicated that the overall incidence rate for the winter-over group was significantly lower than the rate for the control group. An increase in total disease incidence was observed among the winter-over group within a year of their return from the Antarctic, but this increase failed to attain statistical significance relative to the rate of the control group. In addition, individuals with high needs for achievement and control over others were found to be at reduced risk for long-term disease incidence. These results are examined in light of personality traits which facilitate adjustment to stressful life events and the sociocultural systems of Antarctic stations which support and promote values enabling personnel to adapt to prolonged isolation.
This influence of prolongea isolation in an extreme environment on depressive symptoms, personality, and coping resources was examined in 121 members of the United States Antarctic Program in 1988–1989. Subjects were followed for a 1-year period in Antarctica. Winter-over personnel experienced an increase in depressive symptoms, avoidance as a coping method, and emotional discharge as a coping resource from baseline (T0) to Year-1 (T1). At T0, education, negative life events, job-related stress, low self-confidence, active cognitive and behavioral coping methods, and low satisfaction with social support were independent predictors of depressive symptoms. At T1, negative life events, low self-confidence, active behavioral and avoidance coping methods, affective regulation as a coping resource, and low satisfaction with social support were independent predictors of depressive symptoms. However, with the exception of T0 depressive symptoms, none of the social and demographic characteristics and T0 psychosocial measures predicted T1 depressive symptoms. The results of this study support the hypothesis that coping may be more strongly associated with environmental conditions that influence severity of stressor and availability of coping resources than with more remote and stable background factors.
Individuals who adapt positively to an inhospitable or extreme environment can derive benefit from their experiences. This positive effect may include an initial improvement in mental health as someone adjusts to the environment (adaptation) as well as more sustained personal growth during the mission (salutogenesis). We review relevant findings from our prior work, including two post-mission surveys of astronauts and cosmonauts, and three studies of crewmembers during missions in a space station simulator, the Mir space station, and the International Space Station (ISS). We also present new analyses showing evidence for adaptation to ISS missions. This finding replicates our previous results from the simulation study, but this effect was not found on the Mir. A better understanding of psychological adaptation and salutogenesis during space flight should help us develop strategies to enhance crewmembers’ in-flight stress tolerance and post-flight adjustment.
Based on anecdotal reports from astronauts and cosmonauts, studies of space analog environments on Earth, and our previous research on the Mir Space Station, a number of psychosocial issues have been identified that can lead to problems during long-duration space expeditions. Several of these issues were studied during a series of missions to the International Space Station. Using a mood and group climate questionnaire that was completed weekly by crewmembers in space and personnel in mission control, we found no evidence to support the presence of predicted decrements in well-being during the second half or in any specific quarter of the missions. The results did support the predicted displacement of negative feelings to outside supervisors among both crew and ground subjects. There were several significant differences in mood and group perceptions between Americans and Russians and between crewmembers and mission control personnel. Crewmembers related cohesion to the support role of their leader, and mission control personnel related cohesion to both the task and support roles of their leader. These findings are discussed with reference to future space missions.
The personality and coping pattern characteristics of a successful North Pole Expedition team consisting of seven men and one woman were studied through psychometric inventories, mood scale ratings completed while on the trek to the North Pole, and for some a post-expedition personal interview. Good psychological adjustment was demonstrated by low stress reactivity, anxiety, and depression, and relatively high scores on scales measuring achievement orientation, selfcontrol, and feelings of well-being. There was little evidence of sensation-seeking or risk-taking tendencies. Planful problem solving and positive reappraisal were the major coping patterns engaged in on the expedition. Effective social support in this highly task oriented group did not seem to involve a great deal of sharing of personal feelings. The adaptive nature of the groups' personality and coping characteristics for completing a successful expedition was discussed.
The question of whether the concept of adaptation remains useful in medical anthropology is examined in the context of the human experience in Antarctica. This experience is characterized by prolonged isolation, confinement, and exposure to extreme environmental conditions. Men and women who winter-over at scientific research stations often exhibit a complex of psychophysiological symptoms in response to these stressors. However, this experience also appears to provide long-term health benefits. It is argued that the psychological symptoms are themselves part of the process of coping and do not necessarily represent an inability to adapt to the extreme environment. Coping is viewed as a process of negotiation leading to a compromise between individual and group needs. The cultural systems of Antarctic research stations are both a product of this negotiation and a set of normative and pragmatic rules regulating this process. Further, this process fosters the acquisition of new strategies or resources for coping with subsequent stressful experiences.
The Polar Psychology Project brings together three organizations from Canada and Argentina to study human adaptation to the boreal and austral circumpolar environments. It will involve both specially formed research groups and wide-scale administration of a standard test battery, and will apply recent theoretical, methodological and technical developments in the study of personality, social interaction and psychophysiology to the study of polar adaptation. Colleagues from other groups and nations are invited to participate in the Project.
Many aspects of Shuttle missions may have significant impact on the normal sleeping patterns of crewmembers. Using a standard debriefing form, 58 crewmembers from 9 Shuttle flights (6 single-shift flights, and 3 dual-shift flights) were debriefed within 3 d postflight. Specific questions on the form relating to sleep quality and quantity, fatigue, and sleep medication usage during all flight phases were analyzed. Of crewmembers on dual-shift missions 50% (11 of 22) used sleep medications at least once inflight compared to 19.4% (7 of 36) of single-shift. The biggest impact on normal sleep patterns occurred during the first and last days of a mission, with averages of 5.7 h and 5.6 h, respectively. These results suggest that sleep disruption is a common occurrence on Shuttle missions. Further studies are suggested to develop strategies for coping with this potential problem.
Volunteers' body core temperatures were lowered by immersion in water at 15 degrees C. Aspects of cognitive function were subsequently tested after rewarming had been started in water at 41 degrees C when their skin was warm and they felt comfortable but their body core temperature remained low. Memory registration was found to be impaired progressively when core temperature fell from about 36.7 degrees C; at core temperatures of 34-35 degrees C the impairment caused loss of approximately 70% of data that could normally be retained. However, recall of previously learned data was not impaired at these core temperatures. On a two-digit calculation test, speed of performance was impaired by about 50% at a core temperature of 34-35 degrees C, but provided enough time was available, accuracy of performance was not reduced.
We measured nonspecific (attention, mental flexibility, psychomotor speed) and visuospatial cognitive processing in a single case study during a 6-d visit on the Russian orbital complex MIR, using computer-based psychometric tasks. Reaction times and accuracy scores showed only minor, nonsignificant changes between preflight, flight, and postflight assessments. These results suggest that several behavioral functions, among them complex visuospatial processing skills, remain essentially intact on short space visits, provided that the performing subject experiences no symptoms of space motion sickness or other physical impairments. Computerized psychometric tasks are a sensitive and flexible tool to measure behavioral functions in space life sciences.
While depressed mood, insomnia, irritability and impaired cognition represent common responses to the physical and psychosocial stressors associated with polar environments, wide variations exist in their expression and the degree to which they adversely affect the health and performance of polar expeditioners. In particular, the process of successful adaptation to polar environments and the psychosocial characteristics associated with this process remains poorly understood.
Psychosocial characteristics associated with successful coping with typical stressors are also associated with successful adaptation in polar environments.
The 4 men and 3 women participating in a 3-week scientific expedition in the Canadian High Arctic completed a battery of psychological questionnaires, including the Profile of Mood States (POMS), prior to their departure to Isachsen, N.W.T. In Isachsen, subjects completed the POMS and the Structured Interview Guide for the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale--Seasonal Affective Disorders Version (SIGH-SAD) each week.
Good psychological adjustment was demonstrated by a significant decline in POMS factor scores for tension-anxiety (p = 0.005), fatigue (p < 0.0001), and confusion (p = 0.024) from baseline to Week 3, and a significant decline in SIGH-SAD depressive symptoms (p < 0.0001) during Weeks 1-3. This is attributed to high levels of paratelic dominance and low levels of neuroticism, and use of planful problem-solving as a coping strategy more frequently than other coping strategies.
Improved psychological functioning among polar expeditioners reflects a combination of psychosocial characteristics that facilitate successful adaptation to any stressful experience, as well as characteristics specifically adaptive for living in polar environments.
Psychological data from environments that are considered as analog to space was collected from 68 subjects; 18 in hyperbaric chambers, 16 in polar expeditions, and 34 on Arctic stations. The objective was to identify psychological reactions expected in different phases of spaceflights and examine personality variables associated with superior adaptation.
Helmreich Personality Characteristic Inventory was administered before the isolation. Adaptation to the environment was assessed through a questionnaire once a week.
Crews in hyperbaric chambers indicated a steady increase in coping over the isolation. Polar expeditions members reported high aggressiveness and anxiety in the first quarter and an increase in homesickness over time. A personality characterized by strong expressiveness and instrumentality ("the right stuff") predicted superior adaptation in hyperbaric chambers.
The data suggest that isolation in hyperbaric chambers and polar expeditions should be considered as models for different aspects of the space environment.
The seasonality of depressed mood was examined in 70 men and women who spent the 1991 austral winter at three American research stations in Antarctica. Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire global seasonality scores increased significantly from late summer (February/March) to midwinter (July/August; p < .001). Only one case of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) was found during midwinter, but the prevalence of subsyndromal SAD increased significantly, from 10.5 to 28.4 per 100, during this period. Station latitude was significantly associated with SAD-specific symptoms and global Structured Interview Guide for the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-Seasonal Affective Disorders Version scores in midwinter and in early spring (October). The results suggest that even clinically normal individuals are likely to experience symptoms of subsyndromal SAD in high latitude environments, that these variations become more pronounced with increasing latitude, and that they can be detected through repeated administrations of instruments such as the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire and Structured Interview Guide for the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-Seasonal Affective Disorders Version.
During the last years several attempts have been made to describe changes in the mental efficiency of astronauts during space missions by means of performance monitoring studies. These studies are characterized by repeated multivariate assessment of different functions of the human information-processing system. In the present paper, a first review of performance monitoring studies during short-term and long-term spaceflight is given. Despite the comparatively small number of studies, a fairly consistent pattern of effects can be derived: Whereas no or only slight impairments of elementary and complex cognitive functions or spatial processing were found in space, clear disturbances could be identified in visuo-motor tracking and dual-task performance. Both of these latter effects appear to be closely related to adaptation to altered gravity conditions. General issues of this strategy of research are discussed which concern the disentanglement of microgravity-related effects and unspecific stress effects on mental performance under conditions of spaceflight. In addition, possible mechanisms which may be responsible for tracking disturbances under microgravity are discussed, and some directions for future human performance research in space are outlined.
The role of non-visual cues, and particularly of signals tied to the direction of gravity, in the mechanisms of recognition of disoriented objects is reviewed. In spite of a limited number of studies, object recognition does not seem dramatically altered by weightlessness and astronauts can adapt to this novel environment. Particularly, mental rotation strategy can still be used in weightlessness with dynamic parameters relatively unchanged. Similarly, spatial coordinate assignment can be performed adequately under different gravitational conditions. However, signals related to gravity direction seem to be integrated in the early stages of visual processing. Thus, performances in symmetry detection tasks and visual search tasks are influenced by the gravito-inertial conditions in which experience are done. Functional roles of such a multisensory convergence on cortical visual neurons, partly confirmed by neurophysiological studies, are proposed.
Mental performance of astronauts during spaceflight may suffer from both direct effects of microgravity on perceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor processes, and unspecific stress effects on these functions due to high workload sleep disturbances, or the general burden of adapting to the extreme living conditions in space. Early detection of any signs of mental performance impairments seems to be essential for mission success and to prevent obvious performance decrements in critical mission tasks. One possible approach to this problem is to assess the astronaut's performance on specific screening tests repeatedly during a space mission and to compare the results with a self-referenced baseline established pre-flight. The selection of screening tests for this purpose should be guided by three different criteria: 1) their reliability; 2) their sensitivity (i.e., their power to reveal subtle mental performance changes induced by internal or external stressors during spaceflight); and 3) their diagnosticity (i.e., their capability to reveal the underlying processes that lead to these performance deficits). Based on a discussion of these theoretical issues, first attempts to monitor mental performance of astronauts during spaceflight by means of short-term laboratory tasks are reviewed. The results of these studies suggest that, in particular, perceptual-motor tasks (tracking) and tasks placing comparatively high demands on attentional processes (e.g., dual-tasks) represent sensitive monitoring measures. First studies on the diagnositicity of tracking performance decrements during spaceflight suggest that they reflect both microgravity-related changes in the sensory-motor system as well as unspecific stress-effects, with the former factor reflected primarily in tracking performance decrements during early adaptation to the microgravity environment.
The authors studied the psychological variables of 25 men who participated in the winter-over team of an Indian expedition to Antarctica for possible associations with seasonality and isolation. It was found that increased cigarette smoking was associated with the stress of the beginning of isolation (March), sleep difficulty was associated with midwinter (June), rapport was at a minimum at the point of maximum isolation in temporal terms (September), and decreased satisfaction with work and life situations was associated with continued isolation (December, January). The study suggested that variables postulated to affect performance undergo changes during the course of wintering over in Antarctica.
Vigilance, attention, memory, and motivation are essential to adapting to the physiological changes that occur with prolonged exposure to the cold and to avoiding both the environmental hazards associated with cold and the health-related consequences of these hazards. This paper summarizes the effects of cold temperatures on cognitive performance and mood. Although the effects of hypothermic-induced cold temperatures on cognitive performance and mood have been well documented, evidence of nonhypothermic effects has been inconsistent. There is evidence of a dose-response relation involving decrements in cognitive performance with respect to decline in core body temperature and complexity of tasks performed. However, it is unclear whether these effects are due to distraction or increased arousal. Likewise, further research is required to test the efficacy of existing and proposed pharmacologic and nutritional countermeasures.
It has been shown that pointing movements are slowed during microgravity, however there is a paucity of corresponding data for other movement types.
In our study, subjects pointed at visual targets without seeing their hand, and tracked targets moving around a circular path with and without hand vision, with and without a secondary reaction-time task.
Pointing responses were slowed distinctly in microgravity, but the speed of tracking movements was not affected. The secondary task had comparable effects on tracking performance in space and on Earth.
Response slowing in space is not due to an increased dependence on visual feedback, since it persists without hand vision. Differential effects of microgravity on pointing and tracking could be due to subjects' strategic decisions.
Maintaining optimal alertness and neurobehavioral functioning during space operations is critical to enable the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) vision "to extend humanity's reach to the Moon, Mars and beyond" to become a reality. Field data have demonstrated that sleep times and performance of crewmembers can be compromised by extended duty days, irregular work schedules, high workload, and varying environmental factors. This paper documents evidence of significant sleep loss and disruption of circadian rhythms in astronauts and associated performance decrements during several space missions, which demonstrates the need to develop effective countermeasures. Both sleep and circadian disruptions have been identified in the Behavioral Health and Performance (BH&P) area and the Advanced Human Support Technology (AHST) area of NASA's Bioastronautics Critical Path Roadmap. Such disruptions could have serious consequences on the effectiveness, health, and safety of astronaut crews, thus reducing the safety margin and increasing the chances of an accident or incident. These decrements oftentimes can be difficult to detect and counter effectively in restrictive operational environments. NASA is focusing research on the development of optimal sleep/wake schedules and countermeasure timing and application to help mitigate the cumulative effects of sleep and circadian disruption and enhance operational performance. Investing research in humans is one of NASA's building blocks that will allow for both short- and long-duration space missions and help NASA in developing approaches to manage and overcome the human limitations of space travel. In addition to reviewing the current state of knowledge concerning sleep and circadian disruptions during space operations, this paper provides an overview of NASA's broad research goals. Also, NASA-funded research, designed to evaluate the relationships between sleep quality, circadian rhythm stability, and performance proficiency in both ground-based simulations and space mission studies, as described in the 2003 NASA Task Book, will be reviewed.
The relationship between NASA and the psychological research community has progressed through a number of phases during the past four decades. This paper summarizes how the relationship has developed as data have accumulated and space missions and crews have changed. In the beginning, most NASA astronauts and staff considered possible psychological problems during space missions to be a non-issue. It was assumed that people with "the right stuff" would not experience any such problems. A more realistic recognition of stress and its consequences has led to a concern with prevention and countermeasures, a concern that has come to dominate NASA's involvement with psychology. Very recently, space psychologists have started to import the concepts of positive psychology, and consider the benefits of participation in the space program, including the self-enhancing aspects of stressful experiences (salutogenesis). Both the agency and psychologists now need to broaden their thinking and their research to cover the gamut of empirical data and theoretical concepts. These include human strengths as well as vulnerabilities, both negative and positive impacts of spaceflight, long- as well as short-term effects, and the reactions not only of the astronauts themselves but also of ground personnel and the families of both groups.
Quantity and quality of sleep during the record manned space flight of 438 days
- A Gundel
- J Drescher
- V V Polyakov
Gundel, A., Drescher, J., Polyakov, V.V. (2001). Quantity and quality of sleep during
the record manned space flight of 438 days. Human factors and aerospace
safety, 1(1).
People in high latitudes: The ''big five'' personality characteristics of the circumpolar sojurner
- G D Steel
- P Suedfeld
- A Peri
- L A Palinkas
Steel, G.D., Suedfeld, P., Peri, A., Palinkas, L.A. (1997). People in high latitudes:
The ''big five'' personality characteristics of the circumpolar sojurner. "Environment and Behavior", 29, 324-347.
The structure of environmental relationships in polar regions. Rozprawa doktorska
- G D Steel
Steel, G.D. (1994). The structure of environmental relationships in polar regions.
Rozprawa doktorska, Uniwersytet Kolumbii Brytyjskiej.