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Runway roadkill: a global review of mammal strikes with aircraft
Abstract
The number of reported collisions (i.e. strikes) between aircraft and wildlife is increasing globally, with consequences for personnel and passenger safety as well as for industry economics. These are important considerations for airport operators that are obliged to mitigate wildlife hazards at airfields. Incidents involving mammals account for approximately 3–10% of all recorded strikes. However, relatively little research has been conducted on mammal strikes with aircraft outside of the USA.
We collate mammal strike data from six major national aviation authorities and a global aircraft database and review the available scientific and grey literature. We aim to identify which mammal families are involved in strike events and how widespread the issue is on a global scale. We also aim to demonstrate the importance of consistently recording strike instances in national databases.
We identified 40 families that were involved in strike events in 47 countries. Reported mammal strike events have been increasing by up to 68% annually. Chiroptera (4 families) accounted for the greatest proportion of strikes in Australia; leporids and canids in Canada, Germany and the UK; and Chiroptera (5 families) and cervids in the USA. More mammals were struck during the landing phase of an aircraft's rotation than any other phase. Circa‐diel strike risk was greatest at dusk and circa‐annum strike risk was greatest during late summer, with some international variation. The total estimated cost of damage resulting from reported mammal strikes exceeded US$103 million in the USA alone, over 30 years.
Mammal strikes represent a substantial risk in airfield environments. Monitoring of existing wild mammal populations is required to understand temporal trends in presence, abundance, and activity patterns and to inform management decisions. Increased and accurate reporting of strike events globally is needed to inform Wildlife Hazard Management Plans and support effective strike mitigation.
Supplementary resources (2)
Data
February 2021
Data
February 2021
... Christensen et al. 2016) but more are needed to safely assess the effectiveness of current and novel mitigation measures. Until recently, few studies have looked at the impact on bats associated with railways (Borda-de-Água et al. 2017) or air traffic infrastructure (Kelly 2017, Ball et al. 2021. Construction, or upgrading, of railway and airport infrastructure occurs less often than road schemes. ...
... The composition of Chiroptera species involved varied regionally, e.g. 4 families in Australia and 5 families in the USA. However, bats were not identified to species level in 17% of instances in that study (Ball et al. 2021). ...
... Reporting of airstrikes is mandatory within the European Union (EU) but is not standardised and information is incomplete. Some countries do not report bird and bat strikes separately, and in Germany for example, only mammals the size of a rabbit or larger are reported (Ball et al. 2021). ...
The continuing global expansion of the traffic infrastructure network has a detrimental impact on bats and other wildlife through indirect effects such as loss of habitats and roost sites, increased habitat fragmentation, avoidance of habitats (the
barrier effect) and directly through collisions with vehicles. Some impacts can be avoided or minimised through an effective planning process and good design. Mitigation features are used to promote permeability whilst reducing mortality,
however, solutions should be species-specific and site-specific.
These guidelines bring together information on the impact on bats of road, rail and air traffic infrastructure. There is a need for transport commissioning authorities to work with researchers to better understand how traffic infrastructure and operation
affect bat behaviour, and impact bats at the population level. Robust survey and monitoring of traffic infrastructure projects are required to improve the effectiveness of avoidance and mitigation measures (EUROBATS Resolution 7.9).
... Even despite the decrease in flight traffic volume caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, more than 10,000 bird strikes were still observed just in the USA Manuscript in the past year [3]. Incidents that involved mammals could even reach 10 % of all recorded events [4]. From 1988 to 2019, 292 human deaths and 327 injuries have been reported due to strikes by wildlife with airplanes, around the world [5]. ...
... The last report shows that annual repair costs in the USA reached more than $200 million [6], and are predicted to reach more than $1.2 billion globally [7]. Therefore, in large and medium airports, Air Traffic Control (ATC) demands a systematic WHM [4]. ...
... However, the problem of mammal strikes has also increased and could even reach 10 % of all strikes worldwide. Nevertheless, compared to bird strikes, terrestrial strikes are several times more damaging to aircraft [4]. ...
Aviation reports indicate that between the years of 1988 and 2019 there were 292 human fatalities and 327 injuries that had been reported due to wildlife strikes with airplanes. To minimize these numbers a new approach to airport Wildlife Hazard Management (WHM) is presented in the following article. The proposed solution is based on the data fusion of thermal and vision streams which are used to improve the reliability and adaptability of the real-time WHM system. The system is designed to operate in all environmental conditions and provides an advance information of the fauna presence at the airport's runway.
The proposed sensor fusion approach was designed and developed using user driven design methodology. Moreover, the developed system has been validated in real case scenarios and previously installed at an airport. Performed tests proved detection capabilities during day and night of dog sized animals up to 300 meters. Moreover, by using machine learning algorithms during daylight the system was able to classify person sized objects with over 90% efficiency up to 300 meters and dog sized objects up to 200 meters. The overall threat level accuracy based on the three safety zones, was 94%.
... A sustained increase in the rate of collisions between wildlife and aircraft is considered a serious and growing threat to aviation safety, globally (e.g. Metz et al. 2020;Ball et al. 2021). ...
... 94% of strikes in the USA; Dolbeer and Begier 2021), many volant (bats) and terrestrial mammal species are also struck (e.g. Crain et al. 2015;Kelly et al. 2017;Ball et al. 2021), as well as reptiles, amphibians and even insects (e.g. Noaves et al. 2016;House et al. 2020). ...
... Noaves et al. 2016;House et al. 2020). Strikes involving mammals have been estimated to cost over US$103 million in the USA alone (Ball et al. 2021) with some mammal groups (e.g. deer, carnivores) being particularly responsible for costly damages (Biondi et al. 2011;Crain et al. 2015). ...
Collisions between wildlife and aircraft are a serious and growing threat to aviation safety. Understanding the frequency of these collisions, the identity of species involved, and the potential damage that can be inflicted on to aircraft aid mitigation efforts by airfield managers. A record of all animal carcasses recovered from Dublin International Airport, Ireland’s largest civil aviation airport, has been maintained since 1990 where strikes with the endemic Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus), a protected subspecies of mountain hare, are of particular concern despite substantial management efforts from the airfield authority. The first strike event with a hare was recorded in 1997, and strike events have substantially increased since then, with a sharp increase recorded in 2011. Over a 30-year period, a total of 320 strike events with the Irish hare have been recorded at the airfield. To date, no strike event with a hare has resulted in damage to an aircraft. However, carcasses can present as a major attraction to avian scavenger species in addition to posing as a risk of causing foreign object damage in the event of an undetected carcass. Hare strikes are discussed in the context of the rate of civil aircraft movements, possible direct and indirect damage to aircraft, and airfield wildlife hazard management. Here, we demonstrate that not only are strike events increasing by 14% on an annual basis, but that the kinetic energy of such an event has the potential to cause significant damage to an aircraft.
... A sustained increase in the rate of collisions between wildlife and aircraft is considered a serious and growing threat to aviation safety, globally (e.g. Metz et al. 2020;Ball et al. 2021 Whilst not all wildlife strikes result in damage, some wildlife strikes have led to human fatalities and substantial economic losses for the aviation industry (see https:// avisu re. com/ incid ent-datab ase/). ...
... 94% of strikes in the USA; Dolbeer and Begier 2021), many volant (bats) and terrestrial mammal species are also struck (e.g. Crain et al. 2015;Kelly et al. 2017;Ball et al. 2021), as well as reptiles, amphibians and even insects (e.g. Noaves et al. 2016;House et al. 2020). ...
... Noaves et al. 2016;House et al. 2020). Strikes involving mammals have been estimated to cost over US$103 million in the USA alone (Ball et al. 2021) with some mammal groups (e.g. deer, carnivores) being particularly responsible for costly damages (Biondi et al. 2011;Crain et al. 2015). ...
A 5 minute virtual presentation analysing strike data with the Irish hare from 1990- 2019, alongside aircraft movement numbers. Using GLM, we determine that increasing aircraft movements are not solely responsible for the recorded increase in strike events and there is little seasonality to strikes. We look at the damage potential of such strike events by calculating the kinetic energy and outline ongoing population monitoring practices at Dublin Airport.
... Interactions between humans and wildlife manifest in various forms across different landscapes where humans and wildlife co-occur. This can include wildlife feeding on or damaging agricultural crops (Hill, 2018) and forestry products (Gill, 1992), competition for resources such as water, forage or common prey species (Tixier et al., 2021), livestock predation (Baker et al., 2008), property damage (Bautista et al., 2017), collisions with vehicles (Ball et al., 2021;Coffin, 2007), transmission of pathogens to humans and domestic animals (Muehlenbein, 2016), and direct threats to human safety (Bombieri et al., 2023). Table 1 provides an overview of typical examples of human-wildlife interactions that can result in HWC. ...
... Some mammal and bird species are also prone to collisions with railways and planes; marine mammals can collide with vessels. (Ball et al., 2021;Coffin, 2007) (Bombieri et al., 2023) exponential increases in parts of central Europe after centuries of absence (König et al., 2020). Seasonality affects biological processes such as migration, dispersal and crop phenology, which in turn mediate human-wildlife interactions. ...
... Some wildlife species can be hazardous to aviation and result in wildlife-aircraft collisions, hereafter referred to as 'strikes'. While the majority of strike events are recorded with avian species (94% of strikes in the USA in 2019; Dolbeer and Begier 2021), strikes with mammals are reported to constitute between 3 and 10% of events, depending on geographical location and national faunal composition (Ball et al., 2021b). The number of reported strike events involving mammals has been increasing in Australia, North America and Europe (France, Germany, Poland, UK; Ball et al. 2021). ...
... Mammal strikes with aircraft are increasingly common, both within Europe and further afield (e.g. Dolbeer 2015; Ball et al., 2021b). Despite this, relatively little research has been conducted on mammals in airfield environments, particularly in the European context. ...
Airfield environments can be attractive to a broad range of wildlife, including mammals, and rates of wildlife-aircraft collisions are generally increasing, globally. It is important, therefore, that the components of an airfield that may be attractive to wildlife and the effectiveness of current mammal-exclusion and strike miti-gation measures, are understood. However, the suite of applied measures and the efficacy thereof differs between airfields. The collation of such information would represent a useful tool in potentially mitigating strike frequency or severity for airfield managers. To this end, an online survey was distributed to personnel responsible for wildlife management at airfields in Europe (Belgium, France, Greece, Ireland, Spain and the UK) between July 2020-March 2021. Mammals were recorded at all responding airfields (n = 22), while mammal strikes were recorded at 21 locations. A mammal sightings index scored foxes (91% of airfields) and rabbits (81% of airfields) as the most frequently recorded species. The presence of specific habitat (mainly heathland/peatland) airside was associated with a high mean mammal diversity at airfields in Ireland, the UK and Belgium which reported the presence of this habitat type. The erection of fencing and grassland management measures were the most frequently implemented mitigation measures, while managing water sources within the airfield environment was ranked as the most successful mitigation measure. Our study highlights the need for Wildlife Hazard Management Plans to consider an integrated management approach that not only mitigates general strike risk but is also adaptable to species of particular concern.
... Mammals are well represented within the literature regarding strikes for most modes of transport (e.g. Pokorny et al., 2022), yet relatively little research has focussed on mammals in the context of the air transportation sector, despite mammalian strikes composing 3-10% of reported strikes in the aviation industry (Ball, Caravaggi, & Butler, 2021b). Terrestrial mammals are hazardous to aircraft only when they move on to the active runway, therefore, understanding the circadian (over 24 hours) and seasonal activities of animals inhabiting or using the airfield could help to identify periods of increased risk when animals are likely to come into contact with aircraft. ...
... Given the sensitive nature of airfield environments, the collection of high-quality ecological data can often be complicated, requiring the use of remote field methods due to limited accessibility, such as camera traps (Carswell et al., 2021;Scheideman et al., 2017), radio telemetry (York et al., 2000), GPS tracking (Askren et al., 2019) and predictive modelling based on pre-existing movement data (Arrondo et al., 2021). Lagomorphs (particularly rabbits and hares) are frequently reported in airfield environments and are reportedly involved in strike events near globally (Ball, Caravaggi, & Butler, 2021b;Dolbeer & Begier, 2021;Kitowski, 2016). A population of the Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus, Bell 1837), an endemic subspecies of the Mountain hare (L. ...
Abstract Reported strike events between wildlife and aircraft are hazardous to aircraft and airfield operations and are increasing globally. To develop effective mitigation strategies, the relative hazard a species poses to aircraft, as well as information relating to its life history, are key to the development of effective mitigation strategies in Wildlife Hazard Management Plans. However, given the complex nature of airfield environments with access restrictions and the presence of sensitive equipment, the collection of high‐quality ecological data can be difficult. Here we use motion‐activated camera traps to collect activity data on a population of Irish hares (Lepus timidus hibernicus) inhabiting the airfield at Dublin International Airport, to investigate the link between hare activity and aircraft activity in relation to hare strikes. Camera traps revealed that the hare population at the airfield largely displayed a bimodal crepuscular activity pattern, with activity peaking at sunrise and at sunset. Recorded hare strike times at the airfield were closely associated with hare activity times with a high temporal overlap between these datasets. In comparison, hare activity and aircraft movement activity had a moderate overlap across all seasons, with strikes peaking at times with low aircraft movements. We demonstrate the importance of understanding the circadian and seasonal activity patterns of hazardous species at airfields for targeted strike mitigation.
... The development of standardized data collection method between different offices should become the main priority to reveal the true extent of humanemacaques conflict incidents. This could be achieved by establishing a robust database system to store and manage all conflict records (Ball et al. 2021;Long et al. 2020). While this initiative may take a long time to be realized, a more immediate effort can be implemented by conducting interview surveys to compare the actual scenario with official records and news reports (Ji et al. 2022). ...
... The cumulative movement travelled between points is likely to be a conservative estimate as, distance estimates were based on linear movements and animals often adopt more complicated movement trajectories (e.g., zig-zag; Spitz & Janeau, 1990). The two months where the highest monthly cumulative movements were recorded (April and May) coincided with the period at the airfield with the highest proportion of historic strike events (21% of all strike events, 2012-2022; pers comms; Ball, Butler, et al., 2021). It should be noted, however, that there is no discernible pattern to strikes at Dublin Airport as strike events occur ...
Understanding how animals move and use space within an environment is vital for the development and implementation of effective management actions. Within airfield environments, animal movement can present a substantial risk to aircraft, resulting in wildlife‐aircraft collisions (strikes) if animals enter into the manoeuvring areas of the airfield, namely the runways, taxiways and areas that connect the two (hereafter collectively referred to as ‘tarmacked areas’). However, reliable ecological data to inform management decisions can be difficult to obtain in such environments, due to access restrictions. Here, we present the first GPS data describing the movement ecology and spatial use of mammals on an airfield – Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus), at Dublin International Airport – through the deployment of five GPS collars. A total of 4571 tarmacked area interactions were recorded between December 2021 and August 2022, with all five hares engaging with tarmacked areas. Between December and August, the highest number of interactions were recorded for the month of April (n = 1073), followed by March (n = 703). There was a mean of 4.3 (range: 0–65) interactions with tarmacked areas, per hare, per day throughout the study period. Hares most frequently engaged with tarmacked areas between 05:00 and 07:59, with some seasonal variation. The greatest cumulative distance moved per month was observed in May (505 km) and April (503 km). We identified that the average home range size of collared hares was 2.8 km² (±SD 0.1 km²), based on 95% Kernel Utilisation Distribution. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the hares incorporate tarmacked area habitat types into their home ranges with up to 13% of one individual's movements incorporating these areas. Our study demonstrates the suitability of GPS tracking devices for studying the movement ecology of high‐risk mammal species at airfields in order to inform airside management practices.
... Another limitation of this study was the quantity and especially quality of the reported wildlife strikes. According to Dolbeer (2015), analyses of wildlife strike data suggested that approxi- (Anderson et al., 2015;Ball et al., 2021;Dolbeer & Barnes, 2017;Mendonca et al., 2020;Misra et al., 2022) have indicated that missing data and information in the NWSD (e.g., incomplete strike reports) as factors limiting their findings. In the current study, for example, almost 33% (N 5 2,901) of the reported strikes did not provide information about the time of the day the strike occurred. ...
The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to investigate wildlife strike reporting trends in Part 139 airports in the state of Florida (2011–2020); (2) to evaluate the existence of a difference in the rate of reported wildlife strikes between the seasons of the year (2011–2020); and (3) to develop information based upon the data analyzed that can be used for the safety management of wildlife hazards in Florida.
Опасность, создаваемая живой природой это присутствие ее представителей (т. е. птиц и других животных, как диких, так и домашних), которое может привести к повреждению воздушного судна на всех этапах его полета. Количество авиационных происшествий, связанных со столкновениями животных с ВС в мире растет. Постоянно совершенствуются нормативные требования по обеспечению безопасности полетов, связанной с данной проблемой. Так в 2020 году Международной организацией гражданской авиации (ICAO) опубликовано пятое издание «Руководства по аэропортовым службам. Часть 3. Предотвращение опасного присутствия птиц и диких животных» [1], в развитие этого документа в Российской Федерации подготовлен проект Федеральных авиационных правил «Правила эксплуатации аэродромов гражданской авиации. Борьба с опасностью, создаваемой живой природой» [2]. Однако проблема столкновения ВС с животными остается острой.
The Irish hare Lepus timidus hibernicus is an endemic subspecies of Mountain hare and Ireland's only native lagomorph. The endoparasite community composition of the Irish hare was examined from 22 carcasses opportunistically sourced from wildlife strike events (with aircraft and vehicles) from three counties in the Republic of Ireland. Three parasite taxa were identified from the stomach and small intestines: Trichostrongylus retortaeformis, Graphidium strigosum and a tapeworm belonging to the genus Mosgovoyia. Overall, 50% of hares examined were host to at least one endoparasite taxon and 18% were host to more than one taxon. There was no significant correlation between parasite burden and host weight. This is the first known study of endoparasites in the Irish hare.
Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS; i.e. 'drones') provide new opportunities for data collection in ecology, wildlife biology and conservation. Yet, several studies have documented behavioral or physiological responses to close-proximity UAS flights. We experimentally tested whether American black bears (Ursus americanus) habituate to repeated UAS exposure and whether tolerance levels persist during an extended period without UAS flights. Using implanted cardiac biologgers, we measured heart rate (HR) of five captive bears before and after the first of five flights each day. Spikes in HR, a measure of stress, diminished across the five flights within each day and over the course of 4 weeks of twice-weekly exposure. We halted flights for 118 days, and when we resumed, HR responses were similar to that at the end of the previous trials. Our findings highlight the capacity of a large mammal to become and remain habituated to a novel anthropogenic stimulus in a relatively short time (3-4 weeks). However, such habituation to mechanical noises may reduce their wariness of other human threats. Also, whereas cardiac effects diminished, frequent UAS disturbances may have other chronic physiological effects that were not measured. We caution that the rate of habituation may differ between wild and captive animals: while the captive bears displayed large initial spikes in HR change (albeit not as large as wild bears), these animals were accustomed to regular exposure to humans and mechanical noises that may have hastened habituation to the UAS.
Brazil is the largest country in Latin America and has a considerable amount of air traffic volume domestically and internationally. Wildlife strikes are an increasing safety and economic concern for aviation operations in Brazil. The Brazilian Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center (CENIPA) has published annual reports summarizing the results of analyses of the data in a national level since 2009. The goal of this study was to supplement the CENIPA’s annual reports with information derived from the analysis of wildlife strikes to aviation, during 2011-2016, from the three busiest international commercial airports in Brazil: Guarulhos, Brasília, and Galeão. A set of descriptive analysis was conducted to present the overall characteristics of wildlife strikes at and around those three airports. In addition, statistical comparison of wildlife strikes with different factors was conducted. Analysis of these data indicated an increasing trend of wildlife strikes from 2011 to 2016. Results also indicated that the majority of the damaging strikes occurred during the departure phases of flight at the studied airports. The distributions of wildlife-strikes per phase of flight, per quarter of the year, per type of operator, and per period of the day are presented in this paper. Results indicated that, during the period studied, most strikes in Guarulhos occurred during the first, and in Brasília and Galeão during the second quarter of the year, respectively. Findings suggested that the risk of a damaging strike is higher at dawn in Guarulhos and Galeão, and during the day in Brasília. Findings of this study could facilitate the integration of Safety Management Systems (SMS) and wildlife hazard management programs (WHMP) by airport operators and air carriers. Additionally, current findings may inform the development of national policies and standards in Brazil as well as the future integrated research and management efforts to mitigate wildlife strikes.
Keywords: aviation safety, wildlife strikes, wildlife-hazard management, safety management systems.
International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace
Numerous bats use the troposphere for hunting, commuting, or migrating. High-altitude flying bats face various direct and indirect threats, including collision with tall anthropogenic structures and aerial vehicles, aerial fragmentation, reduced insect biomass, and the altered ambient conditions associated with climate change. Furthermore, dust and chemical pollutants in the troposphere might impair the health and survival of bats. Such indirect threats are diffuse regarding their origin and effect on bats, whereas direct threats are site and context specific. Overall, troposphere habitat conservation is hampered by the “Tragedy of the Commons” because its stewardship is in the hands of many. We conclude that high-altitude flying bats are likely to become more threatened in the near future because of the increased use of the troposphere by humans. Therefore, we should target the protection of the troposphere for organisms, such as high-altitude flying bats, that strongly depend on intact skies.
The assessment of effects of anthropogenic disturbance on biodiversity (BD) and ecosystem services (ES) and their relationships are key priorities of the Intergovernmental Panel for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Agricultural landscapes and their associated BD provide multiple ES and it is crucial to understand how relationships between ES and BD components change along gradients of landscape complexity. In this study, we related eight ES potentials to the species richness of five invertebrate, vertebrate and plant taxonomic groups in cereal farming systems. The landscape complexity gradient ranged from areas dominated by annually tilled arable land to areas with high proportions of unfertilized, non-rotational pastures and uncultivated field borders. We show that after accounting for landscape complexity relationships between yield and bird richness or biological control became more positive, but relationships between bird richness and biological control became less positive. The relationship between bird and plant richness turned from positive to negative. Multidiversity (overall biodiversity), was positively related to landscape complexity, whereas multifunctionality (overall ES provision), was not significantly related to either one of these. Our results suggest that multidiversity can be promoted by increasing landscape complexity; however; we found no support for a simultaneous increase of several individual ES, BD components or multifunctionality. These results challenge the assumption that biodiversity friendly landscape management will always simultaneously promote multiple ES in agricultural landscapes. Future studies need to verify this pattern by using multi-year data, larger sets of ES and BD components and a study design that is appropriate to address larger spatial scales and relationships in several regions .
Rotary-wing aircraft (e.g., helicopters and tilt-wing aircraft) are an important component of all U.S. military services and the U.S. civil aviation industry. Our analyses of wildlife strikes to military rotary-wing aircraft, both within the United States and during overseas deployments, as well as civil helicopters, have shown there are important patterns within wildlife strike data for flight operations conducted on airfields and during off-airfield missions. Birds accounted for 93% of the wildlife strikes where the animal was identified, and mammals (primarily bats) accounted for 7%. Wildlife impacted all parts of civil helicopters and military rotary-wing aircraft during strike events; however, specific areas were impacted by wildlife with a higher frequency compared to others. We recommend airframe manufacturers and maintenance personnel consider reinforcing and redesigning rotary-wing aircraft windscreens and main rotor systems to better withstand the impact of wildlife.
Over the last century, changing public attitudes about the value of wildlife have triggered substantial changes in species management that have both benefited and hindered conservation efforts. Understanding and integrating contemporary public values is therefore critical for effective conservation outcomes. Using historic and contemporary examples, we highlight how public attitudes—expressed through the media and cam-paigns—are shaping the management of introduced and native species, as values shift towards animal welfare and mutualism. We focus on the issue of deliberate human-caused killing of wildlife, because protests against such management have disrupted traditional political and management structures that favoured eradication of wildlife across many jurisdictions and ecological contexts. In doing so, we show that it is essential to work with multiple stakeholder interest groups to ensure that wildlife management is informed by science, while also supported by public values. Achieving this hinges on appropriate science communication to build a better-informed public because management decisions are becoming increasingly democratised.
Purpose: The purpose of the current study was fourfold: to identify bird strike reporting trends at Part 139 airports in Indiana (2001-2014) for comparison to national data; to determine which quarter of the year yields the most bird strike data; to gain a clearer understanding of the relationship between altitude and bird strikes, and to develop information based upon the data analyzed that can be used for the safety management of birds including comparisons to national data.
Design/methodology: The researchers in this study answered the research questions by reviewing, sorting, and analyzing existing data. The data collection took place from March 01 to May 02, 2016. Two data sets were utilized for data collection. The National Wildlife Strike Database (NWSD) and the FAA Air Traffic Activity System (ATADS).
Findings: When compared to national data, Indiana Part 139 airports have seen a faster increase in bird strike reporting during 2012 and 2014. Aggregate data indicated June through September (Quarter 3) had a significantly higher frequency of bird strikes reported. When examining bird strikes and altitude of occurrences, the exponential equation explained 95 % of the variation in number of strikes by 1,000-foot intervals from 1000 to 10,000 feet. Not surprisingly, the risk of bird strikes appears to decrease as altitude increases.
Originality/value: This study adds to the body of knowledge by addressing the lack of published bird strike report analyses at a regional level. It also connects data analyses to safety management system (SMS) concepts and Wildlife Hazards Management Programs (WHMP). The aviation community can use regional bird strike data and information to develop or enhance existing wildlife hazard management programs, increase pilot awareness, and offers airport managerial implications.
Bird strike has become a major threat to air safety globally. Over the years, collision between birds/wildlife and aircrafts has resulted in the death of hundreds of people and is responsible for annual losses worth about US $1.2 billion to the global aviation industry. This paper therefore, focuses on bird/wildlife hazard situation in Nigeria using data on reported bird/wildlife strikes in the country. Available data show that between 2005 and 2010, a total of 209 strike incidents were reported in the country. Kites and hawks were found to be responsible for 57% of reported strikes. Several factors including lack of adequate data, shortage of funds, inadequate training of staff and lack of public awareness about bird/wildlife hazard were found to be militating against effective control in Nigeria. The paper concludes by making recommendations towards reducing bird/wildlife hazard in the country. These include staff training and retraining, developing good data bank based on proper reporting and analysis, improved funding and creation of public awareness about bird/wildlife hazard in the country.
Keywords: bird/wildlife, strike, aviation, hazard, control
Globally, collisions between wildlife and aircraft are a serious threat to aviation safety. While reported collisions have increased in recent years, the impact of these collisions on air safety is rarely quantified. Here, we report all bat collisions (bat strikes) with civil aircraft known to have occurred in the Republic of Ireland over the 10-year interval, 2006–2015. Morphological and/or DNA identification techniques were used to identify chiropteran specimens to species level. In total, carcasses or remains from five bat strikes—three Leisler’s Nyctalus leisleri, one Soprano Pipistrelle Pipistrellus pygmaeus, and one Natterer’s Myotis nattereri—were recovered. The collisions are discussed in the context of (a) the rate of chiropteran strikes in relation to the number of civil aircraft movements and (b) possible damage caused to aircraft. Overall, however, bat strikes with aircraft appear to have a negligible effect on civil aircraft safety.
Wpływ ssaków na operacje lotnicze realizowane na cywilnych lotniskach Polski Воздействие млекопитающих на воздушные операции, реализуемые в гражданских аэропортах в Польше. The evaluation focused on the time of day and season. Results: Roe deer and hares were the species, which disrupted aviation operations with the highest frequency. Most incidents occurred during landings and the largest number of incidents took place during winter (34.2%), especially in the month of January. The lowest number of incidents were recorded during autumn (12.5%). Roe deer and foxes disrupted flight operations most frequently during winter and in case of hares, disruptions took place mostly during spring, especially in April. Disruption by roe deer herds was most frequent during the autumn-winter period compared with spring-summer. Roe deer and hares were also the species, which most often collided with aircraft. The greatest number of collisions with aircraft occurred during spring (March-May). However, the highest frequency of serious collisions between deer and aircraft occurred during winter. The majority (66.7%) of analysed collisions with animals took place during landings. Apart from the risks, some benefits were identified with the presence of red foxes at airports, linked to their potential interaction with birds. Animal carcases, which are not removed from runways, attract carrion eaters and can escalate the level of disruption caused at airports. Therefore, it is important to remove carcases from runways in accordance with FOD procedures. Conclusions: The study revealed that, in contrast with birds, mammals pose the biggest threat at airports during winter. Mammals disrupted landings more frequently than takeoffs. This study identifies misconceptions and difficulties encountered during attempts to reduce the impact of animals on airport flight operations. Cel: Celem badań było poznanie środowiskowych aspektów wpływu 4 gatunków wolnożyjących ssaków na operacje lotnicze realizowane na polskich lotniskach cywilnych. Metoda: Nieprzetworzone dane z protokołów Państwowej Komisji Badania Wypadków Lotniczych wykorzystano do określenia wpływu ssaków na operacje lotnicze na 7 cywilnych lotniskach w Polsce. Analizowano 117 przypadków zakłócenia operacji lotniczych przez: sarny, jelenie, zające szaraki, lisy oraz dziki na lotniskach cywilnych w latach 2006-2009. Analiz dokonywano w kontekście dobowym oraz w kontekście miesięcznym. Wyniki: Sarny i zające były gatunkami które z największą frekwencją zakłócały operacje lotnicze. Pośród analizowanych operacji, zwierzęta zakłócały najczęściej lądowania. Najwięcej operacji lotniczych zostało zakłóconych zimą (34,2%), szczególnie w styczniu. Najmniej takich przypadków zanotowano jesienią (12,5%). Sarny i lisy zakłócały operacje lotnicze najczęściej zimą, gdy w przypadku zajęcy miało to miejsce najczęściej wiosną, szczególnie w kwietniu. Zakłócenia ze strony stad saren były częstsze w okresie jesienno-zimowym w porównaniu z okresem wiosenno-letnim. Gatunkami najczęściej zderzającymi się z samolotami były: sarny i zające. Do największej liczby kolizji ze zwierzętami doszło wiosną w okresie (marzec-maj). Jednakże zimą dochodziło najczęściej do najbardziej niebezpiecznych dla samolotów kolizji z sarnami. Większość (66,7%) analizowanych kolizji ze zwierzętami miała miejsce podczas lądowań. Poza zagrożeniami zidentyfikowano także korzyści z obecności lisów na lotniskach, z uwagi na ich interakcje z ptakami. Przyczyną wzrostu zagrożenia dla operacji realizowanych na lotniskach stanowią także nieusunięte ciała ssaków na drogach startowych, ponieważ zwabiają zwierzęta zjadające padlinę. W tym kontekście duże znaczenie ma usuwanie padliny z dróg startowych w ramach procedury FOD. Wnioski: Badania wykazały, że w przeciwieństwie do ptaków, największe zagrożenie ze strony ssaków odnotowywane jest w okresie zimowym. Ssaki zakłócały częściej operacje lądowania w porównaniu z operacjami startu. Praca wskazuje na błędy oraz trudności, jakie napotkano podczas prób ograniczania odziaływania ssaków na operacje wykonywane w portach lotniczych. Typ artykułu: studium przypadku – analiza zdarzeń rzeczywistych Słowa kluczowe: bezpieczeństwo lotów, kolizja z udziałem zwierząt, lotnisko, zarządzanie ryzykiem А Н Н О ТА Ц И Я Цель: Целью исследования было изучение экологических аспектов воздействия 4 видов свободноживущих млекопитающих на воздушные операции, проводимые в польских гражданских аэропортах. Метод: В целях исследования использовались исходные данные из протоколов Государственной комиссии по расследованию авиационных происшествий. С их помощью определено воздействие млекопитающих на воздушные операции в 7 гражданских аэропортах в Польше. Проанализированы 117 случаи нарушения полетов европейскими косулями, благородными оленями, зайцами-русаками, лисами и кабанами в гражданских аэропортах в период 2006-2009 гг. Исследовались суточные и месячные зависимости. Результаты: Видами животных, которые нарушали воздушные операции, чаще всех были (европейские) косули и зайцы. Среди проанализированных операций, чаще всего происшествия с животными происходили во время посадки. Воздушные операции подвергались воздействию чаще всего зимой (34,2%), особенно в январе, а реже всего осенью (12,5%). Косули и лисы воздействовали на воздушные операции чаще всего в зимний период, а зайцы-весной, особенно в апреле. Происшествия, вызванные стадами косулей, случались чаще в осенне-зимний период, чем весеннее-летний. Косули и зайцы чаще всех сталкивались с самолётами. Наибольшее число столкновений с животными имело место в весенний период (март-май). Зимой, как правило, происходили самые опасные столкновения с косулями. Большинство (66,7%) проанализированных столкновений с животными имели место во время посадки. Кроме указания угроз, автор также указал пользу от присутствия лисов в аэропортах, которые воздействуют на птиц. Подчеркнул также факт, что присутствие трупов животных на взлетно-посадочных полосах, может способствовать увеличению риска для операций проводимых в аэропортах, так как трупы могут привлечь животных, питающихся падалью. В таком случае важно удалить падаль согласно процедуре Foreign Object Derbis (повреждение посторонним предметом). Выводы: Исследование показало, что в отличие от птиц, самая большая угроза со стороны млекопитающих возникает зимой. Млекопитающие в большей степени являются угрозой во время посадок, чем во время взлетов. Работа указывает на ошибки и трудности, с которыми обычно сталкиваются при попытках снижения воздействия рассматриваемых животных на воздушные операции, проводимые в аэропортах. Вид статьи: тематическое исследование – анализ реальных случаев Ключевые слова: безопасность полетов, столкновение с животными, аэропорт, управление рисками
Understanding movements of hazardous wildlife species at and near airports is critical to formulating effective management strategies for reducing aviation risk. Animal movements vary daily, seasonally, and annually and are based on broad biological and ecological concepts, including foraging, reproduction, habitat characteristics, dispersal, and migration. As an energy conservation strategy, most animals minimize their movements to meet life requisites, which in turn presumably improves fitness. Animal movements in relation to airports can be direct; for example, Canada geese (Branta canadensis) flying onto an airfield because grass height and composition are suitable for loafing sites and as food. Animal movements in and around airports can also be indirect; for example, airports near large rivers may experience increased numbers of birds flying overhead during spring and autumn migrations, as rivers often facilitate bird navigation.
Reporting of wildlife strikes with civil aircraft is voluntary for airports and pilots but strongly encouraged by the FAA via Advisory Circulars and other activities. In 2009, the FAA undertook a review of the trends in strike reporting from 1990-2008 to determine if mandatory reporting was needed, as was recommended by the National Transportation Safety Board in 2009. The review concluded that given the positive trends in reporting rates and species identification coupled with the decline or stabilization in damage strikes, mandatory reporting was not recommended at that time (2009) to achieve the objectives of the database. Recommendations were made to further enhance the reporting of strikes. The objective of this report is to determine if the positive trends in reporting documented in 2009 have been sustained based on the recommended outreach actions and if any changes are needed in FAA policies regarding strike reporting at this time. The primary focus is to examine strike reporting for the past 5 years (2009-2013) compared to the previous 5 years (2004-2008). Although this report covers both commercial and general aviation aircraft at Part 139-certificated and non-certificated airports as was done in the 2009 study, the focus of this report is strike reporting for commercial aircraft at Part 139 airports.
I examined the overall number of strikes and damage strikes reported to the FAA by wildlife type (birds, mammals, reptiles) and by airport type (14 CFR Part 139 certificated airports, non-certificated General Aviation [GA] airports in the National Plan of Integrated Airport System [NPIAS], and other GA airports). To derive estimates of the percentage of strikes being reported to the NWSD by commercial aircraft and by all civil aircraft (commercial and general aviation) at Part 139 airports nationwide, I compared strike reporting rates at 20 selected Part 139 airports that have well established wildlife hazard management programs that emphasize the reporting of all known strikes with strike reporting rates at other Part 139 airports. As another means of gauging the number of known bird strikes that are not being reported to the NWSD, I examined bird strike reports submitted independent of the NWSD through the Air Traffic Organization (ATO) Mandatory Occurrence Reporting (MOR) system. Another objective was to document the number of strike events that are being reported independently by multiple sources to determine if the breadth of reporting by the aviation community is increasing. I also documented trends in the percent of strikes reported to the FAA that provide an identification of the birds struck to species. Finally, I documented actions that the FAA has undertaken since 2009 to promote the reporting of strikes.
The overall number of reported strikes for all aircraft and airport types has increased 6.2 fold from 1,851 in 1990 to a record 11,399 in 2013. In contrast, the number of strikes indicating damage to the aircraft increased from 340 in 1990 to a peak of 764 in 2000 but has subsequently declined by 21% to 605 in 2013. The percent of reported strikes indicating damage ranged from 15% to 19% from 1990-1998 but has subsequently steadily declined to 5% in 2013.
Reported strikes for all aircraft types at Part 139 airports and NPIAS GA airports increased by 43% and 61%, respectively, in 2009-2013 compared to 2004-2008. In contrast, damage strikes declined by 2% at Part 139 airports and increased by only 5% at NPIAS GA airports. In addition to the slight decline in damage strikes reported at Part 139 airports, the mean number of wildlife-induced aborted take-offs and precautionary landings declined by 16% and 9%, respectively.
Commercial aircraft movements (take-off or landing) at Part 139 airports declined by 13% from 2004-2008 to 2009-2013. Thus, whereas, the number of reported strikes for commercial aircraft at Part 139 airports increased by 46% from 2004-2008 to 2009-2013, the strike rate (strikes/100,000 movements) increased by 67%. The number of damage strikes declined by 2% and the damage strike rate increased by 12% (note: these numbers refer to strikes with commercial aircraft only and not to strikes with all aircraft types at Part 139 airports as discussed in previous paragraph).
GA aircraft movements at NPIAS GA airports declined by 8% in 2009-2013 compared to 2004-2008. Thus, whereas the number of reported strikes with GA aircraft increased by 43% from 2004-2008 to 2009-2013, the strike rate increased by 55%. The number of damage strikes to GA aircraft at NPIAS GA airports increased by 13% and the damage strike rate increased 23% (note: these numbers refer to strikes with GA aircraft only and not to strikes with all aircraft at NPIAS GA airports as discussed 2 paragraphs above).
Based on a comparison of strike rates at 20 selected Part 139 airports with strike rates at 484 other Part 139 airports, reporting of known strikes for commercial aircraft increased from an estimated 78% to 91% and damage strike reporting increased from an estimated 76% to 93%, 2004-2008 to 2009-2013. Reporting of known strikes for all civil aviation (commercial and general aviation aircraft) increased from an estimated 42% to 47% and damage strike reporting increased from an estimated 50% to 59%, 2004-2008 to 2009-2013. An analysis of strike data from the ATO MOR system supported the findings on percent of known strikes reported for commercial avition. The MOR system added only about 7% more strikes and 4% more damage strikes (all minor) to the NWSD.
The number of strike events with multiple reports submitted from independent sources has increased even more dramatically than the number of strike reports. Whereas the number of strike events reported in 2009-2013 increased by 42% compared to 2004-2008, the number of individual strike reports examined increased by 60%. This finding highlights the increased participation by the aviation community as a whole to ensure that strike events are reported to the NWSD.
The mean number of strikes in which the bird was identified to species increased by 103% from 2,619/year in 2004-2008 to 5,324/year in 2009-2013. The percentage of all bird strikes in which the species was identified increased from a mean of 37% in 2004-2008 to 53% in 2009-2013 (a record 60% in 2013).
The various actions undertaken by the FAA, in partnership with other government and aviation industry groups from 2009 to 2013, have enhanced the quantity and quality of reporting of wildlife strikes involving civil aircraft under a voluntary system. Of significant note is the inclusion of statements in revised Advisory Circulars to emphasize a commitment to reporting all known strikes. These statements provide clear guidance that strike reporting is a critical component of every Wildlife Hazard Management Plan (WHMP) which, when approved, is a part of each Part 139 airport’s certification manual.
Another significant development was FAA Order JO 7210.632 (effective 30 Jan 2012) which requires ATO personnel to report all bird strikes of which they become aware. These reports are entered in the MOR system and, as of January 2014, are being integrated into the NWSD if they provide new information.
Also, the open accessibility of the NWSD to the aviation industry and general public for information and analysis, the availability of on-line customized “Airport Wildlife Strike Summary and Risk Analysis Reports” for each Part 139 airport, and enhancements in on-line reporting have all contributed to a greater public and industry awareness of the usefulness of the database and to the importance of strike reporting.
Given the strong, positive trends in reporting rates (an estimated 91% of strikes with commercial aircraft at Part 139 airports are now reported) and species identification coupled with the decline or stabilization in damage strikes, mandatory reporting other than what is already required under ATO Order JO 7210.632 is not recommended at this time to achieve the objectives of the database. I conclude the reporting procedures in place are fully compliant with the International Civil Aviation Organization standard regarding the establishment of a national procedure for recording and reporting wildlife strikes. The level of reporting is adequate to track national trends in wildlife strikes, determine the hazard level of wildlife species that are being struck, and to provide a scientific foundation for FAA policies and guidance regarding the mitigation of risk from wildlife strikes with civil aircraft. The NWSD also provides a means for Part 139 airports to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of their WHMPs through “Airport Wildlife Strike Summary and Risk Analysis Reports” that are generated annually.
Increased media attention to wildlife strikes with aircraft, such as the emergency forced landing of US Airways Flight 1549 in the Hudson River on 15 January 2009 after Canada geese were ingested in both engines on the Airbus 320, has dramatically demonstrated to the public that wildlife strikes are a serious but manageable aviation safety issue. However, the civil and military aviation communities have long recognized that the threat from aircraft collisions with wildlife is real and increasing. Globally, wildlife strikes have killed more than 258 people and destroyed over 245 aircraft since 1988. Factors that contribute to this increasing threat are increasing populations of large birds and increased air traffic by quieter, turbofan-powered aircraft.
This report presents a summary analysis of data from the National Wildlife Strike Database for the 25-year period 1990 through 2014. A sample of 25 significant wildlife strikes to civil aircraft in the USA during 2014 is also included as Appendix I.
The number of strikes annually reported to the FAA has increased 7.4-fold from 1,851 in 1990 to a record 13,668 in 2014. The 2014 total was an increase of 2,267 strikes (20 percent) compared to the 11,401 strikes reported in 2013. For 1990–2014, 156,114 strikes were reported. Birds were involved in 96.9 percent of the reported strikes, terrestrial mammals in 2.2 percent, bats in 0.8 percent and reptiles in 0.1 percent. Although the number of reported strikes has dramatically increased, the number of reported damaging strikes has actually declined since 2000. Whereas the number of reported strikes increased 127 percent from 6,009 in 2000 to 13,668 in 2014, the number of damaging strikes declined 24 percent from 764 to 581. While there was a 20 percent increase in reported strikes from 2013 to 2014, the number of damaging strikes declined 4 percent from 606 to 581. The decline in damaging strikes has been most pronounced for commercial aircraft in the airport environment (at <500 feet above ground level [AGL]). Damaging strikes have not declined for general aviation (GA) aircraft.
In 2014, 74 percent and 2 percent of the 13,668 strike reports were filed using the electronic and paper versions, respectively, of FAA Form 5200-7, Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report. Since the online version of this form became available in April 2001, use of the electronic reporting system has climbed dramatically.
The number of USA airports with strikes reported increased from 331 in 1990 to a record 673 in 2014. The 673 airports with strikes reported in 2014 were comprised of 396 airports certificated for passenger service under 14 CFR Part 139 and 277 GA aviation airports. From 1990 - 2014, strikes have been reported from 1,871 USA airports.
Fifty-three percent of bird strikes occurred between July and October; 29 percent of deer strikes occurred in October - November. Terrestrial mammals are more likely to be struck at night (64 percent) whereas birds are struck more often during the day (63 percent). Birds, terrestrial mammals, and bats are all much more likely to be struck during the arrival phase of flight (61, 65, and 83 percent of strikes, respectively) compared to departure (35, 33 and 14 percent, respectively).
For commercial and GA aircraft, 71 and 73 percent of bird strikes, respectively, occurred at or below 500 feet above ground level (AGL). Above 500 feet AGL, the number of strikes declined by 34 percent for each 1,000-foot gain in height for commercial aircraft, and by 44 percent for GA aircraft. Strikes occurring above 500 feet were more likely to cause damage than strikes at or below 500 feet. The record height for a reported bird strike was 31,300 feet.
From 1990 to 2014, 518 species of birds, 41 species of terrestrial mammals, 21 species of bats, and 17 species of reptiles were identified as struck by aircraft. Waterfowl, gulls, and raptors are the species groups of birds with the most damaging strikes; Artiodactyls (mainly deer) and carnivores (mainly coyotes) are the terrestrial mammals with the most damaging strikes. Although the percentage of wildlife strikes with reported damage has averaged 9 percent for the 25-year period, this number has declined from 20 percent in 1990 to 4 percent in 2014.
A negative effect on flight was reported in 6 percent and 21 percent of the bird and terrestrial mammal strike reports, respectively. Precautionary/emergency landing after striking wildlife was the most commonly reported negative effect (5,217 incidents), including 48 incidents in which the pilot jettisoned fuel (an average of 14,136 gallons) to lighten aircraft weight and 87 incidents in which an overweight landing was made. Aborted take-off was the second most commonly reported negative effect (2,146 incidents). These negative incidents included 882 aborted take-offs at >80 knots. Similar to the trend shown for the percentage of strikes causing damage, the percentage of strikes with a reported negative effect-on-flight has declined from a high of 12 percent in 1996 to 4 percent in 2014. For commercial aircraft, the number of high-speed (>80 knots) aborted take-offs has declined from a high of 39 in 2000 to 16 in 2014.
For the 30 species of birds most frequently identified as struck by civil aircraft, 1990–2014, there was a strong correlation (R2 = 0.82) between mean body mass and the likelihood of a strike causing damage to aircraft. For every 100 gram increase in body mass, there was a 1.27% increase in the likelihood of damage. Thus, body mass is a good predictor of relative hazard level among bird species.
Sixty-seven strikes have resulted in a destroyed aircraft from 1990-2014; 40 (60 percent) of these occurred at GA airports. The annual cost of wildlife strikes to the USA civil aviation industry in 2014 was projected to be a minimum of 172,151 hours of aircraft downtime and $208 million in direct and other monetary losses. Actual losses are likely much higher.
This analysis of 25 years of strike data documents the progress being made in reducing damaging strikes for commercial aircraft which primarily use Part 139-certificated airports. Management actions to mitigate the risk have been implemented at many airports since the 1990s; these efforts are likely responsible for the general decline in reported strikes with damage and a negative effect-on-flight from 2000-2014 in spite of continued increases in populations of many large bird species. However, much work remains to be done to reduce wildlife strikes. Management actions at airports should be prioritized based on the hazard level of species observed in the aircraft operating area.
To address strikes above 500 feet AGL, the general public and aviation community must first widen its view of wildlife management to minimize hazardous wildlife attractants within 5 miles of airports. Second, on-going research and mitigation efforts to further develop and incorporate avian radar and bird migration forecasting and to study avian sensory perception to enhance aircraft detection and avoidance by birds should be maintained. Third, Federal guidance on wildlife hazards at airports should continue to be reviewed, and where necessary revised, to incorporate new information about wildlife hazards and wildlife strike reporting trends. Finally, there continues to be a need for increased reporting of wildlife strikes with details provided on species identification, number of wildlife struck, time, phase of flight, height, distance from airport, and damage costs.
Wildlife incidents with U.S. civil aircraft cost an estimated $1.4 billion from 1990 to 2010, with mammals 5 times more likely to cause damage than other wildlife. We surveyed 2 general aviation (GA) airports and 6 Part-139 certificated (i.e., certified) airports to assess efficacy of management practices for mammalian species hazardous to aircraft. We obtained information on mammalian species present on airport grounds, types and estimated effectiveness of management techniques, and effort spent on wildlife management. We evaluated management techniques relative to aircraft-wildlife collisions (i.e., incident) frequencies taken from Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) National Wildlife Strike Database and species hazard scores calculated by body mass. Certificated airports spent 5 times more effort and used twice as many techniques as GA airports. Species considered most hazardous by all airports included white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; hazard score = 94) and coyote (Canis latrans; 62). Generally, all airports surveyed are managing effectively for mammals; however, we recommend that airports with deer present install additional exclusion devices. By prioritizing species to manage and targeting management for them, airports can reduce mammalian risks to U.S. civil aircraft.
This manual contains a compilation of information to assist airport personnel in conducting Wildlife Hazard Assessments and in the development, implementation, and evaluation of Wildlife Hazard Management Plans. This manual includes specific information on the nature of wildlife strikes, legal authority, government agency roles and responsibilities, regulations, wildlife management techniques, Wildlife Hazard Assessments, Wildlife Hazard Management Plans, and sources of help and information. It is emphasized that this manual provides only a starting point for addressing wildlife hazard issues on airports. Wildlife management is a complex, evolving, and public-sensitive discipline, and ecological conditions vary widely across the USA. Therefore, the assessment of wildlife hazards, the development of Wildlife Hazard Management Plans, and the implementation of management actions by airport personnel must be under consultation by qualified wildlife biologists trained in wildlife damage control.
Understanding ecosystems within and around airports can help to determine the causes and possible mitigation measures for collisions between aircraft and wildlife. Small mammal communities are an important component of the semi-arid savanna ecosystems of Namibia, its productivity and its ecosystem integrity. They are also a major direct attractant for raptors at airports. This study compared the abundance and diversity of small mammals between Namibia's two main airport properties (Hosea Kutako International Airport and Eros Airport), and between various land uses surrounding the airports. A total of 2150 small mammals (3 orders, 11 species) were captured over four trapping seasons. Small mammal abundance was significantly higher at the end of the growing season than during the non-growing season. The grass mowing regimen in current management plans at the airports resulted in a significant reduction of small mammal abundance at Hosea Kutako during the non-growing season only, thus indicating that annual mowing is effective but insufficient to reduce the overall abundance of mammal prey species for raptors. Small mammal numbers were significantly higher at Hosea Kutako airport compared to the cattle and game farming land surrounding the airport, while no differences in small mammal densities or diversity was found in different land uses at and surrounding Eros. The study suggests that the fence around Hosea Kutako provides a refuge for small mammals, resulting in higher densities. It also indicates that different surrounding land use practices result in altered ecosystem function and productivity, an important consideration when identifying wildlife attractants at airports. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This special issue of Human–Wildlife Conflicts (HWC) was conceived 1 year ago by Bird Strike Committee–USA (BSC–USA) and the Berryman Institute. Our premise was that the collision of aircraft with birds (bird strikes) and other wildlife is a growing problem about which the general public and most scientists and wildlife biologist know very little. Furthermore, although considerable work has been done to mitigate the risks caused by bird strikes, there have been few peer-reviewed publications of these research and management efforts. Thus, our 2 goals were to (1) educate the broad readership of HWC about the growing safety and economic problems caused by bird strikes, and (2) provide an outlet for peer-reviewed research and commentary on methods to mitigate these risks. Most of the papers published in this edition are based on technical presentations delivered at the joint meeting of BSC–USA and BSC–Canada hosted by Orlando-Sanford International Airport, Florida, in August 2008 ().
The National Wildlife Strike Database for Civil Aviation in the United States became operational in 1995 with the initiation of data entry of all strike reports beginning in 1990. The database contained 82,057 reported strikes from 1990 to 2007. About 9,800 of these strike reports noted damage to the aircraft, of which 2,700 indicated the damage was substantial. The database has proven to be a useful source of objective information on the extent and nature of wildlife strikes for personnel at individual airports and for researchers and regulatory agencies at the national level. With the impending requirement for airports in the United States to manage safety risks through a formal safety management system (SMS) approach, we propose that the database can be a key element for prioritizing wildlife risks and providing objective benchmarks of the effectiveness of wildlife hazard management plans (WHMP). We propose that airports use the number of damaging strikes ranked by causative species over the most recent 5-year interval in combination with species-specific wildlife count data prioritized by likelihood of damage. This would guide species-specific management actions to minimize future risk. We further propose that a benchmark or threshold rate of 0.96 damaging strikes per 100,000 aircraft movements per year be established. Any airport exceeding this damaging strike rate in a given year should reevaluate its WHMP, with a focus on those species posing the greatest risk. To enhance the utility of the database in an SMS, improvements are needed in the level and quality of reporting. In particular, all strikes and the wildlife species involved in them should be reported. During the past 13 years, the National Wildlife Strike Database has provided a scientific foundation for the various efforts underway to reduce the problem of wildlife strikes with aircraft. Improvements in reporting, as outlined above, will make the database even more useful as part of an SMS to enhance safety at airports nationwide.
Collisions between aircraft and birds, birdstrikes, pose a serious threat to aviation safety. The occurrence of these events is influenced by land-uses in the surroundings of airports. Airports located in the same region might have different trends for birdstrike risk, due to differences in the surrounding habitats. Here we developed a quantitative tool that assesses the risk of birdstrike based on the habitats within a 13-km buffer from the airport. For this purpose , we developed Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) with binomial distribution to estimate the contribution of habitats to wildlife use of the study area, depending on season. These GLMs predictions were combined to the flight altitude of birds within the 13-km buffer, the airport traffic pattern and the severity indices associated with impacts. Our approach was developed at Venice Marco Polo International airport (VCE), located in northeast Italy and then tested at Treviso Antonio Canova International airport (TSF), which is 20 km inland. Results from the two airports revealed that both the surrounding habitats and the season had a significant influence to the pattern of risk. With regard to VCE, agricultural fields, wetlands and urban areas contributed most to the presence of birds in the study area. Furthermore, the key role of distance of land-uses from the airport on the probability of presence of birds was highlighted. The reliability of developed risk index was demonstrated since at VCE it was significantly correlated with bird strike rate. This study emphasizes the importance of the territory near airports and the wildlife use of its habitats, as factors in need of consideration for birdstrike risk assessment procedures. Information on the contribution of habitats in attracting birds, depending on season, can be used by airport managers and local authorities to plan specific interventions in the study area in order to lower the risk.
Order Chiroptera is the second most diverse and abundant order of mammals with great physiological and ecological diversity. They play important ecological roles as prey and predator, arthropod suppression, seed dispersal, pollination, material and nutrient distribution, and recycle. They have great advantage and disadvantage in economic terms. The economic benefits obtained from bats include biological pest control, plant pollination, seed dispersal, guano mining, bush meat and medicine, aesthetic and bat watching tourism, and education and research. Even though bats are among gentle animals providing many positive ecological and economic benefits, few species have negative effects. They cause damage on human, livestock, agricultural crops, building, and infrastructure. They also cause airplane strike, disease transmission, and contamination, and bite humans during self-defense. Bat populations appear to be declining presumably in response to human induced environmental stresses like habitat destruction and fragmentation, disturbance to caves, depletion of food resources, overhunting for bush meat and persecution, increased use of pesticides, infectious disease, and wind energy turbine. As bats are among the most overlooked in spite of their economical and ecological importance, their conservation is mandatory.
Collisions between aircraft and wildlife have increased markedly since first recorded in 1905. These strikes threaten human safety and cost the United States civil aviation industry >$677 million annually. We examined the Federal Aviation Administration's national wildlife strike database records from 1990-2010 to characterize reported strikes with civil aircraft in Mississippi. We hypothesized that daily foraging patterns and seasonal differences would affect strike frequency for birds. We summarized 381 reported strikes (366 birds, 14 mammals and 1 reptile) comprising >= 42 species. Bird strikes per 1000 aircraft operations (take-off and landing counted as separate operations) increased between 1990-2010. The monthly number of reported strikes per 1000 operations peaked July September, coinciding with late breeding season and fall migration. Bird strikes per 1000 operations occurred more often during runway approach than during take-off, and more often at dusk than during other times of day. These patterns mirrored nationally observed wildlife-strike patterns. Our results may aid airport biologists in Mississippi to prioritize species management and more effectively implement timing and types of animal control efforts.
Collisions between birds and aircraft are a concern because they threaten human safety and result in costly repairs. Most data on bird strikes have been provided by pilots and may be incomplete or biased. To assess whether bird strike statistics derived from pilot reports are biased, we compared the number of pilot-reported bird strikes at a Hawaiian airport during 1990-94 to the number of bird strikes obtained from regular runway searches for dead birds. We documented 526 bird strikes, of which only 25% were reported by pilots. Pilot reporting rates (percentage of all strikes reported by pilots) varied by species involved, number of birds struck, season, time of day, location on the runway during the landing phase, and the bird's mass. Reporting rates were not, however, correlated to size of the bird. Pilot reporting rates were independent of wind speed, wind direction, and percent cloud cover, and reporting rates were similar during landings and takeoffs. We found that bird strike statistics derived from pilot reports were biased. A sole reliance on such data can lead to incorrect conclusions and may cause airports to select inappropriate measures and times to reduce bird strikes.
Wildlife collisions with aircraft (hereafter incidents) threaten human safety and cause substantial economic loss. Although more than 97% of wildlife incidents with U.S. civil aircraft involve birds, damage is more than 4.5 times more likely to occur during a mammal incident (e.g., deer, canids). Bats are the only mammals with the potential to be struck by aircraft outside the airport environment (at least 152.4 m above ground). We examined the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) National Wildlife Strike Database from 1990 to 2010 to estimate the frequency of bat incidents with aircraft within the U.S. and the risk relative to other wildlife incidents. We summarized 417 bat incidents with U.S. civil aircraft. There were 10 bat species or species groups involved in these incidents; however, 68.9% were not identified to species. Most (85.7%) bat incidents occurred at Part 139 certificated airports that receive regularly-scheduled passenger flights with more than nine seats or unscheduled flights with more than 30 seats. More incidents occurred during August (28.3%) than any other month. Most bat incidents occurred at night (81.7%), but the greatest incident rate occurred at dusk (57.3%). More incidents occurred during aircraft landing (85.0%) than take-off (11.2%) or other phases of flight (3.7%). 'Minor' damage to aircraft occurred on only two occasions but no damage costs were reported. Incidents coincided with bat behavior, including diel activity, migration, hibernation, and juvenile recruitment. We conclude bat incidents are low risk to U.S. civil aircraft and have minimal economic effect on the U.S. civil aviation industry.
The Federal Aviation Administration produced this report in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services. This report presents a summary analysis of data from the FAA’s National Wildlife Strike Database for the 18-year period 1990 through 2007. Unless noted, all totals are for the 17-year period, and percentages are of the total known. Because of the large amount of data, Tables 2 through 17 present 18-year totals only and do not display data for individual years, 1990 through 2007. A sample of significant wildlife strikes to civil aircraft in the USA during 2007 is presented in Appendix A. These recent strike examples demonstrate the widespread and diverse nature of the problem. An analysis of 18 years of strike data reveals the magnitude and severity of the wildlife-aircraft strike problem for civil aviation in the USA. Wildlife strikes continue to pose a significant economic and safety risk for civil aviation in the USA. Management actions to reduce wildlife strikes are being implemented at many airports (e.g., Wenning et al. 2004, DeFusco et al. 2005, Dolbeer 2006a), but much work remains to be done to reduce wildlife strikes. To address the problem, airport managers first need to assess the wildlife hazards on their airports (Cleary and Dolbeer 2005). They then must take appropriate actions, under the guidance of professional biologists trained in wildlife damage management, to minimize the risks posed by wildlife. The aviation community must also widen its view of wildlife management to consider habitats and land uses in proximity to the airport. Wetlands, dredge spoil containment areas, waste-disposal facilities, and wildlife refuges can attract hazardous wildlife. Such land uses are often incompatible with aviation safety and should either be prohibited near airports or designed and operated in a manner that minimizes the attraction of hazardous wildlife. The manual Wildlife Hazard Management at Airports (Cleary and Dolbeer 2005) provides guidance to airport personnel in developing and implementing wildlife hazard management plans. Adobe Acrobat© PDF versions of the manual are available online in English, Spanish, and French at http://wildlife-mitigation.tc.faa.gov.
Wildlife incidents with aircraft cost the United States (U.S.) civil aviation industry >US51.8 million) overall and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) was the most hazardous species. Overall, relative hazard score increased with increasing log body mass. Frequency of incidents was influenced by species relative seasonal abundance and behavior. We recommend airport wildlife officials evaluate the risks mammal species pose to aircraft based on the hazard information we provide and consider prioritizing management strategies that emphasize reducing their occurrence on airport property.
Maximum likelihood or restricted maximum likelihood (REML) estimates of the
parameters in linear mixed-effects models can be determined using the lmer
function in the lme4 package for R. As for most model-fitting functions in R,
the model is described in an lmer call by a formula, in this case including
both fixed- and random-effects terms. The formula and data together determine a
numerical representation of the model from which the profiled deviance or the
profiled REML criterion can be evaluated as a function of some of the model
parameters. The appropriate criterion is optimized, using one of the
constrained optimization functions in R, to provide the parameter estimates. We
describe the structure of the model, the steps in evaluating the profiled
deviance or REML criterion, and the structure of classes or types that
represents such a model. Sufficient detail is included to allow specialization
of these structures by users who wish to write functions to fit specialized
linear mixed models, such as models incorporating pedigrees or smoothing
splines, that are not easily expressible in the formula language used by lmer.
Management of modern airports is a task beset by conflicting priorities. Airports are vital to the global market economy, but impose costly environmental disturbances including habitat loss, noise, reduced air quality, erosion, introduction of invasive organisms, and polluted storm-water runoff (Blackwell et al. 2009). Airport environments also attract some wildlife hazardous to aviation safety, namely species involved in wildlife-aircraft collisions or ‘strikes’ (ICAO 2001, Blackwell et al. 2009, DeVault et al. 2011). Since 1912 at least 276 human lives have been lost due to bird strikes (Thorpe 2010), and from 1990 to 2010, more than 106 000 bird strikes involving civil aircraft were reported to the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA; http://wildlife-mitigation. tc.faa.gov/wildlife/). Dolbeer (2006) reported that for strikes resulting in substantial aircraft damage (ICAO 1989), 66% occurred below 152 m altitude and within 1.5 km of a runway for airports servicing piston-powered aircraft only, and within 3 km of a runway for airports servicing turbine-powered aircraft (FAA 2009). Consequently, aviation authorities prioritize human safety over wildlife conservation in management of airport habitats (ICAO 2001, FAA 2009).
Despite these problems, airports have been proposed as candidates for biodiversity conservation (Kelly & Allan 2006, Blackwell et al. 2009). For example, Kutschbach- Brohl et al. (2010) report that airport grasslands can provide habitat for a range of arthropod communities (e.g. Lepidoptera), and suggest the possibility of conserving these communities while minimizing provision of prey resources to birds recognized as hazardous to aviation. Moreover, declines in grassland bird populations in Europe and North America due to agricultural intensification and development have focused attention on enhancing quality and quantity of remnant grasslands (Herkert 1994, Vickery et al. 2004), including airport grasslands. In North America, airport properties have been identified as key areas of remnant grasslands important to obligate grassland bird species; species that both nest and forage in grasslands (Vickery et al. 1994, Askins et al. 2007).
Airport properties in the contiguous USA include > 330 000 ha of grassland, mostly annually mown areas, constituting 39–50% of airport property (DeVault et al. 2012). However, there is little research specific to airport environments that considers food resources for birds (Bernhardt et al. 2010, Kutschbach-Brohl et al. 2010), how birds perceive and react to predation risk (Baker & Brooks 1981) or disturbance (Kershner & Bollinger 1996), and no adequate assessment of how grassland management might affect strike risk (Blackwell et al. 2009, Martin et al. 2011).
In this context, we contend that promoting conservation of obligate grassland birds and managing to reduce bird hazards to aviation safety combines two potentially conflicting objectives in a single management framework. Ecologically based guidance to solve this potential conflict is limited, if not oversimplified. Here, we question the potential use of airports to conserve grassland birds, and assess the challenges in managing airport grasslands in light of current ecological and behavioral frameworks. We consider conditions for conservation of obligate grassland birds on airports, and evidence on the use of airports by frequently struck, grassland birds (both obligate and facultative). We also provide a framework to manage grassland birds at airports, given current information and uncertainty. Because of the availability of strike data via the FAA, our focus is on North America. However, problems associated with bird use of airport grasslands are international (ICAO 2001). Therefore, our ultimate purpose is better to inform current management, but also identify research gaps and establish specific predictions that will guide future studies on the ecological basis of use of airport grasslands by birds.
Bat-borne viruses can pose a serious threat to human health, with examples including Nipah virus (NiV) in Bangladesh and Malaysia, and Marburg virus (MARV) in Africa. To date, significant human outbreaks of such viruses have not been reported in the European Union (EU). However, EU countries have strong historical links with many of the countries where NiV and MARV are present and a corresponding high volume of commercial trade and human travel, which poses a potential risk of introduction of these viruses into the EU. In assessing the risks of introduction of these bat-borne zoonotic viruses to the EU, it is important to consider the location and range of bat species known to be susceptible to infection, together with the virus prevalence, seasonality of viral pulses, duration of infection and titre of virus in different bat tissues. In this paper, we review the current scientific knowledge of all these factors, in relation to the introduction of NiV and MARV into the EU.
Aircraft collisions with birds and other wildlife are a serious economic and safety problem. However, all wildlife species are not equally hazardous to aviation. In implementing programs to reduce wildlife hazards, airport operators need guidance on the relative risk posed by various species so that management actions can be prioritized by the most hazardous species. Our objective was to rank various wildlife species as to their relative hazard to aircraft. We selected 21 species or species groups (e.g., gulls [Larus spp.]) for which there were ≥17 strike reports in the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Wildlife Strike Database for civil aircraft in the United States, 1991-1998. We ranked the 21 groups for relative hazard to aircraft based on the percentage of strikes causing damage, major damage, and an effect-on-flight. Deer (Cervidae, primarily Odocoileus virginianus), vultures (Cathartidae), and geese (Anserini, primarily Branta canadensis) were ranked 1, 2, and 3, respectively, in the composite ranking for most hazardous species groups. Based on the relative hazard score, deer were clearly the most hazardous group, with the second (vultures) and third (geese) groups being only 52 to 63% as hazardous as deer. The 3 lowest-ranked groups (19-21; blackbirds-starlings [Icterinae-Sturnus vulgaris], sparrows [Emberizidae excluding Icterinae, Passeridae], and swallows [Hirundinidae]) were only 2 to 9% as hazardous as deer. Relative hazard score was strongly related (P<0.01) to mean body mass for the 21 species groups. Vultures and ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) showed a greater-than-expected hazard score relative to their mean body masses, whereas coyotes (Canis latrans) showed a less-than-expected rating. We believe this initial hazard rating system provides a useful guide to assist airport operators in prioritizing management actions to reduce strike hazards. These ratings should be used in conjunction with site-specific wildlife surveys to determine relative abundance and use patterns of wildlife species for the airports in question. A critical action needed to improve the rating system is to increase the identification of species struck by aircraft, which presently stands at <50%.
Animal-vehicle collisions (AVCs) are a substantial problem in a human-dominated world, but little is known about what goes wrong, from the animal's perspective, when a collision occurs with an automobile, boat, or aircraft. Our goal is to provide insight into reactions of animals to oncoming vehicles when collisions might be imminent. Avoiding a collision requires successful vehicle detection, threat assessment, and evasive behaviour; failures can occur at any of these stages. Vehicle detection seems fairly straightforward in many cases, but depends critically on the sensory capabilities of a given species. Sensory mechanisms for detection of collisions (looming detectors) may be overwhelmed by vehicle speed. Distractions are a likely problem in vehicle detection, but have not been clearly demonstrated in any system beyond human pedestrians. Many animals likely perceive moving vehicles as non-threatening, and may generally be habituated to their presence. Slow or minimal threat assessment is thus a likely failure point in many AVCs, but this is not uniformly evident. Animals generally initiate evasive behaviour when a collision appears imminent, usually employing some aspect of native antipredator behaviour. Across taxa, animals exhibit a variety of behaviours when confronted with oncoming vehicles. Among marine mammals, right whales Eubalaena spp., manatees Trichechus spp., and dugongs Dugong dugon are fairly unresponsive to approaching vehicles, suggesting a problem in threat assessment. Others, such as dolphins Delphinidae, assess vehicle approach at distance. Little work has been conducted on the behavioural aspects of AVCs involving large mammals and automobiles, despite their prevalence. Available observations suggest that birds do not usually treat flying aircraft as a major threat, often allowing close approach before taking evasive action, as they might in response to natural predators. Inappropriate antipredator behaviour (often involving immobility) is a major source of AVCs in amphibians and terrestrial reptiles. Much behavioural work on AVCs remains to be done across a wide variety of taxa. Such work should provide broad phylogenetic generalizations regarding AVCs and insights into managing AVCs.
Wildlife incidents with aircraft cost airports and operators worldwide an average of US$1.28bn annually. In Canada, Airport Wildlife Management Plans (AWMPs) are designed to provide an outline of specific wildlife hazards at airports and recommend countermeasures to minimise strike risk. Wildlife incident reports are a key component in the development of such plans. Here, wildlife incident reports were compiled and compared to data collected using newly-installed digital wildlife camera trap technology at the Prince George International Airport. Seven camera traps were monitored for a total of 2,426 sampling days (9,228 camera days) between 2009 and 2016 and recorded a total of 3,046 animals within 16 different animal species/groups. Airport personnel recorded 4,640 animals and 23 different species/ groups during the same period. Camera traps recorded almost five times as many animals (n = 2,525) on days when no wildlife incident reports were filed than days when wildlife incident reports were filed (n = 521) and camera traps recorded no images. Z-test for proportions analyses indicated that birds (ie flocks) were more commonly observed and reported by airport personnel than were captured by camera traps, while mammals such as moose (Alces alces), black bears (Ursus americanus) and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) were more commonly recorded by camera traps. These findings suggest that data from camera traps can help in the development of more informed AWMPs.
The common approach to the multiplicity problem calls for controlling the familywise error rate (FWER). This approach, though, has faults, and we point out a few. A different approach to problems of multiple significance testing is presented. It calls for controlling the expected proportion of falsely rejected hypotheses — the false discovery rate. This error rate is equivalent to the FWER when all hypotheses are true but is smaller otherwise. Therefore, in problems where the control of the false discovery rate rather than that of the FWER is desired, there is potential for a gain in power. A simple sequential Bonferronitype procedure is proved to control the false discovery rate for independent test statistics, and a simulation study shows that the gain in power is substantial. The use of the new procedure and the appropriateness of the criterion are illustrated with examples.
Brazil is the largest country in Latin America and has a considerable amount of air traffic volume domestically and internationally. Wildlife strikes are an increasing safety and economic concern for aviation operations in Brazil. The Brazilian Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center (CENIPA) has published annual reports summarizing the results of analyses of the data in a national level since 2009. The goal of this study was to supplement the CENIPA’s annual reports with information derived from the analysis of wildlife strikes to aviation, during 2011-2016, from the three busiest international commercial airports in Brazil: Guarulhos, Brasília, and Galeão. A set of descriptive analysis was conducted to present the overall characteristics of wildlife strikes at and around those three airports. In addition, statistical comparison of wildlife strikes with different factors was conducted. Analysis of these data indicated an increasing trend of wildlife strikes from 2011 to 2016. Results also indicated that the majority of the damaging strikes occurred during the departure phases of flight at the studied airports. The distributions of wildlife-strikes per phase of flight, per quarter of the year, per type of operator, and per period of the day are presented in this paper. Results indicated that, during the period studied, most strikes in Guarulhos occurred during the first, and in Brasília and Galeão during the second quarter of the year, respectively. Findings suggested that the risk of a damaging strike is higher at dawn in Guarulhos and Galeão, and during the day in Brasília. Findings of this study could facilitate the integration of Safety Management Systems (SMS) and wildlife hazard management programs (WHMP) by airport operators and air carriers. Additionally, current findings may inform the development of national policies and standards in Brazil as well as the future integrated research and management efforts to mitigate wildlife strikes.
Keywords: aviation safety, wildlife strikes, wildlife-hazard management, safety management systems
Wildlife management seeks to minimise public controversy for successful application of wildlife control methods. Human dimensions research in wildlife seeks a better understanding of public preferences for effective human–wildlife conflict resolution. In face to face interviews, 630 adults in Greece were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert-like scale their acceptance of 3 management methods, i.e., do nothing, non-lethal control, and lethal control, in the context of 5 human–wildlife conflict scenarios: 1) corvids damage crops; 2) starlings damage crops; 3) starlings foul urban structures; 4) coypus damage crops; and 5) coypus transfer disease. Univariate GLMs determined occupation, hunting membership and their interaction as the stronger predictors of public acceptance, generating 4 stakeholder groups: the general public, farmers, hunters, and farmers-hunters. Differences in acceptance and consensus among stakeholder groups were assessed using the Potential for Conflict Index2 (PCI2). All 4 stakeholder groups agreed that doing nothing was unacceptable and non-lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios, with generally high consensus within and between groups. The lethal control method was more controversial and became increasingly more acceptable as the severity of scenarios was increased and between non-native and native species. Lethal control was unacceptable for the general public in all scenarios. Farmers accepted lethal methods in the corvids and starlings scenarios, were neutral in the coypus damage crops scenario, whereas they accepted lethal control when coypus transfer disease. Hunters' opinion was neutral in the corvids, starlings and coypus damage crops and starlings foul urban structures scenarios, but they accepted lethal methods in the coypus transfer disease scenario. Farmers-hunters considered lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios. Implications from this study could be used for designing a socio-ecological approach which incorporates wildlife management with public interests. The studied species have a wide distribution, therefore present findings might also prove useful elsewhere.
The authors analyzed data on civil aircraft strikes with wild ungulates (deer [Odocoileus spp.], elk [Cervus canadensis] and moose [Alces alces]) in the U.S. from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Wildlife Strike Database and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Aviation Accident Database for 1983 to 1997. Prior to 1991, the FAA Form 5200-7 for reporting strikes was designated solely for bird strike data, thus, strike reports for non-avian species prior to 1991 are underrepresented. A total of 343 ungulate strikes was reported, 48 from 1983 to 1990 and 295 from 1991 to 1997. Forty-four states reported ungulate strikes with 77% of the reports from states east of the Mississippi River. November had more (P < 0.01) strikes (23 %) than any other month. The strike rate (number/hr) was four to nine times greater (P < 0.01) at dusk than at night or dawn. Almost two-thirds of strikes (P < 0.01) occurred during landing, making landing at dusk in November the most likely time for deer strikes. About 79% of strikes had an effect on flight. Aircraft were damaged in 83% of strikes. Only 14% of reports indicating damage provided estimates of cost of repairs. The mean cost for these reports was $74,537. Reported human injuries have been few, but the potential exists for a major disaster. Aircraft with capacity of 101 to 380 passengers were involved in 45 (14%) of the reported strikes. Airports should adopt a "zero tolerance" for deer within the operations area. Deer removal by professional shooters, in conjunction with permanent exclusion with 3 m high fencing, is the preferred management action.
Collisions between wildlife and aircraft (wildlife strikes) cost civil aviation more than 85,816/aircraft; total= 54 million. Airport managers in Ohio and elsewhere should develop wildlife hazard management programs to minimize the risk of wildlife strikes, especially with deer, geese, gulls and other large species.
Responsibility for wildlife damage management at the federal level (in the USA) has been legislatively delegated to the Animal Damage Control (ADC) program. This paper discusses the role of the ADC program in deer (Odocoileus spp) management and highlights recent projects that have reduced deer damage to crops and deer-related human health concerns. The authors also describe past and on-going research and development activities conducted to improve deer management techniques.
An analysis, the first of its kind in Namibia, was conducted on five years' (2006–2010) Aircraft-wildlife collision (AWC) records from two Namibian airports. These records were compared to AWC reports of three Namibian airlines. Trends in annual and seasonal occurrence of AWCs and species responsible for collisions were investigated. A total of 55 and 73 AWC incidents were reported at Hosea Kutako and Eros airports, respectively. No year-on-year trends in reported AWC incidents could be established, with the highest percentage recorded in the first year (37% of all records). By cross-referencing reports from different entities we estimate that only 19% of incidents were recorded over the study period. Both birds and mammals were involved in AWCs during the period with the two most common species being crowned lapwing (Vanellus coronatus) (16% of all incidents at Hosea Kutako and 69% of incidents at Eros) and helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) (9% and 8%, respectively). Unidentified species accounted for, on average, 25% of incidents at Hosea Kutako and 9% at Eros. This analysis provides public and scientific awareness on AWCs as a form of human-wildlife conflict and provides focus for further research into habitat and environmental factors which attract species frequently involved in aircraft collisions. The study sets a baseline of collision frequency against which the success of future airport wildlife minimization efforts can be measured.
On March 4, 2008, a Cessna Citation 1 (Model 500) crashed in a wooded area near Wiley Post Airport, Oklahoma, killing all 5 people on board. This paper describes the detailed forensic methods and expertise used by the Smithsonian Institution’s Feather Identification Lab to identify the bird that caused this bird-strike incident. We used standard methods of whole-feather analysis, microscopic examination, and DNA barcoding in this case to identify American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) as the bird species involved in this fatal crash. We also report the importance of proper field investigation and evidence collection for accurate results, particularly for this case, and generally for all bird-strike identifications.
From 1997 through 2007, 821 bat strikes were reported to the U.S. Air Force (USAF) Safety Center by aircraft personnel or ground crew and sent to the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, for identification. Many samples were identified by macroscopic and or microscopic comparisons with bat specimens housed in the museum and augmented during the last 2 years by DNA analysis. Bat remains from USAF strikes during this period were received at the museum from 40 states in the United States and from 20 countries. We confirmed that 46% of the strikes were caused by bats, but we did not identify them further; we identified 5% only to the family or genus level, and 49% to the species level. Fifty-five of the 101 bat-strike samples submitted for DNA analysis have been identified to the species level. Twenty-five bat species have been recorded striking USAF planes worldwide. The Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis; n = 173) is the species most commonly identified in USAF strike impacts, followed by the red bat (Lasiurus borealis; n = 83). Bat strikes peak during the spring and fall, with >57% occurring from August through October; 82% of the reports that included time of strike were recorded between 2100 and 0900 hours. More than 12% of the bat strikes were reported at >300 m above ground level (AGL). Although <1% of the bat-strike reports indicated damage to USAF aircraft, cumulative damage for 1997 through 2007 totaled >$825,000 and >50% of this sum was attributable to 5 bat-strike incidents. Only 5 bats from the 10 most damaging bat strikes were identified to the species level, either because we did not receive remains with the reports or the sample was insufficient for identification.
Wildlife incidents with aircraft are of concern in the United States as they pose a risk to human safety and economic losses for the aviation industry. Most previous research on wildlife-aircraft incidents has emphasized birds, bats, and ungulates. We queried the Federal Aviation Administration’s National Wildlife Strike Database from 1990 to 2012 to characterize carnivore incidents with U.S. civil aircraft. We found 1016 carnivore incidents with aircraft representing at least 16 species, with coyotes (n = 404) being the species most frequently struck. California and Texas had the most reported incidents and incidents were most likely to occur at night from August to November. Overall estimated damage to aircraft was US$ 7 million. Coinciding with the increase in air traffic, the rate of carnivore-aircraft incidents increased 13.1% annually from 1990 to 2012 whereas the rate of damaging incidents remained fairly constant. Due to the increase in carnivore-aircraft incidents from 1990 to 2012, we recommend further research on techniques to increase detection of carnivores and implementation and scheduled maintenance of perimeter high fences for exclusion. Additionally, we recommend increasing patrol of runways, especially during peak incident periods (July–November) and at night (2000–0600 h).
Significance
The majority of mammal species are nocturnal, but many are diurnal (active during the day), crepuscular (active mostly during twilight), or cathemeral (active during hours of daylight and darkness). These different strategies for regulating activity over a 24-h cycle are associated with suites of adaptations to light or semidarkness. The biogeography of these time partitioning strategies is, however, poorly understood. We show that global patterns in mammal diversity with different diel activity patterns are constrained by the duration of time that is both ( i ) illuminated by daylight, moonlight, and/or twilight and ( ii ) between thermal limits suitable for mammal activity.
Collisions between birds and aircraft (birdstrikes) pose a major threat to aviation safety. Different species pose different levels of threat; thus, identification of the most hazardous species can help managers identify the level of hazard and prioritize mitigation efforts. Dolbeer et al. (2000) assessed the hazard posed by birds to civilian aircraft by analyzing data from the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Wildlife Strike Database to rank the hazardous species and species groups. A similar analysis has not been done for the military but would be useful and necessary. Military flight characteristics differ from those of civilian flights. During the period 1985-1998, birdstrikes cost the United States Air Force (USAF) an average of 1,000,000 damage, loss of aircraft, loss of life, or permanent total disability) were sustained, accounting for 80% of total monetary losses caused by birds. Vultures (Cathartes aura, Coragyps atratus, Caracara cheriway) were ranked the most hazardous species group (Hazard Index Rank [HIR] = 127) to USAF aircraft, followed by geese (Branta canadensis, Chen caerulescens, HIR = 76), pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, P. occidentalis, HIR = 47), and buteos (Buteo sp., HIR = 30). Of the smaller flocking birds, blackbirds and starlings (mostly Agelaius phoeniceus, Euphagus cyanocephalus, Molothrus ater, Sturnus vulgaris, HIR = 46), horned larks (Eremophila alpestris, HIR = 24), and swallows (Families Hirundinidae, Apodidae, HIR = 23) were species groups ranked highest. Coupling these results with local bird census data to adjust hazard rank indices to specific locations can facilitate hazard management and lead to meaningful reductions in hazards and costs associated with birdstrikes.