Content uploaded by Pooja Sharma
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Pooja Sharma on Feb 07, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
Understanding Transition
in South Asia
Economy, Politics and Society
(Essays in Honour of Partha S. Ghosh)
Understanding Transition in South Asia
Economy, Politics and Society
(Essays in Honour of Partha S. Ghosh)
Editors
Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury
Vikash Kumar
Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury,
Ph.D, is Senior Fellow with the
Neighbourhood Initiative of
Observer Research Foundation,
Kolkata chapter. She is the coordi-
nator of the research project,
‘Proximity to Connectivity’. She
specialises in South Asia, refugees,
forced migration, and women in
conflict zones. Her recent publica-
tions include India-Myanmar
Borderlands: Ethnicity, Security
and Connectivity (Co-edited:
2020); Connecting Nations: India
and Southeast Asia (co-edited,
2019), State of Being Stateless
(co-edited, 2015); Women in
Indian Borderlands (co-edited,
2011)
Vikash Kumar obtained his PhD
degree in South Asian Studies
from Jawaharlal Nehru University
(JNU), New Delhi. Presently, he is
working with the Centre for
Research in Rural and Industrial
Development (CRRID), Chandigarh
as an Assistant Professor. His
areas of academic interest are
Regional Cooperation, Sustainable
Development, Rural Transforma-
tion, Human Rights and Migration
studies in South Asia. He has
recently co-authored a book on
Lessons in Sustainable Develop-
ment from Bangladesh and India,
published by Palgrave.
This book is an attempt in honour of Professor Partha
Ghosh by bringing together contributions of scholars who
have been closely associated with him in different capaci-
ties in India and abroad. Keeping in view the major
facets of his academic and personal interests as well as
his seminal contribution to the South Asian Studies, the
book has tried to accommodate select essays on issues
related to economy, politics and society of South Asia.
Contents
Foreword
About the Editors/Authors
Introduction
Section 1 – Region and Regionalism:
Historical Linkages to Contemporary Issues
1. Asian Interconnections in the Past as a Clue
to Future Regional Cooperation: The Case
Study of Mahattara Bharat
Sarvani Gooptu
2. Framing South Asia as a Neighbourhood
Samir Kumar Das
3. Regionalism and Regionalisation in South
Asia: Issues and Prospects
Sanjukta Banerji Bhattacharya
4. Security Sector Reform in South Asia: Need
for Strengthening Regional Cooperation
Ajay K. Mehra and Dhrubajyoti
Bhattacharjee
5. Regional Trading Arrangements in South
Asia: Issues in Conflict Management
Indra Nath Mukherji
6. Energy Transition in South Asia: Issues and
Challenges
Girijesh Pant and Pooja Sharma
Section 2 – India: Some issues in Foreign
Policy directives
7. India’s “Soft Power”: A Neglected Field
Dietmar Rothermund
8. India–ASEAN–Japan Vs China
Rajaram Panda
9. Indian Ocean and Major Powers: Reconfig-
uring India’s Role
Rajen Harshé and Sankalp Gurjar
10. Indian Foreign Policy: The Rise of the South
and Indo-LAC Relations
Jorge Heine and Hari Seshasayee
Section 3 – Beyond India: Pakistan and Sri
Lanka
11. Pakistan and Its Neighbours: Assessing
Economic, Ecological, Sociological and
Political Relations
Wolfgang-Peter Zingel
12. Breaking the Mould in Economic Policy in
Sri Lanka
K.M. de Silva
13. A Tale of Four Cities: Why Ethnic Diversity
does not Necessarily Lead to Ethnic Conflict
Subrata K. Mitra and Radu Carciumaru
14. Tai Cultural Heritage in Northeast India:
Issues of Identities
Lipi Ghosh
Editors
Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury
Vikash Kumar
Book
Do A
www.academicfoundation.com
www.academicfoundation.org
ACADEMIC FOUN DATIO N
NEW DELHI
T: +91-11-23245001-04
MANESAR
T: +91-124-4215070-71
www.academicfoundation.org
ISBN 978-93-327-0527-2
Book
Do A
` 1495 (Indian subcontinent)
Understanding Transition in South Asia
Economy, Politics and Society
(Essays in Honour of Partha S. Ghosh)
Understanding Transition
in South Asia
Economy, Politics and Society
(Essays in Honour of Partha S. Ghosh)
Editors
A B R C
V K
www.academicfoundation.com
www.academicfoundation.org
www.academicfoundation.com
www.academicfoundation.org
First published in 2020
by
AF PRESS
No. 35, Sector 7,
IMT Manesar,
Gurugram - 122050.
Phones : +91-124-4215070 / 71.
E-mail : booksaf@gmail.com
www.academicfoundation.org
Disclaimer:
e ndings/views/opinions expressed in this book are solely those of the
author and do not necessarily reect the views of the publisher.
© 2020. Authors
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Understanding Transition in South Asia: Economy, Politics and Society
by Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury and Vikash Kumar
ISBN 9789332705272
Typeset, printed and bound by PrintShoot, Gurugram.
www.printshoot.com
CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
About the Editors/Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SECTION 1
REGION AND REGIONALISM: HISTORICAL
LINKAGES TO CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
1. Asian Interconnections in the Past as a
Clue to Future Regional Cooperation:
e Case Study of Mahattara Bharat
SARVANI GOOPTU. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2. Framing South Asia as a Neighbourhood
SAMIR KUMAR DAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3. Regionalism and Regionalisation
in South Asia: Issues and Prospects
SANJUKTA BANERJI BHATTACHARYA . . . . . . . . . .77
4. Security Sector Reform in South Asia: Need
for Strengthening Regional Cooperation
AJAY K. MEHRA AND
DHRUBAJYOTI BHATTACHARJEE . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH ASIA
5. Regional Trading Arrangements in South
Asia: Issues in Conflict Management
INDRA NATH MUKHERJI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6. Energy Transition in South Asia:
Issues and Challenges
GIRIJESH PANT AND POOJA SHARMA . . . . . . . . . 161
SECTION 2
INDIA: SOME ISSUES IN FOREIGN
POLICY DIRECTIVES
7. India’s “Soft Power”: A Neglected Field
DIETMAR ROTHERMUND. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8. India–ASEAN–Japan Vs China
RAJARAM PANDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9. Indian Ocean and Major Powers:
Reconfiguring India’s Role
RAJEN HARSHÉ AND SANKALP GURJAR . . . . . . . 239
10. Indian Foreign Policy: e Rise
of the South and Indo-LAC Relations
JORGE HEINE AND HARI SESHASAYEE . . . . . . . . 265
SECTION 3
BEYOND INDIA: PAKISTAN AND SRI LANKA
11. Pakistan and Its Neighbours: Assessing
Economic, Ecological, Sociological
and Political Relations
WOLFGANGPETER ZINGEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7
CONTENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Breaking the Mould in Economic
Policy in Sri Lanka
K.M. DE SILVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
13. A Tale of Four Cities: Why Ethnic
Diversity does not Necessarily Lead
to Ethnic Conflict
SUBRATA K. MITRA AND RADU CARCIUMARU . . . . 369
14. Tai Cultural Heritage in Northeast
India: Issues of Identities
LIPI GHOSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Foreword
I
am pleased to offer these introductory remarks in
connection with the publication of Understanding South
Asia: Economy, Politics and Society, a Festschrift for
Professor Partha S. Ghosh, a renowned social scientist and a
wonderful human being from India with contributions from
his friends, colleagues and academic fellow-travellers. is
volume is a collection of scholarly articles on South Asia to
honour Professor Ghosh.
I have had the privilege to know him for the last two
decades through his erudite writings and through my
unforgettable interactions with him several times, either in
Kolkata, or in Delhi. rough his systematic research, he has
produced a number of signicant volumes on South Asian
history and politics. He has provided academic leadership in
many prestigious academic institutions, including the Indian
Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), Centre for South
Asian Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Omeo Kumar
Das Institute of Social Change and Development (OKDISCD),
Guwahati and Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) in
dierent capacities.
Professor Ghosh has written extensively on South Asian
politics, particularly on migrations, ethnicity and religion. His
personal and professional achievements have been elucidated
by the editors in the introduction that vividly captures a
snapshot of his excellence.
I had the benet of knowing this academic at a time, when
Professor Ghosh was probably most prolic in writing his best
books. And, I noticed with utter surprise of mine how such a
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
widely read person could be so humble and well-mannered.
He always encourages younger scholars even in their bad
days. In other words, apart from his countless contributions
to the understanding of South Asia, Professor Ghosh has
been a tireless mentor, reading and commenting on the
work of peers and students and giving encouragement to
younger scholars. Intellectual openness ranks among his most
contagious qualities. He seems to me to be a complete human
being. After all, one becomes a human being through one’s
interaction, love, and friendships with others. His energy
and commitment to excellence, engagement, and ethics is
contagious. He is a true professional and the embodiment
of honest research. To my humble understanding, Professor
Ghosh’s dedication to intellectual comprehensiveness and
to disciplinary thoroughness should be rejoiced. Let the
celebration begin. This is to wish him stable health and
contentment.
Sabyasachi Basu Ray Chaudhury
Vice-Chancellor
Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata
6
GIRIJESH PANT and POOJA SHARMA
Energy Transition in South Asia
Issues and Challenges
South Asia is the leading consumer of energy, out of
which hydrocarbon accounts for a predominant share.
However, it is neither richly endowed with hydrocarbons
nor has been able to harness its potential comprehensively.
Consequently, with economies gaining pace, it has become
an energy-decit region, meeting most of its demand from
imports. e import dependence varies from 100 per cent
in the case of Maldives to about 25 per cent in the case of
Bhutan. In the case of large countries like India, Bangladesh
and Pakistan, it is more than 80 per cent of their hydrocarbon
demand. is high dependence makes the region vulnerable
to the twists and turns of the global market, thereby creating
a sense of insecurity. Like other oil import-dependent
countries, energy has been securitised in South Asian energy
discourse as well. However, hydrocarbon poor South Asia is
richly endowed with renewable sources of energy. If it could
harness its potential, then not only could it meet its own
needs but could export as well. Surely that will make the
region energy secured, besides it will also open up horizons
for value chain business contributing to economic growth and
employment generated in the economy. In the past, attempts
to move to renewable energy did not yield results largely
on the ground of cost and technological limitation. Today,
with revolutionary changes in technology, it has become
possible to produce solar and wind energy at grid parity rate,
162 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
making them a feasible alternative. e need for moving to an
alternative has become imperative not only to enhance supply
to meet the energy poverty of the region but equally to reduce
carbon emission to address the environmental concern. e
Paris Agreement has made it obligatory for countries to move
to low carbon economy with targets and date line popularly
described as Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
(INDC).
Energy transition thus is high on the global and national
agenda. South Asia is no exception to it. However, there is
no uniform path to transition because every country has
its ecosystem, and there is no one size that fits all. Each
country has to invent its path reecting on the convergence
of multiple factors drawing from the local and global
milieu. In the case of South Asian countries, apart from
availability, accessibility becomes equally crucial in the
transition path. Unlike a hydrocarbon-based system which
is highly centralised, renewable energy provides the option
to conceive a decentralised mode thereby closer to meet
the accessibility requirements of South Asian countries.
Even though each country has to invent its path, there are
common issues which they share. In this chapter, an attempt
is made to look at the issues and challenges that South Asian
countries are encountering in their transition path. Since
energy transition is driven by global ecological concern, it is
heavily inuenced and determined by the global processes.
e global ows of nance and technology are critical in its
making. Equally important is the institutional support for
its governance. South Asia energy transition thus is not only
driven by local dynamics but also by global collaboration and
cooperation. In other words, the transition path in South Asia
has to be conceptualised as part of a global transition project
because failing of any country to meet its target has obvious
163
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
implications for global targets. In the case of South Asia,
which is one of the big emitters of carbon, the global stakes
are relatively high.
I
Energy Transition: the Global Perspective
Energy transition became part of the global agenda
primarily due to environmental concerns though at the
national level it is largely motivated by the supply side of the
equation. e prospects of global warming impacting global
communities and consequently threatening the existence
of low lying habitat, made it part of the global common.
This was further reinforced by the UN declaration of
sustainable energy for all.1 According to the Energy Transition
Commission 2016, there are two options to cut down energy
emission, namely, decarbonising energy supply. The first
option emphasises on enhancing the share of zero-carbon
sources of energy like renewable by changing the energy mix
through policy intervention. e second method proposes to
decarbonise energy making it environmentally friendly and
reducing its demand by adopting more ecient technology by
end-use consumers (Energy Transition Commission, 2017).
Both options depend upon technological breakthroughs.
e energy market today has mature technology to provide
cost parity between fossil fuel and renewable and peaking
of energy demand. However, technology is controlled by
those countries that have invested in this sector. us the
1. Sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy. Nearly one
person in ve on the planet still lacks access to electricity. Twice that number,
almost three billion people rely on wood, coal, charcoal or animal waste for cooking
and heating. is is a major barrier to eradicating poverty and building shared
prosperity. For details see http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals, last accessed on
30 July 2019.
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
availability of technology has become a necessary condition
for the energy transition in countries like that of South Asia.
It is precisely for this reason that the Paris Agreement Article
10 has envisaged a framework for technology development
and transfer among the countries. The technological
breakthrough is not conned to fuel substitution only. It is
likely to transform the organising principles of the energy
market. e prospects of digitalisation of energy are expected
to bring fundamental changes in global energy systems.
It is argued that “the combination of the ve Ss: software,
semiconductors, sensors, solar and storage” is driving the
emerging energy revolution which places people to the centre
of the energy system (Reid, 2016). In this context, the World
Economic Forum to share the prognosis,
The digital transformation of energy systems—smart
meters, energy management systems, automated demand
response or microgrids—could also help people everywhere
access a reliable and aordable source of energy. Two-way
communication between energy producers and consumers,
as well as the increasing number of prosumers—those who
both produce and consume energy—means that distributed
energy resources can be dispatched to those areas that need
it the most. at could include areas encountering supply
shortages and grid stability issues, or those where renewable
resources provide only an intermittent energy supply (WEF,
2016).
The transformational changes are revising producer-
consumer relationship, which is termed as prosumer. It is
clear from these developments that new technology not
only has made renewable cost-eective but also accessible to
remote and rural areas, addressing the accessibility aspect
of energy security. e issue thus boils down to the access
to new technology and development of local technological
165
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
capacities. This implies technological collaboration and
investment in capacity building.
e Paris Agreement does recognise the need for nancial
support to developing countries to move on the transition
path. It has made a strong case for nancial assistance from
multilateral agencies like the World Bank, International
Finance Corporation (IFC) and the Asian Development Bank
(ADB) (Christianson, et al. 2017). According to the IRENA
report, to meet the target of Paris Agreement of raising
the share of renewable in primary energy to 65 per cent by
2050 as against 15 per cent in 2015, an investment of $25
trillion, i.e., three times of the current investment needs to
be made. It observes that while private nancing accounts
for the bulk of the investment in renewable energy sources,
institutional investors must be drawn into the renewable
energy sector at scale. As a result, divesting from fossil-fuel
installations and making them stranded assets involves risk.
Public finance sources, which are available in the form of
concessional nance, create and enable conditions, as well as
guarantee and scale up to other risk mitigation instruments.
ey must also be used in a more targeted manner to spur
new investment, especially in emerging economies that are
currently lagging (IRENA, 2018a). Another study by IRENA
reveals that governments, banks, insurance companies,
pension funds and startup projects are major investors
in the arena of renewable energy investments. In the
aftermath of the nancial crisis, public institutions played an
especially critical role in providing capital that was otherwise
unavailable from private sources. Corporate lending is one
of the prominent instruments used by banks for renewable
energy investment. e study further argues that given the
complex nature of barriers to an investment like economic,
166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
political, legal, technical, a robust national policy is essential
to create a market attractive to the nancier.
In developing countries, strong Renewable Energy (RE)
policies have proved easiest to justify in markets that are
highly dependent on energy imports, … given that RE
investment has followed broader FDI trends, countries
which have a poor framework for FDI, in general, cannot
expect to attract overseas RE infrastructure finance. The
macroeconomic reforms necessary to attract FDI more
broadly will also enable increased foreign investment in RE.
In general, governments should seek to mobilise RE nance
in two comprehensive ways: first, by setting overarching
regulatory and incentive frameworks that shift investment
into RE on a macro level; and second, by using targeted
public funding to ll or overcome specic nancing gaps and
barriers (ibid.).
Global nancing plays a vital role in energy transition not
only in terms of volume but also as a source of technology
and process of technology diusion.
Energy Transition: Political Economy!
In the context of developing countries like that of South
Asia, the energy transition is not conned to a mere change in
energy mix but goes beyond; hence, it plays out with its issues
of the political economy. It is imperative that the distribution
of cost and gains incurred in transition and transformation is
balanced by the principle of energy justice. is means that
transition and transformation need to push for correcting
the prevailing energy injustices of a highly centralised energy
system. In other words, factoring of energy justice impinges
upon the organisational principle of the energy regime. It
also raises the issue of ownership and distribution of the
energy system. Some leading questions stemming out from
the transition to be addressed include—what is the proposed
167
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
organising principle of harnessing energy from the resource;
what should be the policy regime and the sources of nancing
the renewable energy investments; whether and how
carbon-based regime can address the issue of injustice; how
renewable can deal with the issue of energy justice and so on.
The transition trajectory in the countries where
transformation is on anvil shows a strong shift in favour of
renewable energy in a decentralised setting. In
Germany, citizen cooperatives have long been investing
in the production of renewable energies, and some are
now looking at how to buy back the energy grid from the
energy companies…. In France, Spain, Croatia and even
Greece citizens have started to invest in renewable energy
cooperatives (EASME, 2015).
It is argued that with renewable gaining share in the
energy mix particularly in the power sector, distributed
generation systems are going to play a vital role in addressing
the issue of energy poverty by providing sustainable energy
resources. e sustainability lies in its decentralising nature
and moreover it is plausible since the cost of decentralised
energy technologies is falling.
Energy distribution does not necessarily need to be
through major power plants and large grids. It can be more
decentralised. at’s a major change that might have an even
bigger impact on the developing than the developed world
because it makes investments much lower to build up a
functioning energy system (Renssen, 2016).
us, while is some markets, structural change is reecting
more in terms of transition than a transformation in others,
the market is reaching at the threshold of transformation. In
countries like South Asia, transition weighs more in favour of
the changing energy mix, thereby pursued in the distributive
framework of centralised grids. Even global collaborations
168 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
and financial supports lean more for improvising central
grid systems. Ironically, the experience of these countries
suggests that the centralised grid has been unable to tackle
the issue of energy poverty, especially in the rural setting.
e apprehension cannot be dismissed that in meeting the
targets, the government would focus more on a strengthened
centralised grid. This, however, is at variance with the
emerging trend in favour of a decentralised, decarbonised and
democratic energy regime.
The next era of energy distribution is one that won’t
be controlled by the power companies, but one in which
customers and utilities work together to create a greener,
stronger, and more reliable energy network. e technology is
here, and now, and with a cooperative eort, a new electrical
energy structure is possible (Meyer, 2016).
Paris Agreement and Imperatives of Transition in Energy
Mix in South Asia
All South Asian countries have set targets and time
line in consonance to their commitment to the Paris
Agreement. Bhutan, the mountainous country has resolved
to implement INDC from 2020 to control its emission of
greenhouse gases which is not desired to exceed the carbon
sequestration by the forests, estimated at 6.3 million ton of
carbon dioxide. It will maintain a minimum of 60 per cent
of the total land under forest cover for all the time. Eorts
will also be undertaken to maintain a forest cover of around
70.46 per cent through sustainable forest management
and conservation of environmental services. Bhutan is
determined to pursue ecologically balanced sustainable
development coupled with the development policy of Gross
National Happiness (GNH). Nepal, another mountainous
country of the region, is highly dependent on biomass and
169
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fossils fuel for its energy needs and aims at achieving 80
per cent electrification through renewable energy sources
with appropriate energy mix, reducing its dependency on
fossil fuels by 50 per cent. Being most vulnerable to the
consequences of climate change, Bangladesh is a founding
member of the Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) which made
a unilateral declaration to shift to 100 per cent renewable
energy by 2050 without any preconditions. This obviously
would require a robust and dynamic transition policy. As will
be discussed in the following section, Bangladesh has crafted
a policy regime which promotes a public-private partnership
business model. Pakistan is highly susceptible to the adverse
impacts of climate change and placed among the top ten most
climate-aected countries in the world as declared by Global
Climate Risk index formulated by German watch. e country
intends to bridge its decit in the power sector by increasing
the share of renewable energy. e target to get 5 per cent
of the total generation from renewables by 2030 is expected
to be increased to at least 15 per cent in the coming years
(Climate Scope, 2017). Being an island country, Sri Lanka is
highly vulnerable to the adverse eects of climate change. It
has put forward highly ambitious voluntary goals to produce
100 per cent of their electricity through renewable by 2050.
India, the largest consumer of energy in South Asia, has
placed a comprehensive transition strategy to move towards
low carbon systems. It has proposed to enhance the share
of renewable in the power sector beyond the Paris Climate
Accord target. India proposes to raise the share of power to
57 per cent by 2027 while Paris accord calls for 40 per cent by
2030. e high targets set by the South Asian countries can
be achieved only if they have appropriate energy regime to
harness the rich resource endowment of renewable.
170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
II
Renewable Energy in South Asia:
Potentials and Initiatives
Though South Asia is richly endowed with sources of
renewable energy, there is a huge potential that remains
untapped. Table 1 provides a synoptic view of potentials in
dierent sources from dierent countries of the region. All
countries are not equally endowed with all forms of resources.
Nepal alone has a huge hydropower potential of
83,000 MW, and even if energy demand increases at a rate
of 10 per cent, domestic demand will reach only 3500 MW
by 2025. is presents a lucrative opportunity for Nepal for
energy trade that will also help in enhancing energy security
in the South Asian countries as a whole. Similarly, the massive
solar power potential in India and wind power potential in
Afghanistan can help the South Asian region go a long way in
fullling its energy needs (Shukla et al., 2017).
A brief profile of these resources in the region
substantiates the point.
Table 1
Renewable Energy Potential.
Country Solar power potential
(kWh/m2/day)
Hydro power
potential (MW)
Wind power poten-
tial (MW)
India 5.0 150,000 102,778
Sri Lanka 5.0 2,000 24,000
Pakistan 5.3 59,000 131,800
Afghanistan 6.5 25,000 158,000
Bangladesh 5.0 330 –
Nepal 4.0 83,000 –
Source: Shukla et al., 2017.
171
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The challenges to energy transition can be better
appreciated by looking at the prole of the region in terms of
initiatives and performance. Each country has visualised and
conceptualised its roadmap dierentially. us, a country-
wise analysis of the initiatives will provide a better insight
than the aggregation of the region.
Afghanistan
The country has a huge potential of hydro power,
estimated at 23000 MW of energy; 125 sites have been
identied with the potential of over 600 MW of electricity.
It has approximately 158,500 MW installed capacity that is
5MW /km2, 31,600 km2 windy land area or approximately 5
per cent of the total land area (UNECE, 2016), and around
300 sunny days in one year or other words 3,000 hours of
sun, in terms of solar energy. is implies, on an average,
approximately 6.5 kWh/m2 solar radiation is available per
day. Roughly, 85 per cent of Afghanistan’s energy needs are
met by traditional biomass, mainly wood and dung (ibid.).
e government has oered several investment incentives
such as energy farms on long-term land lease, 25 per cent
subsidy to invest in renewable energy, various tax incentives
and security assistance along with long-term Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA). e Government of Afghanistan has also
initiated technology development and demonstration such
as pilot/demonstration programmes (stand-alone, mini-
grid, grid-tied), REN parks, financial risk mitigation and
mechanism to access capital.
Renewable energy initiatives have been undertaken by
Afghanistan under the legal, regulatory framework. The
Government of Afghanistan introduced the institution of
electricity regulators under the United States Agency for
International Development and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
172 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (USAID /GIZ) assistance.
It soon became the reform agenda for the power sector and
later was included in the Afghanistan Electricity Law in 2015.
Later, Renewable Energy (REN) directorate was established
in the Ministry and Utility as well as independent nancial
institutions to nance renewable energy projects (ibid.).
Bangladesh
Renewable energy in the form of traditional biomass
is the main source of primary energy in Bangladesh. The
extent of potential renewable energy sources such as solar
photovoltaic, solar thermal power, wind power, biogas, etc.,
is yet to be determined. e capacity for renewable energy
development is currently very low. Solar photovoltaic (PV)
systems are in use throughout the country consisting of more
than 300,000 household level installations with a capacity of
about 15 MW. Various solar energy programmes are aimed to
scale up the solar PV system. Eorts towards promoting Solar
ermal Power or concentrating on solar power technology,
which involves harnessing solar radiation for the generation
of electricity have been undertaken as well (Climate Scope.
2018). Wind energy potential lies in the coastal areas and
oshore islands.
Bangladesh has conceptualised its INDC with the
following elements:
• Mitigation Contribution: An unconditional
contribution to reducing GHG emissions by 5 per
cent from Business as Usual (BAU) levels by 2030 in
power, transport and industry sectors. A conditional
15 per cent reduction in GHG emissions from BAU
level by 2030 in power, transport and industry
sectors supported by nance, investment, technology
development and transfer and capacity building.
173
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• Adaptation: Long-term vision for adaptation in
Bangladesh and synergies with mitigation measures.
• Implementation: Proposals for governance and
coordination of INDC implementation.
• Support for INDC implementation: A qualitative
description of plans indicative of taking action on
mitigation and adaptation.
To meet its INDC target, Bangladesh has planned out
a strategy to converge its various plans and policies like
the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan,
Renewable Energy Policy 2008, the Energy Efficiency
and Conservation Master Plan (E&CC Master Plan), the
forthcoming National Adaptation Plan, the National
Sustainable Development Strategy, the Perspective Plan
(Vision 2021) and the Sixth (and forthcoming seventh) Five
Year Plan, the National Disaster Management Plan and the
Disaster Management Act (ibid.).
Bhutan
Bhutan is the exceptional case of being the country
drawing energy from hydropower. In 2016, the country
exported 1,389 MW of electricity out of the total 1,840 MW
generated to India, amounting to 75 per cent of its total
generation. However, excessive dependence on single-source
does make the country vulnerable and poses the question of
energy security. Moreover,
the country’s current hydropower assets are all run-of-
the-river plants that have no storage capacity, and rely
exclusively on seasonal water flows: generation output
can drop to less than 20 per cent of installed capacity
during the dry seasons. Enhancing energy security requires
diversication of the energy mix, supplementing hydropower
with other renewable resources such as wind, solar, and
small hydropower; diversication of energy supply will also
174 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
mitigate hydrological and meteorological risks. Although
less cost-eective than large hydropower, the country will
benefit from developing these other renewable resources
via increased access to electricity in remote areas, which
will enhance energy security while delivering environmental
dividends (the ABD Kingdom of Bhutan, 2014).
With Climate Change as the most upcoming fear,
the Bhutanese government has started emphasising on
diversication away from dams. Bhutan is exploring other
forms of renewable energy, promoting biogas plants, solar
power plants and small hydropower plants. e government
has decided to scale the first pilot project to two wind
turbines, as well as explore the possibility of building a 30
MW solar energy plant in Shingkharin Bumthang district.
Around 13,500 cooking stoves and 2,800 biogas plants were
also installed. During the winter season, the country’s energy
generation normally drops to 284 MW against the total
installed capacity of 1,488 MW; during this time, Bhutan has
to import electricity from India. With the growing domestic
demand, of late, Bhutan’s hydropower exports have been
falling while energy imports are increasing. Owing to the
rising energy imports coupled with the fact that Bhutan
is committed to the use of renewable energy, it is moving
to a low carbon growth path, leading to the promotion
and implementation of energy policies towards the use of
renewable energy sources (Gyelmo, 2018). It has laid down
the following guidelines to mitigate its commitment (National
Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan, 2011).
• Sustainable forest management and conservation
of biodiversity, forest fire management and
rehabilitation of degraded and barren forest lands.
175
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• Promotion of low carbon transport system by
improving mass transit and demand-side
management.
• I am minimising GHG emission through the
application of zero waste concept and sustainable
waste management practices through enhancement
of the three R principles of waste management.
• Promotion of a green and self-reliant economy,
enhancement and strengthening of an
environmentally compliant monitoring system, and
supporting investment in new industries that are at
higher levels in the value chain and green industries
and services.
• I am encouraging clean, renewable energy generation,
integration of low emission strategies through green
buildings, sustainable construction and climate-
smart cities.
• Endorsing climate-smart livestock farming practices
for poverty alleviation and self-suciency through
the expansion of biogas production, improvement of
livestock breeds, organic livestock farming and eco-
friendly designs.
Nepal
The thirteenth Three-Year Plan (2013/14–2015/16)
has various targets for additional electricity generation by
the end of the plan period, hydropower (668 MW), micro-
hydro (15 MW), solar (6 MW) and wind (1 MW). By 2014,
around 93 per cent of electricity was generated through
large hydropower projects. A substantial proportion of the
population has met their needs by smaller-scale energy
system through renewable energy sources like micro-hydro,
176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
solar and bio energy. e renewable energy potential in Nepal
proves that a big market exists for renewable.
Approximately, 3,65,000 household systems use bio
energy or biogas as a source of energy. Around 80 per cent
population relies on biomass for cooking purposes. In the
same year, Nepal announced, “Clean Cooking Solutions for
All by 2017 targeting 3 million households. Micro-hydro is
estimated at 100 MW, approximately 54.28 MW has been
achieved by mid-2016 out of which around 15 MW were
from mini-hydro. In the case of solar energy, with an average
daily solar radiation varying from 3.6 to 6.2 kWh/m2, the
commercial potential for grid has been estimated at 2100
MW. For wind energy, the estimated generation potential
is of 3000MW, while that which is commercially viable is
estimated to be approximately 448 MW (Rai, 2016).
Around 50 institutions are involved in renewable
energy deployment ranging from government educational
institutions, non-governmental institutions and private
sectors along with their development partners. Alternative
Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) facilitates policy and
planning. The development partners and NGOs actively
provide capacity enhancement programmes such as awareness
creation and community mobilisation at the local level and
technical skill enhancement training (INDC, 2016).
The Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology
and the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre was established
focusing towards promotion and development of renewable
energy technologies. Regarding this, the centre provides
financial and technical support to local organisations for
developing decentralised rural energy through technology
transfer and research and development.
177
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pakistan
Pakistan is blessed with an abundance of renewable
resources to ensure its energy needs. e plains and desert
lands in the central part of the country receive substantial
sunshine and solar radiation. Being geographically located
closer to the equator, Pakistan receives good solar radiation
throughout the country. e direct normal Irradiance (DNI)
reaches the highest on its dry plateau or rock deserts.
Substantial sums of DNI are available all over Pakistan.
According to IRENA, eorts are made to scale up solar energy,
following the completion of 400 MW of solar PV projects in
2015–2016 which included 100 MW solar PV plant installed
at Quaid-e-Azam Solar Park Bahawalpur, another 350 MW
installed through China–Economic Corridor Project and
1 MW solar power plant at the Federal Parliament House.
Around 800 MW solar PV has been installed considering all
kinds of small, medium and large solar systems like o-grid,
on-grid and hybrid solar system. Import of solar panels in
2015–16 is 1000 MW (Bhutta, 2016). The wind potential
in Pakistan is estimated at 340,000 MW. The gharo-wind
corridor with approximately a potential of 50000 MW is the
most attractive for investors due to its close proximity to
major load centres and national grid.
IRENA nds that “Pakistan has no clear renewable energy
target, despite the political ambition that policy makers have
expressed on various occasions. To translate political will
into a language that can be understood by investors, a clear
target rst needs to be set” (IRENA, 2018b). A framework
of renewable energy policy in the form of alternative energy
was spelled out in 2006, which envisaged and defined a
comprehensive role of private players.
178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
Pakistan was among the few developing countries that
devised policies to attract private-sector investment in the
sector at the early stages of their global uptake. e resulting
renewable energy policy in Pakistan laid down attractive
scal and nancial incentives for private-sector investors
(ibid.: 24).
In fact to promote renewable energy, AEDB was created
in 2003 with the objectives to develop national strategies,
policies and plans for the utilisation of alternative and
renewable energy resources, to act as the forum for evaluating,
monitoring and certifying alternative and renewable energy
projects and products and to facilitate power generation
through alternative and renewable energy resources (IEA,
2013). However, the non-performance of AEDB made the
government to merge it with Private Power and Infrastructure
Board (PPIB) which has been in existence since 1994. It was
alleged that the Auditor General of Pakistan found that “the
AEDB failed to produce a single megawatt of electricity since
its establishment in 2003 and is plagued with scams of Rs.
4–5 billion” (International e News, 2011).
The establishment of the AEDB has therefore created an
anomaly in the system because it has also begun operating
as a one window facility for one segment of the sector,
whereas in terms of its preamble its primary function should
have been research and development for the growth of the
alternate energy sector (Ghumman, 2017).
Apparently, Pakistan’s renewable energy policy is to solicit
a larger role for the private sector in the energy transition.
However, the role of the state remains vital in creating an
ecosystem, even if it puts the private sector as its driver.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has set ambitious targets to generate 100 per
cent of its electricity from renewable by 2030 (ADB, 2017c).
179
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It has formed as Sustainable Energy Authority (SLSEA) to
promote renewable in its energy mix. Its vision is to make the
country energy secured by developing local energy resources
through exploration, facilitation, research & development
and knowledge management (Export.gov. 2019). e prole
of the country suggests that there have been 342 MW
of mini-hydro power, 128 MW of wind power, 24 MW of
biomass power and 21 MW of solar power connected to
the national grid. The total non-conventional renewable
energy sources were 487 MW in 2016. It also contributes
to supporting small units with nancial facilities. Financial
incentives are provided to small-scale (less than 10 MW)
electricity generation using renewable energy sources such
as hydropower, wind, and biomass. Various non-government
organisations promoting renewable energy use such as Sri
Lanka Energy Managers Association, the Energy Forum and
the Bio-energy Association are supported by it (ADB, 2017c).
Broadly, Sri Lanka NDC comprises the following four
areas:
• Mitigation: Reducing GHG emissions against
Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenarios in the sectors
of electricity generation, transportation, industry,
waste and forestry.
• Adaptation: Building resilience in sectors and
communities to combat adverse effects of climate
change, in the areas of human health, food security,
water and irrigation, coastal and marine, biodiversity,
infrastructure.
• Loss and Damage: A local mechanism will be developed
by the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Damage.
180 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
• Means of Implementation: External support for
nance, technological development and transfer and
capacity building (Government of Sri Lanka, 2016).
The NDCs of Sri Lanka is to be implemented under
the guidance of Climate Change Commission of Sri Lanka
in coordination with the ministries. A coordinating body
comprising relevant ministries is expected to provide input
to NDC implementation. Sri Lanka has taken the initiative of
integrated planning through the National Action Plan (NAP)
and Energy Planning, which likely be extended to other
sectors vertically and horizontally.
Maldives
The Maldives relies entirely on imported fossil fuel to
meet its energy demand. In 2015, the total imports went up
to 506,334 metric ton of fuel, out of which there was 12,385
metric ton of cooking gas, 389,968 metric ton of diesel,
38,683 metric ton of petrol and 65,299 metric ton of aviation
gas (IRENA, 2015). e Ministry of Environment, Energy and
Water oversees the energy, environment and water sector
in the Maldives. The ministry aims at encouraging energy
eciency and alternative energy use in the country (ESMAP,
2016).
e Maldives aspires to achieve its objective of becoming
the world’s first carbon-neutral country in 2020 with a
declaration of policy commitment in 2009. It aims at
displacing its total dependence on diesel-based power
generation with renewable energy alternatives. The
government of Maldives has established a comprehensive
policy framework for the development of renewable energy
spelled in the Strategic Action Plan (SAP-2008-2013), Energy
Policy 2010 and Scaling-up Renewable Energy Program
181
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(SREP) Investment Plan under Climate Investment Funds. It
has four funding programmes (IRENA, 2015).
1. ASPIRE: Accelerating sustainable private investments
in RE:
Feed-in tari with WB guarantees to leverage private
investment, PV projects in Greater Malé, PV and
wind projects in 30 islands with medium to great
electricity demand, Waste-to-energy in outer islands.
2. POISED: Preparing outer islands for sustainable
energy development: PV and wind projects aiming
for 20–100 per cent RE electricity ADB funded pilot
projects are underway: 1.6 MW PV in Addu City.
3. Technical assistance for renewable energy scale-up
capacity building: Data collection, identication of
additional RE investment opportunities
4 ilafushi Waste-to-Energy Project:
IFC funded 4 MW systems. For more effective
implementation of its programme, the country is working
out a detailed mapping and assessment of its solar and wind
resource base with the help of the World Bank (ESMAP,
2016).
India
India has developed a vibrant and time-bound target-
oriented strategy to change its energy mix in favour of the
renewable. e Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is the
nodal agency to steer the project. It aims to expand energy
supply by deploying a national programme to increase wind,
small hydro, solar and biomass-based power generation
capacity. To implement its target, the government has created
an enterprise—the Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency under the ministry to promote, develop and extend
nancial assistance for renewable energy deployment, energy
182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
efficiency and conservation projects. India has a definite
plan of action for clean energy, energy eciency in various
industries. Steps have also been laid down to achieve lower
emission intensity in the automobile and transport sector.
India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
(INDC) has the following features:
• To propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living
based on the traditions and values of conservation
and moderations.
• To adopt climate-friendly as well as a cleaner path
towards economic development.
• To reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 33 to
35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level
• To achieve 40per cent cumulative electric power
installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy
resources by 2030 with the help of the transfer of
technology and low-cost international nance
• To create additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion
ton of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and
tree cover by 2030.
• To adapt to climate change by enhancing investment
in development in the sectors highly vulnerable to
climate change like Himalayan region, health and
disaster management.
• To mobilise funds from developed countries to
implement various mitigation and adaptation
actions.
• To build capacities, creating infrastructure for quick
diusion of cutting-edge climate technology along
with joint collaborative R&D for future technologies
(UNCC, 2015).
To achieve the above objectives, the various initiatives
taken are:
183
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• Introduce more efficient, cleaner technologies in
thermal power generation
• Promote renewable energy and increase the share of
alternative fuel in energy mix
• Reduce emissions from waste
• Develop climate resilient infrastructure
• Implementation of Green India Mission and
programmes
• Planning and implementation of action to enhance
e Government of India claims that
it is running one of the largest renewable capacity expansion
programs in the world. Between 2002 and 2015, the share of
renewable grid capacity has increased over six times, from
2per cent (3.9 GW) to around 13per cent (36 GW). This
momentum of a tenfold increase in the previous decade is
to be signicantly scaled up to achieve 175 GW renewable
energy capacity in the next few years. India has also decided
to anchor a global solar alliance, InSPA (International
Agency for Solar Policy & Application), of all countries
located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn (UNCC, 2015).
Indian initiatives are seen as great opportunities by the
private player as an emerging market, for global agencies like
IEA and World Economic Forum, India is today at the centre
of the global energy transition. Its transition pace is one of
the key drivers of global pace.
III
Barriers to Transition: Finance and Technology
e two critical issues that the countries of South Asia
face as a barrier in their journey to renewable energy are the
finance to invest and the technology which is compatible
with the local ecosystem and competitive to substitute the
184 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
hydrocarbon-based energy system. Given the asymmetrical
size of market and landscape, the capacity building processes
in South Asia are not comparable. Yet brief profiling of it
could provide the possibilities of their mutual engagement
in promoting transition processes. India, for instance, has
made huge progress in the solar sector and is providing a lead
as demonstrated by the establishment of the International
Solar Alliance. It is a platform for the collaborative venture in
sharing and developing technology by promoting innovative
partnership.
Financing of the energy transition in Afghanistan
is heavily dependent on external financing as is evident
by the fact that 63 per cent of its FY 2017 budget is
funded by development partners including 100 per cent
of the development budget (Amin, 2017). Consequently,
Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) like the World Bank
and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have been major
players in promoting renewable energy. Asian Development
Bank has recently committed to nancing as grant the rst 20
MW on-grid solar photovoltaic plant with an investment of
$44.76 million.
e new on-grid solar power generation project, which is the
largest of its kind in Afghanistan, will not only provide access
to a clean and reliable power supply but also demonstrate the
viability of future renewable energy investments through
public-private partnerships (ADB, 2017).
It is estimated that it will generate
at least 43,000 MW-hours of solar power and avoid at least
13,000 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in the first full
year of operation…. Also, the project will provide power
transformer and support facilities, upgrade the capacity of
the existing substation, and operation and maintenance
services for three years. The project will also prepare the
site and substation to accommodate 10 MW of additional
185
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
photovoltaic plant for future nancing. e project may be
expanded to 30 MW or 40 MW if additional nancing from
other development partners or the private sector is realised
(ibid.).
Equally important is the role of the project in capacity
building. It envisages that the project will contribute to
training locals on solar photovoltaic plant design, technical
evaluation, grid integration, and operation and maintenance.
In Pakistan too ADB has been the one of the largest
development assistance provider. It has approved Access to
Clean Energy Result Based Lending (RBL) facility in 2016 for
nancing o-grid solar and micro-hydro to provide power for
public schools, community centres, and basic health units
in Punjab and KPK (ADB, 2017b). e World Bank too has
been nancing renewable energy project in the region in a big
way. Recently, it has committed to nance two solar power
projects in the Sindh region of Afghanistan and Pakistan:
e projects will address Sindh’s energy needs through the
generation of solar power benetting the entire province and
support trade between Pakistan and Afghanistan through
regional connectivity and private sector development along
the Khyber Pass corridor (World Bank, 2018).
e World Bank is supporting a comprehensive Pakistan
Solar and Renewable Energy Program with the objective “to
increase the installed generation capacity of renewable energy
(RE) and enhance RE development in Pakistan” (World Bank,
2017). e three million programmes are to be nanced by
the Green Climate Fund and the World Bank. e State Bank
of Pakistan has revised its scheme to boost the transition
to renewable in 2017 by providing concessionary nance to
renewable energy projects. It is expected that the scheme will
promote the share of renewable in Pakistan’s energy mix to
keep its commitment.
186 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
Bangladesh has developed a robust nancial architecture
to promote the nancing of renewable. e central bank has
played a pivotal role in this drive. On its initiative, most of
the financial institutions, both banking and non-banking,
have created the Green Banking Cell. According to a study, the
Bangladesh Institute of Bank Management
around 70 per cent FIs of the country are engaged in green
nancing activities either using their own funds or availing
renancing facilities of BB. … BB’s published data indicates
that of the total green nancing, over one-fth portion were
disbursed in the renewable energy projects in the year 2014,
and the proportion increased to above 30 per cent in the
total disbursement for the January-March 2015 quarter. Of
the other forms of green nancing, re burnt brick (energy-
efficient technology) and green industry (green building/
construction) accounted for a signicant proportion of the
total. BIBM Survey data reveal that three-quarters of the
total clients of green nancing belong to rural Bangladesh.
In terms of several clients, most green nancing facilities
are availed to meet the energy need of the people (Habib and
Shah, 2016).
Among the external players, the World Bank and ADB
have been major financiers. The former has contributed
$1.6 billion in promoting generation, transmission and
distribution of renewable since 2002 (World Bank, 2018b).
The ADB too has been actively engaged in supporting the
initiatives like the Solar Home Systems to provide o-grid
power in a rural setting. is has been the agship project
illustrating the role of public-private partnership in the
energy transition. Green Climate Fund has reportedly
committed $20 million to support the energy-ecient cook
stoves project.
Sri Lanka has proposed a very ambitious target for
moving to renewable. In the twenty-second meeting of the
187
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNFCC in Paris, it declared its intent to move to 100 per cent
power generation by renewable sources by 2050. According
to a joint study by ADB and UNDP, this would require an
investment of $54–56 billion, but it will save $18–19 billion
by saving on imports of fossil fuels. It identies three major
categories of sources of finance—the government (central
government and public sector units), private sector (group
companies, independent power producers, private equity and
venture capital, domestic institutional investor, insurance
companies) nanciers (domestic banks, non-banking nancial
companies, foreign institutional investors and multilateral/
bilateral agencies). e study further observes,
ese investor categories will play a pivotal role in bridging
the gap between debt and equity, enabling the country to
meet investment targets required to increase the adoption of
RE in the power sector. While DIIs and multilateral agencies,
who provide the lowest cost capital, could play a major
role in debt nancing, FIIs could also nance a signicant
portion of the equity required (UNDP and ADB, 2017).
Clearly, such huge financing requires global support
besides mobilisation in the domestic market. Among the
major external support, IFC is one of them contributing
$100million in partnership with Commercial Bank of Ceylon
to finance renewable energy projects. The objective is to
encourage local companies to be the player in the transition
processes (Mercom India, 2017).
India has set the target of generating 175 GW power from
renewable and to make it accessible to all. It is estimated
that this would require an investment between $125 to 189
billion (Sen et al., 2016). e government has created IREDA
as a public limited government company which again was
established as a non-banking nancial institution dedicated
to financing renewable energy in India. Its objectives are
188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
to promote, develop and extend financial assistance for
setting up projects related to new and renewable sources of
energy and energy eciency/conservation.2 It has nanced
more than 2400 projects with a cumulative loan of more
than 50,000 crores. It is funded partly through the central
government but also receives funding from overseas players.
It has got international assistance equivalent to ~ Rs 8000
crore from various bilateral/multilateral agencies. These
include the German development bank (KfW), French
development bank (AFD), Nordic Investment Bank (NIB),
European Investment Bank (EIB), Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), World Bank, Asian Development
Bank, and other international nancial institutions.
Indian public sector banks to have been asked to play a
promotional role. e RBI has notied that renewable energy
financing is to be taken as a priority project by all public
sector banks.
As per RBI’s notication, banks can now provide loans up
to a limit of Rs 150 million to borrowers for solar, biomass,
wind, and micro-hydel power generation, and also for
renewable energy-based public utilities like street lighting
systems and remote village electrification. For individual
households, the loan limit has been set to Rs 1 million per
borrower. Loans for generation and use of renewable energy
in households are already included under priority sector. As
per the new mandate, all the banks will have to lend at least
40 per cent of their net credit to the priority sector. Foreign
banks with less than 20 branches have been allowed time
till 2020 to reach this target. It is believed that there will
be severe monitoring and penalty provisions in case of non-
adherence to the norms (Upadhyay, 2015).
2. For more details, see http://www.ireda.in/
189
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e State Bank of India, a leading public sector bank, with
an energy loan portfolio of $1.85, is proactively engaged in
promoting solar roof top projects. It has signed the SBI-World
Bank Grid Connected Rooftop Solar PV programme where the
World Bank will provide the funds to SBI which in turn will
lend to companies. Under the scheme, the SBI has reportedly
funded 43 grid-connected roof top projects worth 430 million
dollars. More recently, it has extended $357 million credit to
seven Indian companies to be used to develop grid connected
solar top projects with a total capacity of 575MW. In April
2017, the European Investment Bank approved EU 200
million for the SBI to nance solar projects (Prabhu, 2017).
Other public sector banks like PNB, Central Bank of India and
private banks like Yes Bank too are contributing to this drive
to renewable energy.
e size of the Indian market is very promising to global
players as well. Estimates suggest that it has received $ 1.77
billion FDI in 2014–2016. It is observed that “A combination
of India’s ambitious energy policy and ongoing solar and wind
energy tari deation will enable India to catalyse US$200-
US$300bn of investment in renewable energy infrastructure
over the coming decade” (Bermingham, 2017). Solar is central
to India’s energy transition, which is reected in its initiative
to create the international solar alliance. Recently, India
has proposed to create a $350 million funds to nance solar
projects to meet its target. Given the magnitude of nancial
nee, external financing becomes imperative to promote
transition in India. Multilateral agencies, like the World Bank
and ADB, apart from private players, are showing interest in
promoting transition in India. e World Bank is nancing
large-scale solar park by extending a loan of $98 million
and a grant of $ 2 million. Regional banks like ADB to have
been contributing to nancing the transition processes. It
190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
has nanced Green Energy Corridor by extending a loan of
$500 million. More recently, it has co-financed with AIIB
$100million loan to improve transmission line to integrate
renewable into the grid (Petrova, 2017). e private foreign
banks to have shown interest in solar projects in India. e
Soft Bank Group of Japan intends to invest one trillion
dollars by 2030 (Firstpost, 2018). It has already announced
$20 billion investment, and recently it has made a debut by
winning a 350 MW power project.
An overview of the nancing energy transition by South
Asian countries suggests that while all of them have taken the
initiative to push for renewable energy, though at a dierent
pitch, a well-dened architecture with a robust institutional
frame is yet to evolve. It is significant that the business
model considered for transition envisages a prominent role
for the private sector and global nancing. e international
multilateral lending from the World Bank and ADB too are
playing a critical role, though given the magnitude of nance
required by these countries a more agile global financing
is required. e global response in terms of FDI is limited,
despite the potential of the market. It is well recognised
that the enormity of the task demands to move away from
conventional models to an innovative approach.
IV
In the transition to renewable energy, technology has
played a critical role by cutting the cost and developing
storage capacity. The viability of renewable depends upon
the comparative cost of renewable technologies, the levelised
energy costs (LECs) of the various grid-connected and o-
grid renewable energy. With the onset of the fourth industrial
revolution, the digitalisation processes are disrupting the
prevailing centralised model to be replaced by the distributed
191
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
energy system. It is argued that “In contrast to earlier energy
system evolutions, the arena this time is undergoing a truly
disruptive transformation. We are in the middle of a complex
change process not only centred around the customer but
much more driven by the customer” (World Economic
Forum, 2017). In its road to transition, while the South Asian
countries do not have to reinvent the wheel, without a strong
technological base, the region will not be able to obtain the
competitive price and control over its energy regime which
is essential for energy security. Besides, the region suers
from energy poverty demonstrated by the low per capita
consumption. It needs energy priced to the purchasing
power of the millions who are still not using power. This
makes a strong case of a technological solution embedded to
the local conditions. Surely, the trajectory of technological
transformation has to begin with imitation but has to move
forward towards improvisation and innovation to reap the
full potential of energy resources for energy equity.
Recognising that one size does not t all, the countries
have embarked upon developing the R and D framework
to strengthen their transition process. In Bangladesh,
the government has initiated a multipronged approach
drawing the private sector to bolster the technological base
of renewable energy. Table 2 provides a synoptic view of
dierent agencies working on research and development in
this sector.
In Pakistan, the government has established the Pakistan
Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET). Funded
by the government it is a nodal agency with the basic mandate
to carry out R&D in the field of Renewable Energy
Technologies for the socio-economic development of the
country, as well as promote the new and existing technologies
to overcome the prevailing energy shortages and replace the
192 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
Table 2
Status of R&D Activities of Dierent Organisations
Technology Related organization Remarks
Solar photovoltaic bal-
ance of systems Solar
water heaters
Garmeen Shakti, Centre for Mass Education in
Science (CMES). Institute of Fuel Research and
Development (IFRD) Renewable Energy Research
Centre (RERC), Dhaka University. IFRD. OMES
Local manufacturing of all balance of system components (like charge
controlled, cable, inverter, converter etc.) are possible. Manufacturing
with local design and fabrication facility possible.
Improved stoves IFRD Several designs have been developed at IFRD in three basic categories:
Without chimney, with chimney, and with waste heat utilization.
Solar cooker-parabolic IFRD, ANANDO (a private manufacturing &
marketing company in Bangladesh)
IFRD has successfully eld-tested its design which can quickly boil
water on clear sunny days. Such solar cookers are now on sale at a cost
of Tk. 450.00 (US$ 9.00) at IFRD. ANANDO is also manufacturing and
marketing its products with imported materials and design.
Solar cooker-box type IFRD, CMES IFRD’s design is made of locally available raw materials. e manufac-
turing costs of such a cooker is about Tk. 800 (US$ 16.00) excluding the
cost of utensils. e cookers are now being sold at IFRD.
Solar dryer IFRD, Bangladesh Rich Research Institute (BRRI).
Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU)
Dierent types have been designed and tested with locally available
materials.
Solar wood seasoning
plant
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFR) A simple and inexpensive and eective solar kiln has been developed for
seasoning timber using solar radiation. e kilo can be constructed con-
veniently with locally available materials. Timbers of dierent species
and dimensions can be seasoned throughout the year in the solar kin.
Solar passive archi-
tecture
Bangladesh Council of Scientic and Industrial
Research (BCSIR)
A solar house has been designed and built in the BCSIR campus, the
purpose is to keep the house warm in winter and cool in summer.
Briquetting machine Khulna University of Engineering and Technology
(KUET) Khulna BRRI
Under the RET in AsiaTM program, KUET has developed better ma-
chines with longer screw life.
Biogas IFRD, Local Government Engineering Depart-
ment (LCED). BAU
Fixed dome type plants are found to be more suitable for local condi-
tions and disseminated with government subsidy of Taka 5000.
Wind pumps LGED LGED has designed and manufactured low cost wind pumps with a
rated capacity of 20.0001 L of water per day at 4.0 m/s wind speed. Six
such prototypes are already installed at dierent parts of the country.
Source: Ahmed, et al. 2014.
193
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
environmental polluting fuel sources with the green sources.
An important mandate is to convey the benefits of these
technologies to the common public (PCRET, 2015).
However, of late, the Council has been under critical
scrutiny for non-performance. According to a parliamentary
committee, the Council has failed to deliver in the last decade
largely due to paucity of the fund (Shahid, 2017). According
to the IRENA study on Pakistan’s preparedness on transition,
the technological foundation of the country is restricting it to
realise its full potential (IRENA, 2018b).
The story of Sri Lanka is no different than other
developing countries as far as the technological capacities
for renewable are concerned. It is largely dependent on the
import of technology. It is observed that
With a certain amount of technology adoption and
value addition, the country engages in a vertical transfer of
technologies. In terms of technology diusion governmental
organizations like Sustainable Energy Authority and NGOs
such as Practical Action, actively engages in disseminating
technological know-how to a larger audience (horizontal
transfer) (Withanaarachchi et al., 2016).
In Sri Lanka, the renewable energy programme has been
market-driven as it was initiated by the World Bank and
Global Environmental Facility. It followed two principles
(i) the systems need to be the least-cost option
compared to its competitor products grid-connected
mini-hydro projects); or, (ii) the incremental cost of
the systems need to be in-line with the incremental
cost globally and have a clear declining path of these
costs due to economies of scale (solar home systems
and village hydro projects). These principles have
contributed to an industry that is expected to grow
even after external grant support is withdrawn.
Table 2
Status of R&D Activities of Dierent Organisations
Technology Related organization Remarks
Solar photovoltaic bal-
ance of systems Solar
water heaters
Garmeen Shakti, Centre for Mass Education in
Science (CMES). Institute of Fuel Research and
Development (IFRD) Renewable Energy Research
Centre (RERC), Dhaka University. IFRD. OMES
Local manufacturing of all balance of system components (like charge
controlled, cable, inverter, converter etc.) are possible. Manufacturing
with local design and fabrication facility possible.
Improved stoves IFRD Several designs have been developed at IFRD in three basic categories:
Without chimney, with chimney, and with waste heat utilization.
Solar cooker-parabolic IFRD, ANANDO (a private manufacturing &
marketing company in Bangladesh)
IFRD has successfully eld-tested its design which can quickly boil
water on clear sunny days. Such solar cookers are now on sale at a cost
of Tk. 450.00 (US$ 9.00) at IFRD. ANANDO is also manufacturing and
marketing its products with imported materials and design.
Solar cooker-box type IFRD, CMES IFRD’s design is made of locally available raw materials. e manufac-
turing costs of such a cooker is about Tk. 800 (US$ 16.00) excluding the
cost of utensils. e cookers are now being sold at IFRD.
Solar dryer IFRD, Bangladesh Rich Research Institute (BRRI).
Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU)
Dierent types have been designed and tested with locally available
materials.
Solar wood seasoning
plant
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFR) A simple and inexpensive and eective solar kiln has been developed for
seasoning timber using solar radiation. e kilo can be constructed con-
veniently with locally available materials. Timbers of dierent species
and dimensions can be seasoned throughout the year in the solar kin.
Solar passive archi-
tecture
Bangladesh Council of Scientic and Industrial
Research (BCSIR)
A solar house has been designed and built in the BCSIR campus, the
purpose is to keep the house warm in winter and cool in summer.
Briquetting machine Khulna University of Engineering and Technology
(KUET) Khulna BRRI
Under the RET in AsiaTM program, KUET has developed better ma-
chines with longer screw life.
Biogas IFRD, Local Government Engineering Depart-
ment (LCED). BAU
Fixed dome type plants are found to be more suitable for local condi-
tions and disseminated with government subsidy of Taka 5000.
Wind pumps LGED LGED has designed and manufactured low cost wind pumps with a
rated capacity of 20.0001 L of water per day at 4.0 m/s wind speed. Six
such prototypes are already installed at dierent parts of the country.
Source: Ahmed, et al. 2014.
194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
However, in the absence of domestic technological
capacities, renewable energy promotion is leading to the
import of hardware. Since imported technology is developed
to local conditions of the technology developer, it poses an
issue of adaptation. It is argued that
the ready-made TT solutions that are widely available in
the Sri Lankan renewable energy sector have proven their
long term un-sustainability. e concept of TT goes beyond
the mere transmission of equipment or even embodied
knowledge. Eective TT also involves the transfer of tactical
knowledge capabilities that cannot be subjected to market-
like exchange. Thus, there is a clear difference between
technology trade and broad transfer of technology. Unless
Sri Lanka has the proper knowledge to make informed
choices among technological options, there is a risk that
the efforts to promote international TT may become
overwhelmingly supplier driven and geared more towards
transferring available technologies rather than technologies
required by the country (Withanaarachchi et al. 2015).
Among the South Asian countries, India has developed
competitive technological capacities to meet the challenge of
its transition to renewable. To promoting local capacities, the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has been supporting
research and development programmes in collaboration with
universities and national laboratories since 1982. Its R & D
strategy as spelt out by the Ministry envisages involvement
of industry and scientic establishment, access to available
technology to avoid reinventing the wheel, improvising
the available technology and developing advancement on
indigenous design in a time-line process. It is reported that
the current installed manufacturing capacity for solar cells
and modules is 3,164 MW and 8,398 MW, respectively. It is
aimed that the indigenous manufacturing capacity is scaled
up to 4–5 GW by 2020 (Kenning, 2017) interestingly more
than half of it is exported.
195
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consequently, the government is likely to set up the
Renewable Energy Export Promotion Council (The Hindu,
2017). While developing local capacities, India has been
actively engaged with global players in strengthening its
technological base. As the Ministry document mentions, India
has signed several MOUs with developed and the developing
countries to promote cooperation as an instrument of
developing the technology.
The focus of the interaction for cooperation has been
to explore opportunities for exchange of scientists to
share experience and for taking up joint research, design,
development, demonstration and manufacture of new and
renewable energy systems/devices by R&D institutions/
organisations of both countries and thereby establishing
institutional linkages between institutions of India and
other countries (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
2009).
The huge size of the market provides India with a
distinct leverage in collaborating with global players. It is
precisely due to the advantage of size and capabilities that
India has projected itself as a global player in solar energy by
establishing International Solar Alliance, a global platform for
cooperation and collaboration among the sun-rich countries.
V
Energy Transition in South Asia, despite its progress,
remains a challenging task.
A successful transition to RET-based energy systems requires
radical changes in the current energy regimes. Although
governments play a key role in pushing such change, their
ability and willingness to do so depends particularly on a
range of political economy factors, which also interplay with
geographical and technological ones (Isoaho et al., 2016).
196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
From the above narrative, it appears that the governments
of the region have defined their plans and strategies with
institutional backup. ough largely dependent on external
financing, the domestic resource mobilisation has been
limited to the banking sector. e private investment remains
shy, though, in India, the advantage of the market has led
to companies to be the promoter of transition processes. It
is interesting as pointed out in case of India that “ough
the government has dramatically increased subsidies to
renewables, this report finds that, in absolute terms, this
support is much lower than that provided to coal, oil and
gas collectively” (IISD, 2017). According to another report
prepared by the Centre for Financial Accountability (CFA),
coal received Rs 60,767 crore ($9.35 billion) in lending
whereas renewable energy received Rs 22,913 crore ($3.50
billion) (Singh, 2018). The point is that the conflicting
interest among the stakeholders playing out in dening the
issues of challenge that South Asia is undergoing a transition
process.
References
ADB. 2014. “Kingdom of Bhutan: Promoting Clean Energy Development in Bhutan”,
Technical Assistance Report, March, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/les/
project-document/80502/47275-001-tar.pdf, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
ADB. 2017. “ADB Supports First Solar Power Plant to Boost Renewable Energy in
Afghanistan”, 26 November, https://www.adb.org/news/adb-supports-rst-solar-
power-plant-boost-renewable-energy-afghanistan, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
ADB. 2017b. “Pakistan Rapid Solar Assessment”, Accessed on June 11 2019 from https://
d1jiktx90t87hr.cloudfront.net/449/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/06/3_
Pakistan-Solar-Rapid-Assessment.pdf
ADB. 2017c. “100% Electricity Generation through Renewable Energy By 2050:
Assessment of Sri Lanka’s Power Sector”, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/les/
publication/354591/sri-lanka-power-2050v2.pdf, last accessed on 10 June 2019.
Ahmed, Shamsuddin, Md Tasbirul Islam, Mohd Aminul Karim and Nissar Mohammad
Karim. 2014. “Exploitation of Renewable Energy for Sustainable Development
and Overcoming Power Crisis in Bangladesh”, Renewable Energy, vol. 72, issue C,
223–35.
197
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amin, Mohsin. 2017. “An Institutional Analysis of the Power Sector in Afghanistan–
Barriers to Achieving Universal Access to Electricity”, le:///C:/Users/DELL/
Downloads/Mohsin_MPP_Essay%20(1).pdf, last accessed on 2 August 2019.
Bermingham, Finbarr. 2017. “World Bank to Fund Indian Renewable Energy”, Global
Trade Review, 28 November.
Bhutta, Faiz. 2016. “Renewable Energy Readiness of Pakistan”, https://www.
altenergymag.com/article/2016/02/renewable-energy-readiness-of-%20%20%20
%20stan/22821/, last accessed on 10 June 2019.
Christianson, Giulia, Allison Lee, Gaia Larsen and Ashley Green. 2017. “Financing the
Energy Transition: Are World Bank, IFC, and ADB Energy Supply Investments
Supporting a Low-Carbon Future?”, World Resource Institute. May.
Climate Scope. 2017. “e Clean Energy Country Competitiveness Index 2017”,
BloombergNEF, New Energy Finance, 28 November.
______. 2018. “Bangladesh 500MW Solar Programme”, BloombergNEF, http://global-
climatescope.org/policies/3969, last accessed on 10 June 2019.
EASME. 2015. “Spreading the Model of Renewable Energy Cooperatives”, https://
ec.europa.eu/easme/en/news/spreading-model-renewable-energy-cooperatives,
last accessed on 4 August 2019.
ESMAP. 2016. “Renewable Energy Resorce Mapping in the Maldives. Energy Sector
Management Assistance Program”, https://www.esmap.org/node/3298, last
accessed on 4 August 2019.
Energy Transition Commission (ETC). 2017. “Better Energy, Greater Prosperity:
Achievable Pathways to Low-Carbon Energy systems”, Report, http://energ y-
transitions.org/sites/default/les/BetterEnergy_fullReport_DIGITAL.PDF, last
accessed on 11 June 2019.
Export.gov. 2019. “Sri Lanka – Energy”, Sri Lanka Country Commercial Guide, https://
www.export.gov/article?id=Sri-Lanka-Energy , last accessed on 25 July 2019.
Firstpost. 2018. “SoftBank Group’s Plan to PUMP $1 trillion Into Solar in India Unlikely
to Receive Special Sops from Govt”, Business News, https://www.rstpost.com/
business/softbank-groups-plan-to-pump-1-trillion-into-solar-in-india-unlikely-
to-receive-special-sops-from-govt-4456083.html, last accessed on 11 June 2019.
Ghumman, Mushtaq. 2017. “Government approves PPIB-AEDB merger”, Business
Recorder, https://fp.brecorder.com/2017/05/20170530183253/ , last accessed on
09 June 2019.
Government of Sri Lanka. 2016. Nationally Determined Contribution, Ministry of
Mahaweli Development and Environment, https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/
ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Sri%20Lanka%20First/NDCs%20of%20Sri%20
Lanka.pdf, last accessed on 25 July 2019.
Gyelmo, Dawa. 2018. “Bhutan’s Balancing Act”, https://www.thethirdpole.net/
en/2018/03/28/bhutans-balancing-act/28 March, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
Habib, S., M. Ahsan and P. Shah. 2016. “Development of Renewable Energy Financing in
Bangladesh in Response to the Central Bank’s Policy Initiatives”, WIT Transactions
on Ecology and the Environment, Vol. 205, WIT Press, pp. 33–43.
198 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC). 2016. Government of Nepal,
Ministry of Population and Environment.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2013. Alternative Energy Development Board –
Pakistan, https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/pakistan/name-38079-
en.php , last accessed on 10 June 2019.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). 2017. “India’s Energy
Transition: Mapping Subsidies to Fossil Fuels and Clean Energy in India”, GSI
Report, Accessed on 11 June 2019 from https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/les/
publications/india-energy-transition.pdf
International e News. 2011. “Renewable energy board to be merged with PPIB”,
https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/306713-renewable-energy-board-to-
be-merged-with-ppib , last accessed on 9 June 2019.
IRENA. 2015. “Renewable Energy Roadmap: the Republic of Maldives”, https://www.
irena.org/publications/2015/Sep/Renewable-Energy-Roadmap-for-e-Republic-
of-Maldives, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
IRENA. 2018a. “Global Landscape of Renewable Energy Finance”, https://www.irena.
org/publications/2018/Jan/Global-Landscape-of-Renewable-Energy-Finance, last
accessed on 4 August 2019.
IRENA. 2018b. “Renewable Readiness Assessment, Pakistan”, https://www.irena.org/
publications/2018/Apr/Renewables-Readiness-Assessment-Pakistan, last accessed
on 4 August 2019.
Isoaho, Karoliina, Alexandra Goritz and Nicolai Schulz, 2016. “Governing Clean Energ y
Transitions in China and India, A Comparative Political Economy Analysis”,
Working Paper, UNU-WIDER, https://www.wider.unu.edu, last accessed on 4
August 2019.
Kenning, Tom. 2017. “India’s MNRE Calls for Domestic PV Manufacturing Capacity
Update, PVTech”, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/indias-mnre-calls-for-domestic-
pv-manufacturing-capacity-update, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
MERCOM India. 2017. “IFC Invests $100 Million in Sri Lanka’s Renewable Energy
Sector”, https://mercomindia.com/ifc-invest-100-million-sri-lankas-renewable-
energy-sector/, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
Meyer, Andrew. 2016. Why a Distributed Energy Grid is a Better Energy Grid, Swell
Energy Inc. Last accessed 10 June 2019 from https://www.swellenergy.com/
blog/2016/05/20/why-a-distributed-energy-grid-is-a-better-energy-grid
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. 2009. ‘International bilateral/multilateral
cooperation frameworks between India and other countries for cooperation in
NRE’, Government of India, https://mnre.gov.in/international-cooperation, last
accessed on 11 June 2019.
Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technology (PCRET). 2015. Overview of PCRET,
http://www.pcret.gov.pk/Services.html, last accessed on 11 June 2019.
Reid, Gerard. 2016. “e Five S’s that Will Dene the New Energy Order”, e Energypost,
8 November, https://energypost.eu/digitalisation-will-dene-new-energy-order-
faster-think/, last accessed on 2 August 2019.
199
ENERGY TRANSITION IN SOU TH ASIA • PANT AND SHARMA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Renssen, Sonja van. 2016. “Peter Carlsson, Business Angel (ex-Tesla): ‘Battery
Breakthrough 5-8 Years Away’”, e Energypost, November.
National Environment Commission, Royal Govt Bhutan. 2011. https://unfccc.int/
resource/docs/natc/bhunc2.pdf, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
Petrova, Veselina. 2017. “ADB Gets Co-nancing for Renewable Integration in India”,
29 September, https://renewablesnow.com/news/adb-gets-co-nancing-for-
renewables-integration-in-india-585161/, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
Prabhu, Raj. 2017. “SBI and World Bank Extend $357 Million Credit to 7 Indian
Companies for Solar Rooftops”, MERCOM India, https://mercomindia.com/sbi-
world-bank-extend-357-million-credit-7-indian-companies-solar-rooftops/, last
accessed on 4 August 2019.
Rai, M.K. 2016. “Renewable Energy Capacity Needs Assessment—Nepal”, World Bank.
Sen, Vivek, Kuldip Sharma and Girish Shremali. 2016. “Reaching India’s Renewable
Energy Targets. e Role of Institutional Investors”, Climate Policy Initiative.
November.
Shahid, Jamal. 2017. “PCRET Has Failed to Deliver During the Last Decade”, 27 July,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1347911, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
Shukla, Akash Kumar, K.Sudhakar and Prashant Baredar. 2017. “Renewable Energy
Resources in South Asian Countries: Challenges, Policy and Recommendations”,
Resource-Ecient Technologies, vol. 3, no. 3: 342–46.
Singh, S. 2018. “Indian State-Run Banks Financed More Coal than Renewable Energy
in 2017”, https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/coal/indian-state-
run-banks-nanced-more-coal-than-renewable-energy-in-2017-study/64645732,
last accessed on 4 August 2019.
e Hindu. 2017. ‘Government May Set up an Export Council for Renewable Energy
Gear’, 15 May, Accessed on 11 June 2019 from https://www.thehindubusinessline.
com/economy/policy/government-may-set-up-an-export-council-for-renewable-
energy-gear/article9699902.ece
UNDP and ABD.2017. “100% Electricity Generation through Renewable Energy by 2050
Assessment of Sri Lanka’s Power Sector”, https://www.uncclearn.org/learning-
resources/library/18100, last accessed on 4 August 2019.
UNECE. 2016. Afghanistan Energy Sector, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Accessed
on 10 June 2019 from https://www.unece.org/leadmin/DAM/energy/se/pp/
ene/7th_IFESD_Baku_Oct.2016/ESCAP_Elec_CIS/1_W.Aria_AVG.pdf
United Nationas Climate Change (UNCC). 2015. India’s Intended Nationallydetermined
Contribution: Working Towards Climate Justice, Accessed on 9 June 2019 from
https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/
India/1/INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC.pdf
Upadhyay, Anand. 2015. “Reserve Bank of India Noties Renewable Energy Under Priority
Sector Lending”, 28 April, https://cleantechnica.com/2015/04/28/reserve-
bank-india-noties-renewable-energy-priority-sector-lending/, last accessed on
4 August 2019.
200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNDERSTANDING TRANSITION IN SOUTH A SIA
WEF. 2016. “What Does Digital Mean for the Future of Energy?”, https://www.Weforum.
Org/Agenda/2016/03, last accessed on 2 August 2019.
Withanaarachchi, A.S, Nanayakkara, L.D.J.F, Pushpakumara, C. 2015. “Are Ready-Made
Technology Transfer Solutions Suitable for Developing the Renewable Energy
Sector in Sri Lanka?”, International Journal of Scientic and Research Publications,
Vol.5, Issue 2, February.
Withanaarachchi, A.S, Nanayakkara, L.D.J.F, Pushpakumara.2016. “Fostering Renewable
Energy Sector in Sri Lanka via Eective Technology Transfer: Lessons from China
and India”, American Journal of Engineering Research, vol. 5, no. 6: 218–27.
World Bank. 2017. “e World Bank, Pakistan Solar and Renewable Energy Program”,
https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2017/11/29/solar, last accessed on 10
June 2019.
World Bank. 2018a. “World Bank Supports Regional Connectivity and Renewable Energ y
in Pakistan”, 14 June.
World Bank. 2018b. “Bangladesh: World Bank Increases Support for Clean, Renewable
Energy”, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/04/10/bangla
desh-world-bank-increases-support-for-clean-renewable-energy, last accessed on
4 August 2019.
World Economic Forum. 2017. “e Global Energy System Is Changing, and Customers Must
Take Centre Stage”, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/how-customers-
are-taking-centre-stage-to-transform-the-energy-system/, last accessed on 4
August 2019.
