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REVIEW OF THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE BIOMATERIAL RESOURCES OF SELECTED FOOD CROPS: RICE, CASSAVA, COCOA, SORGHUM AND OIL PALM

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The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Nigeria) in its Minna 2011 Staff Retreat, unveiled an Agricultural Transformational Agenda in which rice, cassava, cocoa, oil palm, and sorghum were identified as target commodity value chain with which to drive the nation's economy. One of the transformational policies in view of this development is the financing of value chains for the processing of these target crops. However, along the value chain, Rice husks, Cassava peels, Cocoa pods, Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB), and Sorghum bagasse, each in millions of metric tons per annum are either inefficiently used, underutilized, or totally wasted. In this paper therefore, the author presents a review of simple processing techniques to convert these biomaterials (wastes) into value added products (materials) and sustainable energy sources. Furthermore, the economic cost and environmental benefits of the effective biomaterial utilization of these waste resources is drawn-out.
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REVIEW OF THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE BIOMATERIAL
RESOURCES OF SELECTED FOOD CROPS:
RICE, CASSAVA, COCOA, SORGHUM AND OIL PALM
Iwunze U. Paula*, Okewole T. Oyewoleb, Madu I. Kizitoc;
aIMT Mines-Albi, Albi, France
bProcess Concepts and Technologies (Procontec) Limited, Oyo State, Nigeria
cUniversity of Michigan, Michigan, USA.
Email: a*paulwunze@gmail.com, boyewoleokewole@yahoo.com, cikizito@umich.edu,
*Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Nigeria) in its Minna 2011 Staff
Retreat, unveiled an Agricultural Transformational Agenda in which rice, cassava, cocoa, oil
palm, and sorghum were identified as target commodity value chain with which to drive the
nation’s economy. One of the transformational policies in view of this development is the
financing of value chains for the processing of these target crops. However, along the value
chain, Rice husks, Cassava peels, Cocoa pods, Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB), and
Sorghum bagasse, each in millions of metric tons per annum are either inefficiently used,
underutilized, or totally wasted. In this paper therefore, the author presents a review of simple
processing techniques to convert these biomaterials (wastes) into value added products
(materials) and sustainable energy sources. Furthermore, the economic cost and environmental
benefits of the effective biomaterial utilization of these waste resources is drawn-out.
Keywords: Value chain, utilization, alternatives, biomaterials, wastes, processing, product
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria possesses over 80 million acres of arable land. This accounts for 23% of arable land in
West Africa (FAOSTAT). Nigeria is also known for its low irrigation requirement because of its
sufficient rainfalls of about 500-4000mm annually. These indicators suggest Nigeria’s huge
agricultural potentials.
Since 2009, there has been a consistent campaign by the federal government of Nigeria to
revamp the non-oil sector of the economy, with much attention given to agriculture. This is in a
bid to exploit the nation’s agro-potential. In line with this recent campaign, the Federal Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development, in its Minna 2011 staff retreat presented a functional plan
for the Agricultural Transformational Agenda - with a view to driving food manufacturing, under
the Staple Crop Processing Zones (SCPZ). Rice, Cassava, Cocoa, Oil Palm, and Sorghum were
identified as Target Commodity value chain.
Figure 1: Nigeria’s Target Commodity value chains by geo-political zones
Rice (Oryza glaberrima) served as 15% of Nigeria’s diet in 2010, with increasing annual
demand of 7%. Current annual production of rice grain in Nigeria is about 2.9 million metric tons
per annum (indexmundi.com). FAOSTAT reports that 2.0 million metric tons per annum of rice
husks are wasted.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta), is presently one of the cash crops in Nigeria. Nigeria being the
world’s largest producer, produces 34 million metric tons per annum (FAOSTAT, cooperate
document repository). Value chains from cassava at present in Nigeria include: High Quality
Cassava Flour (HQCF), Starch, High Fructose Cassava Syrup (HFCS), Chips, and Bio Ethanol.
However, cassava peels which constitute 5 - 15% by mass of roots generate waste of about 6.62
million metric tons per annum (Aro et al, 2010; Nwokoro et al., 2005).
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) in Nigeria has grown to become its world’s fourth leading exporter.
Nigeria currently produces about 350,000 metric tons per annum. Unfortunately, a waste of 80%
by mass of the cocoa fruit is wasted; either as cocoa pod husks or cocoa bean shell. An estimated
value of the waste ranges from 0.8 to 1.0 million metric tons of per annum (Ojeniyi 2006).
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is the principal food crop grown in Northern Nigeria. The annual
production of this crop currently stands at 6.5 million metric tons per annum (indexmundi.com),
with an annual waste of 1.95 million metric tons per annum of wet bagasse (ACCI, 2012). This
present annual capacity of Sorghum makes Nigeria its largest producer in West Africa,
accounting for 71% of the total regional output.
Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) is an essential ingredient for Nigerian cuisine. From being the
world’s largest producer of palm oil, Nigeria has become a net importer of the product (business
report from Nigerian news). Despite this shortcoming, Nigeria still produces about 930 thousand
metric tons of palm oil annually, and generates waste of about 1.05 million metric tons of Empty
Fruit Bunch (EFB). According to the Bureau of statistics; agriculture in Nigeria grew at 3.68%
and contributed 20.89% to her GDP. Yet, only about less than 40% of the nation’s potential of its
agricultural resources have been utilized (FAOSTAT). The major challenges to this effect, as
highlighted by the ministry of agriculture, among other problems, include:
Poor storage facilities
Inefficient market Institutions
Sparse processing facilities
These wastes (not waste from 60% unprocessed annual crop production) from ‘useless’
biomaterials - rice husks, cassava peels, cocoa pods, empty fruit bunch (EFB) of oil palm tree,
bagasse from sorghum, etc., are reusable. The application of simple processing techniques, as
have been demonstrated by various research all over the world, can convert these supposed
useless biomaterials to value-added material resources and alternative energy sources. Such
processing techniques include:
Biomass briquetting (densification) of Rice husk, coffee husk, sawdust, groundnut shell,
cotton, stalks, etc., into solid fuel
Decotification of coconut husk for coconut fibre rope and twine, brushes, mattresses
Fermentation of cellulose-based materials into ethanol
Anaerobic digestion of wastes to generate biogas
Composting/Aerobic degradation of putrescible solid wastes to produce fertilizer
Bio-processing of fibre to produce biodegradable agro resin packaging
Although more complex techniques as Biomass gasification, Pyrolysis, Bio reduction, and Bio
refinery are available (though bio-systems still very much under research), simpler processing
techniques/facilities will at this time in Nigeria be more apt for increased productivity. As
confirmed by Doreo Partners, millions of small-holder farmers have access to millions of
hectares, and are able to boost productivity if they had access to appropriate inputs, financing,
and processing facilities. It is for this reason-bridging the gap created by unavailability of
sufficient processing facilities that the agro industry is primed to spark off rapid enterprise
development in Nigeria.
2.0 WASTE BIOMATERIAL UTILIZATION
Figure 2: Graphical description
Rice Husk
i. Development of Adsorbent
Adsorbent from rice husk is considered a perfect means of controlling the problems of rice
husks as a waste (Otaru et al, 2013). This is used as stabilizer in bleaching vegetable oils.
Processing (Combustion): This involves acid pretreatment of the husks, after which it is
calcinated at very high temperatures of about 6000C for 3hrs. This increases the bleaching
potential of the rice husk adsorbent (RHA) (Otaru et al, 2013).
Figure 3: Rice husks waste
ii. Solid Fuel
The fuel husk has a calorific value of 15127.20kj/kg. In a comparative study by Yadave J.P.
and Raj Singh using the boiler efficiency of a typical rice mill in India, it was observed that
coal (a more expensive energy source) had a boiler efficiency of 68.4%, while rice husks (a
waste) gave an efficiency of 68% (Samriddhi, 2011). Thus, rice husk produced a heating
value similar to coal at relatively no cost.
Processing (Biomass briquetting/Densification): This involves increasing the bulk density
of the rice husk in order to aid handling. A heated die screw is widely used for this purpose.
During the process, biomass is forced into intimate and substantial sliding contact with
barrel walls. Rotational speed of the screw auger within, and the friction between the
biomass and the barrel walls increased the temperature within. The biomaterial is then
forced through the extrusion die where the briquette with the required shape is formed.
Cassava Peels
i. Development of Fertilizer
Composting is one of the most suitable methods for the disposal of putrescible solid waste,
and for increasing the amount of organic matter that can be used to restore and preserve the
environment (Steintiford E.J., 1987).
Processing (Composting): This involves the aerobic degradation of material. First, the
peels should be dried under ambient conditions, and then pounded to reduce particle size.
Particle size is important for air flow and microbial activity in compost pile. A blend of
cassava peels, sewage sludge, cow dung, and poultry manure are potentially good materials
for good compost, but poultry manure induced the early maturity of composting than other
supplements and contributed to the nutritional content of the compost (Sangodoyin et al,
2013).
Figure 4: Cassava Peels
ii. Animal Feed
Cassava peels contains high cyanogenic glucosidase which makes it unsuitable for animal
feed (Obulua 2007). However, sun-drying fresh cassava pieces for short periods is an
inefficient detoxification process as sun drying processing techniques reduces only 60 to 70
percent of the total cyanide content in the first two months of preservation (FAO cooperate
document repository). Researchers have suggested boiling, fermentation, and drying of
fermented peels to be a more effective, not only for the removal of cyanogenic contents of
peels but also an increase in its protein content. The result of the analysis of the fermented
cassava peels revealed that, there was an increase in the protein content of the cassava peels
fermented with wastewater from fermented cassava pulp when compared to unfermented
peels (8.2%). This increase was highest in the peel fermented with wastewater from the
inoculated cassava pulp (21.1%). Detoxification was however mainly affected by
fermentation length and by the initial cyanogens content (Minlena Lambri et al., 2013).
Cocoa Pod Husk (CPH)
Poultry Feed
It was predicted that 2010 and ongoing would be crucial for the poultry industry as the
lucrative ethanol industry pulls corn prices higher (Jaqui Fatka, 2007). According to
Agunbiade (2002), CPH contains protein, energy and fibre. This makes it a better and
cheaper substitute for maize in poultry feed. Eghoser, Rasheed, Hamzat in their field survery
(2006) revealed that about 60% of farmers who used 20% CPH maize replacement enjoyed
5% increase in egg production; while about 41% of farmers who utilized above 20%
reported a 10% increase in egg production.
Processing: It involves slicing of cocoa husks into small flakes, drying, mincing,
pelletizing, and drying of pelletized feed.
Cocoa Pulp
Production of Soft drinks and alcohol
Processing: As pulp juice, it involves pasteurization then bottling of the collected pulp.
As alcohol, it involves boiling of juice, fermentation, and distillation (Beckely K.N et al,
2013).
Figure 5: Cocoa Pods
Sorghum Bagasse
i. Bio Ethanol Production
The chemical analysis of bagasse (wikipedia) shows its high cellulose content (45-
55%) which makes it a potential source of biofuel.
Processing: It involves Milling, Gelatinization, Saccharification, Fermentation,
and Distillation.
Figure 6: Sorghum Bagasse
ii. Paper production
The Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR) funded a research recently carried out by
Cecilia B. Mangerbat, and Joel B. Taggueg, both of Isabella state University (ISU), on
paper making from bagasse. According to the researchers, all cellulosic materials can be
used in paper production, but the properties of paper products vary depending on the
morphological characteristics of the fibers used. The length, cell wall thickness, and lumen
diameter of the fiber used can greatly affect the quality of paper that will be produced. The
benefit of this discovery is that it saves trees, emits less GHGs, and less energy demands for
pulping.
Processing: Mangabat and Taggueg developed 13 easy steps in making handmade paper
from sweet sorghum bagasse which is summarized thus:
The bagasse is depithed (removal of soft inner portion), after which it is sliced to about one-
inch length. The chopped material is then treated with NaOH solution, cooked for about four
hours, then washed to remove its slippery texture. This treated bagasse is then
pounded/blend and then bleached to produce different colours of paper. At this point pulp
slurry is prepared. As the slurry is being molded into form, water is gradually being drained
until sheet is formed.
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) of Oil Palm
i. Biodegradable Packaging Materials
Oil palm fruit fiber can be converted into a biodegradable material (Agro Resin packaging).
This has been demonstrated by a simple technology developed by Grenidea Agro Resin
(Singapore).
Figure 7: Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB)
Processing: This involves shredding and drying of the bunch, after which the shredded bunch is
grinded into fine particles. Formulations, mixing, and compounding are done after which
extrusion, profiling, and cooling follows. M.A. Norul Izani in his research (2012) treated the
EFB material in NaOH solution or using phenol formaldehyde of about 10% of dried fiber for
making fiberboard.
ii. Solid Fuel
Traditionally, fruit fiber collected after oil extraction can be collected, molded into a
desirable shape, and dried for solid fuel. This method however can be improved on.
COST ECONOMICS (data based on values as at Nov 2014)
Rice Husk to Biomass Briquette
Rice husk has a bulk density of 117kg/m3. Upon densification, the bulk density
increases with corresponding decrease in volume and mass unchanged.
Therefore, 2.0 million tons of annual RH waste yields same mass of Briquette.
Comparison of biomass briquette (fuel) with coal in terms on energy value
32139
15217.2
Therefore, 2.112kg briquette is equivalent to 1kg coal.
Hence 2.0 million tons briquette will be equivalent to 0.947 million tons coal.
Cost of coal per ton in Nigeria is US$150 per metric ton (FOB Price)
Annual Cost of utilizing coal = $150 x 0.947E6 ton = $142.05 million (N23.43825 billion)
Equivalent Annual Cost of Briquetting 2.0 million tons = N173,250,000 (Process Concepts and
Technologies Ltd.) assuming 18% market interest rate, and 5yrs project life
Annual Savings from using Briquette:
. . = . ( $ )
Cocoa Pod Husk to Poultry feed
As a substitute for maize
CPH waste = 0.8 1.0 MMT/ annum (assuming 0.8MMT)
Cost of maize =N7400/100kg (IRIN Africa; as at March 2013)
Cost of maize with equivalent weight of CPH waste = 1007400 x 1 000kg1ton x 0.8E6 tons annum
= N59.2 billion annum (US$358.8 million)
Hence, savings/revenue from processing annual CPH waste into a substitute for
maize in poultry feed is about N59.2 billion.
Bagasse to Ethanol
Annual Waste from bagasse= 1.95 million metric tons
Chemical analysis shows cellulose content of about 45-55%, assuming 50% (average value)
% by mass of cellulose in 1.95 MMT bagasse = 0.975 MMT
15 ton bagasse yields 2400L ethanol (Serna et al, 2012)
Hence, 0.975 million metric ton yields 156ML ethanol per annum
Cost of bio-ethanol/litre (Christiana N. Ogbonna, 2013; based on on-farm Bio ethanol production
with 5yrs pay-back period) is N58.3/ L (US$0.353)
Annual Revenue from Bio Ethanol Sales = 58.3*156
= N9.0948billion (US$55.12 million)
Hence, the utilization of bagasse for on-farm ethanol production generates revenue of
N9.095billion annually for the business owner (farmer).
Bagasse to Paper
Annual Waste from bagasse = 1.95 million metric tons
Chemical analysis shows cellulose content of about 41.3%
% by mass of cellulose in 1.95 MMT bagasse = 0.80535 MMT Optimal
pulp yield after maceration is 45.75% (Ibrahim H et al., 2011)
Hence 0.80535 MMT cellulose yields 0.36845 MMT pulp annually for paper making
Comparison with regular office printing paper (A4)
Dimension (standard) = 0.297m x 0.21m (Wikipedia)
Paper Density = 80g/m2 (Wikipedia)
Weight per sheet = 5g
Cost of sheet = N665/ream; 500 sheets, 2.5kg (gloo.ng)
Cost of regular paper equivalent to weight of pulp from annual bagasse waste is
= 2.5655 x 1000kg1ton x 0.36845E6 tons annum
= N96.5339 billion (US$585.054 million)
Project cost for papermaking is based on Feasibility studies by Small & Medium Scale
Enterprise Development Authority, SMEDA, Pakistan,
Capital Investment on Medium-Scale Paper making=
US$832,084.27 Annual Working Capital = US$29,274.69
Their plant capacity is 140,000 per annum. Considering the annual waste of sorghum bagasse as
1.95MMT, we would require 140 units of that capacity in the country. Therefore,
Capital Investment on Medium-Scale Paper making = $832,084.27 x 140 = $116,491,797.8
Annual Working Capital = $29,274.69 x 140 = $4,098,456.6
Assuming 18% market rate, and project life of 5yrs,
Equivalent Annual Cost of Capital Investment = US$37,251,495.69
Total Annual Investment = Annual Working capital + Annual cost of Capital investment
= $4,098,456.6 + $37,251,495.69 = $41,349,952.29 (N68.223 billion)
Net savings/revenue from Utilization of bagasse for papermaking
N96.5339 billion N68.223 billion = N28.3109 billion (US$171.581 million)
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) to Biodegradable packaging
Annual Oil Palm production = 0.93MMT (indexmundi.com)
% by mass of crude oil palm in FFB is within a range of 9.4 12.8% (Ohimain E.I et al., 2012);
assuming 10%
Therefore, FFB produced annually = 9.3 MMT
For every 100kg FFB, 22kg EFB is produced (Wikipedia)
Hence annual waste from EFB = 2.046 MMT
Comparison with synthetic packaging
Considering 8’’x 6’’x 2’’ packaging plate sold in Nigeria
Average Cost = N150/0.14kg (20 pieces) (Gold Plus Nigeria)
Annual Cost of synthetic packaging with equivalent weight of EFB waste is
= N2192.14 billion (US$13.2857 billion)
Cost of processing bio fiber = 25cents/lb (N91/kg) (Composite Materials and Structures
Center Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mi 48824)
Cost of EFB processing (estimated) = 1 91 x 1000kg1ton x 2.046E6 tons/annum = N186.186
billion (US$1.1284 billion)
Net annual savings/revenue from utilizing EFB = N2192.14 billion N186.186 billion
= N2005.954 billion (US$12.157 billion)
ENVIRONMENTAL COST/BENEFIT
Over the last three decades there has been increasing global concern over the public health
impacts attributed to environmental pollution, in particular the global burden of disease (UNEP).
The world health organization (WHO) estimates that about a quarter of the diseases facing
mankind today occur due to prolonged exposure to environmental pollution. These problems of
pollution arise from improper disposal of wastes (Angela Keisina, 2009), of which combustion
(burning) is common. Burning ‘trash’ creates dangerous toxic smoke, which contains dioxins
known to cause cancer, as well as other contaminants which may aggravate lung problems
(USEPA). The need of burning trash can be reduced by Reducing wastes, Recycling wastes, and
essentially, Re-Using wastes. Husks, pods, stalks, fibers, peels, and other Re-Usable ‘waste’
biomaterials, in addition to being sources of environmental hazards, also constitute a nuisance to
the farmers. On the farms, such wastes occupy useful storage space for harvested crops, and
disrupt the aesthetics of the farms’ layout. Fortunately, these ‘wastes’ are reusable. Aerobic
digestion, Composting, Pelletization, Oxidation ponds, and Bio- processing, among other waste
management methods, are useful not only as waste management techniques, but also serve as
biomaterial utilization processing techniques that help to check the impact of wastes on the
environment.
The environmental impacts of the manufacture, use and disposal of non-biodegradable
packaging materials causes the formation of GHGs (such as CO2), the release of toxins (e.g.
vinyl chloride monomer) and the scattering of landscape (e.g. mining pits) (Tristan E. Ragsdale,
2005). Oil palm EFB can be processed into bio-fibers which can be molded into agro-resin
packaging that can effectively substitute these environmentally unfriendly non-biodegradable
synthetics. Thus, re-used biomaterials directly and indirectly serve to reduce waste’s impact on
the environment. Similar benefits/cost accrues from the use/misuse of other agro-biomaterial
resources.
CONCLUSION
Poor waste management is one of the major causes of environmental degradation. In a
developing nation like Nigeria with huge agro potential, it is not unlikely that the bulk of our
wastes are from biomaterial sources on farms. These supposed wastes, however, can be of
immense Economic and Environmental benefits if re-used. Effective utilization of biomaterial
generates more income to the farmer, creates SME opportunities, reduces pollution in the
environment, serves as alternatives to heavily imported materials, and diversifies sustainable
energy sources. However, the unavailability of some of the required processing facilities pose a
challenge to the farmers, and as such burning becomes an alternative ‘waste management’
technique to reclaim useful space that is lost to ‘wastes’. Sometimes the facilities, though
available, are not efficient enough to maximize the potential embedded in these wastes.
Therefore, there is need to develop more efficient small-scale processing facilities and improved
pre-treatment methods in order to enhance the conversion of agro wastes to useful material
resources. Alternative energy sources can also be improved on in terms of handling, packaging,
and energy value, and even the development of green stoves for efficient burning of our local
alternative fuel sources.
This intensified research effort is particularly timely in the nation; when the agricultural
sector has been primed to boost the economy more than any non-oil sector, and even the oil
sector of the economy.
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The objective of this study was to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of experimental medium density fibreboard (MDF) panels manufactured from empty fruit bunch (EFB) of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Panels were made from EFB treated with boiling water, soaked in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or their combination by using phenol formaldehyde at 8, 10 and 12% based on oven-dry weight of fibre. Mechanical and physical properties including modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond strength, thickness swelling and water absorption of the samples were determined according to the Malaysian Standards (MS 1787: 2005). Based on results of this work, it seems that EFB can be used as raw material to manufacture value-added MDF with accepteble properties based on the standards. Panels made from fibres treated with NaOH in 12% resin produced the highest MOR (31.4 MPa). Fibres treated with the combination of NaOH and boiling water resulted in panels with reduced bending properties. All types of treatments enhanced dimensional stability of panels. All treated EFB fibres were less sensitive when exposed to alkaline condition compared with acidic condition.
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This study evaluates the material-mass balance of smallholder oil palm processing in Niger Delta Nigeria. Ten smallholder oil palm processing mills were randomly sampled. Measuring scale was used to measure the weight of the Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) and all the processing intermediates/products including Threshed Fresh Fruit (TFF), Palm Pressed Fibre (PPF), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB), Crude Palm Oil (CPO), chaff and nut. During the study period (13-22 April 2012), 8 of the mills processed 90-400 bunches of Dura variety, while the remaining 2 mills processed 65-200 bunches of Tenera variety. During the batch processing of Dura variety, the proportion of the intermediate products computed in relation to the weight of the FFB (100%) are as follows; TFF (66.0-75.0%), mesocarp (44.8-51.1%), nuts (19.0-27.5%), kernel (5.7-7.2%), water in mesocarp (9.0-12.1%) and water in nut (2.4-3.4%), EFB (23.7-32.4%), chaff (0.8-2.4%), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) (10.0-18.8%), Palm Press Fibre (PPF) (23.2-28.1%) and Crude Palm Oil (CPO) (9.4-12.8%). For the Tenera varieties, the compositions are as follows; TFF (70.9-72.9%), mesocarp (56.4-58.0%), nuts (14.5-14.9%), kernel (5.5-5.6%), water in mesocarp (10.1-10.4%) and water in the nut (1.9-2.1%), EFB (25.7-28.2%), chaff (0.9-1.4%), PKS (6.8-7.5%), (19.1-20.3%) and CPO (26.0-28.2%). This result shows that Tenera produces more oil and less wastes compared to the Dura variety. The solid wastes fractions are used as energy sources during the processing of oil palm and as filling materials for upgrading access roads to palm plantations. Except the huge volume of wastes (71.8-90.6%) generated by smallholder oil palm processors is effectively utilized, the process will be unsustainable.
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When the large quantity of rice is needed, there is need of installation of the conventional rice mill. From this mill, the rice produced is of good quality and high grade of rice is obtained. In earlier time bran goes together with the husk, now bran is separated from the husk, and the rice is sold at good price. At small scale when coal is used in rice mill plant the operating cost increases thus profit is decreased. More pollution is created due to the use of coal and the husk remains as waste. If husk is utilized in place of coal as fuel, then it is determined that operating cost becomes less and economical profit comes more than the coal for rice production. If the conventional and auto-rice-mill is compared, it is observed that in conventional rice mill operating cost of using husk and coal is less than auto rice mill. But capacity and economical profit comes more in auto rice mill. Through comparative study it is found that the efficiency of using both husk and coal comes out to be the same, but their comparison varies when discussed about economic and expenditure of plant. It is seen that the price / day of using husk is more than that of coal which implies that husk used as fuel is more beneficial than using coal as fuel. When both the fuels are compared i.e. husk and coal then, it is concluded that husk as fuel is used free of cost but coal much maintenance requires which leads it to have more cost in comparison to husk and also pollution created by coal is more than that of husk, which makes husk more reliable than the coal.
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using cassava koji supplemented with crude liquid enzyme and yeast was described. On a small scale, a fed-batch mode where 4 kg of koji, 2 kg of gelatinized cassava flour and 30 g of yeast cells were mixed and allowed to ferment for two days, followed by addition of 1.5 kg of cassava flour and fermenting for another three days, gave higher ethanol concentration of 7.05% (0.34 g-ethanol/g-cassava flour) than when 3.5 kg of gelatinized cassava flour, 4 kg of koji and 30 g of yeast cells were mixed at the same time and allowed to ferment for five days. The process was scaled up 100 times and economic feasibility was evaluated. The total investment cost was seven million, five hundred thousand Nigerian naira (₦) (US$46,875). With a payback period of five years, the cost of cassava tubers represented 71.73% of the total production cost. At a market price of fresh cassava tubers of ₦10,000/ton, the ethanol production cost was ₦102.5/l (US$0.641/l), which is not profitable considering the current market price of ethanol (US$0.597-0.748/l). The process becomes profitable only when the price of fresh cassava tuber is reduced to ₦5,000/ton (US$31.25/ton). At this price, the ethanol production cost would be ₦58.53/l (US$0.366/l). The process is recommended for vertically integrated system (on-farm process) where the cassava produced in the farm is used, thereby shielding it from high and fluctuating market prices of cassava.
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The identification of highly effective procedures that reduce the cyanogens contained in cassava roots which require no sophisticated equipment, and can readily be adopted by subsistence farmers is of tremendous importance. This study, which used cassava root samples collected in Burundi, included fermentation tests using both selected and native cultures at different temperatures for variable times. Moreover, drying procedures with and without fermentation were carried out. A factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the detoxification was mainly affected by fermentation length and by the initial cyanogens content of the roots. When fermentation lasted 48 h and the initial cyanide level was lower than 300 mg/kg dry weight (d.w.), the detoxification was also found to vary based on the microorganism inoculated; Saccharomyces cerevisiae demonstrated the greatest effectiveness. In terms of drying conditions, a temperature of 60°C, even for a shorter duration of time (8 h), lowered the initial cyanide level by more than 90%. Finally, when dehydration followed fermentation, the pressed pulp showed a substantial reduction in cyanide content. By means of this last procedure, safe cassava was produced according to FAO/WHO amendments (10 mg HCN equivalent per kilogram flour), if the initial cyanide level of roots did not exceed 200 mg/kg d.w. Actually, the initial maximum total cyanide content was confirmed to be fundamental in order to obtain safe products in relation to processing method adopted.
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SUMMARY In Nigeria, like many developing nations, the resultant environmental problems are legion: aggravated soil erosion, flood disasters, salinization or alkalisation, and the desertification due to the effects of shifting agriculture on fragile soils, forest clearing in erosion prone and flood- prone areas, bush burning, animal over-grazing and poor construction and maintenance of roads and irrigation system; pollution of water, air and land due to improper disposal of domestic and industrial wastes; pollution through oil spillage; pollution from noise; proliferation of slums in urban areas, unsanitary and unsafe housing; congestion of traffic and houses in urban areas and lack of open spaces for active outdoor recreation. All these affect human well-being (the most affected groups are women and children) especially the health and socio-economic well being of the people of the Niger Delta in Nigeria in particular and in the world as a whole. Therefore, this paper highlights the dimensions, nature and characteristics of these phenomena. And further examines the implications of the environmental degradation on the health and socio-economic well-being of the people of the Niger Delta.
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  • O Martha
  • A A Luqman
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