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Potere, controllo e soggettività nelle piattaforme digitali di food delivery: un’analisi foucaultiana dell’app latinoamericana Rappi
Abstract
This article aims to analyze the power assemblage and the forms of subjectification presented in the Latin American food delivery app Rappi, based on a research realized in Buenos Aires and Mexico City. The conceps of discipline, governamentality and technologies of the self are used in order to analyze the digital platform and the systems of administration of the workforce in the enlarged cooperation; on the other hand, it will be analyzed the way they structure the working relationship and the subjectivity of the worker on the model of self-entrepreneurship. This analysis aims to propose the concept of functional autonomy, which could be deepened in future research on the topic.
... On the other hand, we are witnessing a process of informalisation of formality since the platform economy represents a formal labour market with informal arrangements. In the Global South, platforms rely on the cooperation of masses of precarious workers and structurally highly informal labour markets (Casilli et al., 2023;De Stavola, 2020;Munck, 2013), while in the Global North, they benefit from the de-standardisation and de-regulation of labour 2 and the access to disposable migrant urban workers (Mendonça et al., 2023;van Doorn, 2022). As they are merely supposed to be intermediaries, companies «end up circumventing the (decent) work standards and transforming the labour market downgrading job quality» (Mendonça et al., 2023, p. 63). ...
... On the other hand, we are witnessing a process of informalisation of formality since the platform economy represents a formal labour market with informal arrangements. In the Global South, platforms rely on the cooperation of masses of precarious workers and structurally highly informal labour markets (Casilli et al., 2023;De Stavola, 2020;Munck, 2013), while in the Global North, they benefit from the de-standardisation and de-regulation of labour 2 and the access to disposable migrant urban workers (Mendonça et al., 2023;van Doorn, 2022). As they are merely supposed to be intermediaries, companies «end up circumventing the (decent) work standards and transforming the labour market downgrading job quality» (Mendonça et al., 2023, p. 63). ...
Recent developments in legal decisions have highlighted the directive power exerted by platforms, leading to a preference for an employee scheme for qualification purposes. However, work platform control mechanisms are part of larger, more complex systems of algorithmic power that threaten the identities of individuals. Workers become subject to manipulation even before they begin work, rendering the protections associated with employee recognition inadequate. One possible solution to safeguard the dignity of workers and right to self-determination is to align labor law with the right to personal data protection. La evolución reciente de las decisiones judiciales ha puesto de relieve el poder directivo que ejercen las plataformas, lo que ha llevado a preferir un régimen de empleados a efectos de cualificación. Sin embargo, los mecanismos de control de las plataformas de trabajo forman parte de sistemas más amplios y complejos de poder algorítmico que amenazan la identidad de las personas. Los trabajadores se convierten en objeto de manipulación incluso antes de empezar a trabajar, lo que hace que las protecciones asociadas al reconocimiento de empleado resulten inadecuadas. Una posible solución para salvaguardar la dignidad de los trabajadores y el derecho a la autodeterminación es alinear la legislación laboral con el derecho a la protección de datos personales.
El artículo analiza algunos aspectos del trabajo de les repartidores de plataformas de delivery, desde un marco teórico basado en algunas formulaciones de autores que se inscriben en el así llamado marxismo postoperaísta. En particular, se retoma la manera en que ciertes autores filtran a la luz de la historia del capitalismo y extienden en su alcance el concepto marxiano de general intellect. A partir de un trabajo de campo realizado con les repartidores de Buenos Aires, el texto se enfoca principalmente en la autonomía que tienen estes en el manejo de sus tareas cotidianas, que, más allá de los cuerpos, requieren la puesta al trabajo de los requisitos específicos del Homo sapiens. La hipótesis que se plantea es que esto implica, de parte de las plataformas, un manejo estratégico de las relaciones capital-trabajo y que las plataformas se pueden volver un terreno de conflicto.
In light of the individualisation, dispersal and pervasive monitoring that characterise work in the ‘gig economy’, the development of solidarity among gig workers could be expected to be unlikely. However, numerous recent episodes of gig workers’ mobilisation require reconsideration of these assumptions. This article contributes to the debate about potentials and obstacles for solidarity in the changing world of work by showing the processes through which workplace solidarity among gig workers developed in two cases of mobilisation of food delivery platform couriers in the UK and Italy. Through the framework of labour process theory, the article identifies the sources of antagonism in the app-mediated model of work organisation and the factors that facilitated and hindered the consolidation of active solidarity and the emergence of collective action among gig workers. The article emphasises the centrality of workers’ agential practices in overcoming constraints to solidarity and collective action, and the diversity of forms through which solidarity can be expressed in hostile work contexts.
Este artículo elabora la ontología social y la metodología de la sociología carnal como un modo distintivo de indagación social, evitando la postura espectadora para captar la acción-en-proceso, a raíz de los debates desencadenados por mi estudio basado en el aprendizaje del boxeo como un arte corporal plebeyo. Primero critico las nociones de agente (dualista), estructura (externalista) y conocimiento (mentalista) que prevalecen en las ciencias sociales contemporáneas y esbozo una concepción alternativa del animal social, no solo como portadora de símbolos, sino como una criatura de carne y sangre, sensible, sufirente, hábil, sedimentada y situada criatura de carne y hueso. Destaco la primacía de los conocimientos prácticos incorporados que surgen y se enredan continuamente en redes de acción y considero qué modos de investigación son adecuados para desplegar y extraer esta concepción encarnada del agente. Sostengo que la etnografía performativa, la marca del trabajo de campo inmersivo basado en “realizar el fenómeno”, es un camino fructífero hacia la captura de los esquemas (habitus) cognitivos, conativos y catécticos que generan las prácticas y subyacen en el cosmos que se está investigando. Pero se necesita talento social y persistencia para obtener los beneficios de la “participación observante” y lograr la competencia social (a diferencia de la saturación empírica). Para concluir, vuelvo al diálogo de Bourdieu con Pascal para considerar la dificultad y la urgencia especiales de capturar el “espíritu de agudeza” que anima dicha competencia pero desaparece de los relatos sociológicas normales.
Since the establishment of Organization Studies in 1980, Michel Foucault’s oeuvre has had a remarkable and continuing influence on its field. This article traces the different ways in which organizational scholars have engaged with Foucault’s writings over the past thirty years or so. We identify four overlapping waves of influence. Drawing on Foucault’s Discipline and Punish, the first wave focused on the impact of discipline, and techniques of surveillance and subjugation, on organizational practices and power relations. Part of a much wider ‘linguistic’ turn in the second half of the twentieth century, the second wave led to a focus on discourses as intermediaries that condition ways of viewing and acting. This wave drew mainly on Foucault’s early writings on language and discourse. The third wave was inspired by Foucault’s seminal lectures on governmentality towards the end of the 1970s. Here, an important body of international research investigating governmental technologies operating on subjects as free persons in sites such as education, accounting, medicine and psychiatry emerged. The fourth and last wave arose out of a critical engagement with earlier Foucauldian organizational scholarship and sought to develop a more positive conception of subjectivity. This wave draws in particular on Foucault’s work on asceticism and techniques of the self towards the end of his life. Drawing on Deleuze and Butler, the article conceives the Foucault effect in organization studies as an immanent cause and a performative effect. We argue for the need to move beyond the tired dichotomies between discipline and autonomy, compliance and resistance, power and freedom that, at least to some extent, still hamper organization studies. We seek to overcome such dichotomies by further pursuing newly emerging lines of Foucauldian research that investigate processes of organizing, calculating and economizing characterized by a differential structuring of freedom, performative and indirect agency.
Netnography is a specific approach to conducting ethnography on the internet. It is a qualitative, interpretive research methodology that adapts traditional ethnographic techniques to the study of social media. As discussed in this entry, Netnography adds specific practices that include locating communities and topics, narrowing data, handling large digital datasets, analyzing digitally contextualized data, and navigating difficult online ethical matters and research procedures. The nature of researcher immersion and ethnographic (or “netnographic”) participation is also treated rigorously within netnography. The new approach has gained wide acceptance within business research and is spreading to other fields.
‘Gamification’ is understood as the application of game systems – competition, rewards, quantifying player/user behaviour – into non-game domains, such as work, productivity and fitness. Such practices are deeply problematic as they represent the capture of ‘play’ in the pursuit of neoliberal rationalization and the managerial optimization of working life and labour. However, applying games and play to social life is also central to the Situationist International, as a form of resistance against the regularity and standardization of everyday behaviour. In this article, the authors distinguish between two types of gamification: first, ‘gamification-from-above’, involving the optimization and rationalizing of work practices by management; and second, ‘gamification-from-below’, a form of active resistance against control at work. Drawing on Autonomism and Situationism, the authors argue that it is possible to transform non-games into games as resistance, rather than transferring game elements out of playful contexts and into managerial ones. Since the original ‘gamification’ term is now lost, the authors develop the alternative conception as a practice that supports workers, rather than one used to adapt behaviour to capital. The article concludes with a renewed call for this ‘gamification-from-below’, which is an ideal form of resistance against gamification-from-above and its capture of play in pursuit of work.
The main aim of gamification, i.e. the implementation of game design elements in real-world contexts for non-gaming purposes, is to foster human motivation and performance in regard to a given activity. Previous research, although not entirely conclusive, generally supports the hypothesis underlying this aim. However, previous studies have often treated gamification as a generic construct, neglecting the fact that there are many different game design elements which can result in very diverse applications. Based on a self-determination theory framework, we present the results of a randomized controlled study that used an online simulation environment. We deliberately varied different configurations of game design elements, and analysed them in regard to their effect on the fulfilment of basic psychological needs. Our results show that badges, leaderboards, and performance graphs positively affect competence need satisfaction, as well as perceived task meaningfulness, while avatars, meaningful stories, and teammates affect experiences of social relatedness. Perceived decision freedom, however, could not be affected as intended. We interpret these findings as general support for our main hypothesis that gamification is not effective per se, but that specific game design elements have specific psychological effects. Consequences for further research, in particular the importance of treatment checks, are discussed.
This paper presents an alternative approach to analyse power in modern organisations. It does so by applyingFoucauldian concepts to new types of management technologies, which are directed at the employee's personality. Most often, studies of power and management focus on organisational structures, power games between groups and issues of how to manage processes within and between organisations. We rarely talk about whatcould be termed 'the management of personality'. This paper argues, however, that this kind of Human Resource Management is becoming increasingly important and should be a key focus in critical organisational analysis. It also discusses the consequences and possibilities for employees facing a proliferation of management-ofpersonality technologies.
This article develops Foucault’s later work on ethics and his concept of ethical askesis in the transformation of the self as a new approach to understanding organizational ethics. Scholars within the field of management and organization studies have already proposed the development of a Foucauldian approach to ethics, but the precise nature of such an ‘art of living’ has yet to be clarified. To address this gap in the literature this article builds on Foucault’s theoretical and practical interest in the work of historical and contemporary social movement organizations. The article investigates the role that social movement organizations play as crucibles for the creation of new forms of organizational subjectivity and novel ethical practices. In this way the article develops a synthesis between the Foucauldian scholarship and social movement organization theory. The contribution of the article shows how social movement organizations act as sites for the creation of novel organizational subjectivities and ethical practices, and reconceptualizes organizational ethics in Foucauldian terms as a form of ethical askesis to transform the self.
To date, academic studies of the call centre ‘sector’ remain limited in scope. Here the authors attempt to remedy that omission by analysing the recent and spectacular growth of call centres in the UK, drawing on a wide variety of sources, including two extensive surveys of developments in Scotland during 1997.
In our introduction to this special issue on the gig economy, we provide some context to how and why this phenomenon should be studied, with a particular emphasis on Human Resource Management. We then describe the four articles that comprise the special issue, and we note some common themes. Our introduction concludes with some suggestions for future research on the gig economy.
This Special Issue holds that managerialism is not an abstract, trans-historical category, and this article argues that neither is it hidden within an impenetrable black box. An important new form of managerialism is being revealed which is specific to what Moore and Joyce argue to be a very observable, and also widely contested, platform management model (PMM). Marx’s ‘hidden abode’ is a more appropriate metaphor than a black box, thus, given empirically demonstrable cases of control and resistance. Drawing on insights from labor process theory, the article reveals how control methods are at work, and transversally, how platform managerialism generates considerable levels of worker and union resistance. Despite its seeming inevitability and invincibility, platform managerialism is as knowable and as contestable, indeed, as contested, as other forms.
This qualitative case study adopts a labour process analysis to unpack the distinctive features of capital’s control regimes in the food-delivery segment of the Australian platform-economy and assess labour agency in response to these. Drawing upon worker experiences with the Deliveroo and UberEATS platforms, it is shown how the labour process controls are multi-facetted and more than algorithmic management, with three distinct features standing out: the panoptic disposition of the technological infrastructure, the use of information asymmetries to constrain worker choice and the obfuscated nature of their performance management systems. Combined with the workers’ precarious labour market positions and the Australian political-economic context, only limited, mainly individual, expressions of agency were found.
Per una sociologia degli algoritmi di M assimo M azzotti La nostra vita e pervasa di matematica. Le tecnologie digitali hanno reso possibile una forte accelerazione della tendenza alla ma- tematizzazione che caratterizza le scienze moderne, e quindi il modo in cui rappresentiamo la realta e interveniamo per modificarla. Queste tecnologie sono anche alla base di infrastrutture che danno forma alle nostre interazioni sociali e alla nostra percezione degli altri – e di noi stessi. In altre parole, il mondo che abitiamo e sempre piu strutturato da procedure algoritmiche. Questi algoritmi giocano un ruolo chiave, ad esempio, nel selezionare le informazione che ci raggiungono – si pensi ai motori di ricerca, agli argomenti di tendenza sui social network, o alle raccomandazioni personalizzate sui siti commerciali. Il loro ruolo va oltre quello di aiutarci a trovare informazioni utili: definiscono anche come capire quali conoscenze siano rilevanti, come acquisirle, e come partecipare a eventuali discussioni pubbliche ad esse collegate. Gli algoritmi hanno quindi il «potere di abilitare ed assegnare signifi- cativita» un presupposto fondamentale per la nostra partecipazione al discorso sociale e politico (Langlois 2013). Al tempo stesso, ci danno anche la possibilita di ripensare la nostra esperienza individuale e la nostra soggettivita tramite, ad esempio, il monitoraggio costante delle funzioni vitali e la raccolta ed elaborazione di dati quantitativi relativi agli stili di vita (quantified self). Questo ruolo chiave degli algoritmi nel creare le condizioni per il nostro incontro con la realta sia naturale che sociale contrasta in modo netto con la loro relativa invisibilita. Al contrario di infrastrutture di tipo piu tradizionale, i numeri e le procedure formali che costituiscono gli algoritmi sono integrate nel mondo in cui ci muoviamo al punto che ce ne possiamo facilmente dimenticare. La metafora della scatola nera, coniata dai sociologi della scienza alcuni decenni fa, non potrebbe trovare un esempio piu calzante. Mettere una tecnologia nella scatola nera significa renderla talmente ovvia da sottrarla allo scrutinio degli utilizzatori, a volte anche degli analisti, che quindi cessano di vederla come contingente e modificabile e la accettano invece come naturale. A questo punto la tecnologia e RASSEGNA ITALIANA DI SOCIOLOGIA / a. LVI, n. 3-4, luglio-dicembre 2015
Paper available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2682602
The so-called “gig-economy” has been growing exponentially in numbers and importance in recent years but its impact on labour rights has been largely overseen. Work in the “gig-economy” includes “crowd work”, and “work-on-demand via apps”, under which the demand and supply of working activities is matched online or via mobile apps. Whilst these forms of employment present significant differences among themselves, they also share striking similarities. They can provide a good match of job opportunities, allow flexible working schedules and potentially contribute to redefining the boundaries of the firm. However, they can also pave the way to a severe commodification of labour. This paper discusses the implications of this commodification and advocates the recognition of activities in the gig-economy as work, as the risk of labour being hidden under catchphrases such as “gigs”, “tasks”, “rides” etc. is currently extremely high. It shows how the gig-economy is not a separate silo of the economy and how it is part of broader phenomena such as casualization and informalisation of work and the spread of non-standard forms of employment. It then analyses the risks associated to these activities with regard to Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, as they are defined by the International Labour Organisation (ILO), and addresses the issue of misclassification of the employment status of workers in the gig-economy, based on existing service agreements, business practices and litigation in this sector. Current relevant trends are thus examined, such as the emergence of forms of self-organisation of workers. Finally some policy proposals are critically analysed, such as the possibility of creating an intermediate category between “employee” and “independent contractor” to classify workers in the gig-economy, and other tentative proposals are put forward such as advocacy for the full acknowledgment of activities in this sector as work, extension of fundamental labour rights to all workers irrespective of employment status, and recognition of the role of social partners in this respect, whilst avoiding temptations of hastened deregulation.
This paper is to be presented at the seminar on Crowd-Sourcing, the Gig Economy, and the Law, hold at the Wharton School – University of Pennsylvania, on 7 November 2015. Contributions presented at the seminar will be published, after review, in a special issue of the Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal, in 2016.
Theory and observations are used to argue that JIT/TQC regimes both create and demand systems of surveillance which improve on those of previous factory regimes by instilling discipline and thereby enhancing central control.
For its theoretical inspiration this paper draws upon the work of Michel Foucault, especially his conception of Power/Knowledge as articulated in his book Discipline and Punish. This theoretical framework is extended to provide a means of analysis of the mechanisms of surveillance and control that operate in the contemporary work place.
While there is a sense in which tactical responsibility is delegated in an organisation practising JIT/TQM, strategic control is simultaneously centralised - a form of devolutionism. Drawing on the work of Foucault we will argue that the JIT/TQM approach is both enabled and enhanced by the operation of two complementary disciplinary forces. The first of these is the discipline which derives from the scrutiny of one's peers in a manufacturing cell, quality circle, etc. - a horizontal process which is supported by the organisational structure associated with JIT/TQM.
The second and key disciplinary force is that which derives from the use of increasingly powerful management information systems which provide extensive shop floor surveillance - a vertical process which provides an over-arching controlling mechanism.
We demonstrate that the surveillance systems integral to JIT/TQM are deliberately designed such that discipline is established in a most efficient manner and the exercise of minute control is possible with a minimum of supervisors. The desired effect of harnessing these dual forces is to minimise negative divergences from expected behaviour and management defined norms whilst identifying positive divergencies and maximising their creative potential.
While surveillance has long been recognised as part of the armoury of managerial practices in the workplace, there has been increasing claims that electronic or panoptic surveillance is a new and successful model of control. This paper explores and challenges these claims by examining in detail 'hard' and 'soft' versions of the story through the work of Sewell and Zuboff respectively, before looking briefly at recent debates on call centres. It concludes by arguing that through there has been some shift towards surveillance practices, there is insufficient evidence that a combination of electronic Panopticon and peer pressure is effective and distinctive enough to constitute a credible new model of control of the labour process. In addition, social scientists must be careful not to assume that developments in workplace surveillance are transferable to the broader social terrain, or vice versa.
George Orwell's ‘Big Brother’ and Michel Foucault's ‘panopticon’ have dominated discussion of contemporary developments in surveillance. While such metaphors draw our attention to important attributes of surveillance, they also miss some recent dynamics in its operation. The work of Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari is used to analyse the convergence of once discrete surveillance systems. The resultant ‘surveillant assemblage’ operates by abstracting human bodies from their territorial settings, and separating them into a series of discrete flows. These flows are then reassembled in different locations as discrete and virtual ‘data doubles’. The surveillant assemblage transforms the purposes of surveillance and the hierarchies of surveillance, as well as the institution of privacy.
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