Women and ICT in Africa and the Middle East: Changing Selves, Changing Societies
... Sultana et al., Kumar, and others (e.g., [108,67,25,83]) have examined women's engagement with technology in diverse contexts, highlighting various manifestations of a gender divide that shapes access to mobile technologies, even as they become increasingly affordable across the globe [95]. At the same time, recent work has also sought to emphasize how many of these women exercise their individual and collective agencies in response to the afore-mentioned gender divide, as they access and engage (e.g., [26,54,61,67]). Seeking to better understand this process and go beyond access, we investigate the use of social media among women in urban India as a case of the transnational flow of technology between the Global North to the Global South, backgrounded by the limitations women face in Indian society due to their gender. Not only is such engagement with social media by women in India and the Global South underexplored, it also provides a window into the forms and levels of self-expression, communication, online interactions, content creation, and content sharing that are currently unfolding. ...
... Bardzell's early work on feminist HCI suggests following principles such as participation, plurality, and self-disclosure as starting points for accounting for diverse perspectives [11]. Prior work has developed to engage with Global South contexts specifically, suggesting that gender dynamics be viewed in the context of local culture and feminist values [18,52] and that women's voices be heard and connected with other women [26]. Further principles suggest that interventions work with the restrictions placed on women by patriarchy [108], and that intersectional and holistic perspectives are necessary to grapple with the multiple marginalizations at play in the experiences of women (and communities more broadly) [124,55]. ...
... We deepen our understanding of privacy from a cultural perspective. We also extend conversations on gender in HCI, enriching the literature on what it means for women in the Global South to combat patriarchal limitations using technology [26,108,84]. Finally, we examine how understanding the use of a personal social media ecosystem over single channels can reveal greater insights for designing technology to support privacy and participation on social media. ...
Technology use in India is highly gendered across diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, and women have only recently come to widely adopt smartphones, mobile internet, and social media---even in urban India. We present an in-depth qualitative investigation of the appropriation of social computing technologies by women from urban, middle-income households in New Delhi and Bangalore, India. Our findings highlight the additional burden that these women must contend with, on account of gender, as they engage on social media. We discuss these findings to make three contributions. First, we extend conversations on gender in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) by discussing how design in patriarchal contexts might be rooted in existing efforts towards change and appropriation. Second, we expand understandings of privacy in HCI as being situated in the relationship between the individual and the collective. Third, we discuss how looking at our participants' social media use across multiple platforms leads to greater insight into the link between social media engagement and privacy.
... We acknowledge that it is an instrumental tool, particularly to explore the impact of gendered relations in technological solutions and interventions. However, Buskens and Webb argue, "gender-mainstreaming has failed as a strategy towards effective and sustainable change towards gender equality and women's empowerment in development interventions" [11]. In other words, focusing on the gender gap without a critical look into cultural codes and structures can immensely compromise and underrepresent women's agency and their ability to negotiate their participation in the project. ...
... Men, both socially and culturally, are not expected to take up the domestic roles. Thus, the solar system in the house acts as enabler for the domestication of the service, which then means that the women had to naturally work with it [11]. Since this rigid gendered division of labour is indoctrinated through cultural and societal values, the women naturally take the responsibility of everyday management of the station house [26]. ...
... The dominant ideology of these cultural practices includes narratives that legitimate the patriarchy of the system along with other characteristics of the society's organization [12]. As far as ICT4D projects are concerned, Buskens and Webb argue that "societal beliefs and structures that emphasize male dominance and superiority and foreground women's main (albeit unrewarded) role of supporting husbands and families are brought by both women and men" [11]. ...
This paper unveils the complexity of gender dynamics by reflecting on lessons learned in Zenzeleni Networks and provides a different perspective to notions of "participation" by asking "who participates and how?" The paper employs a feminist conceptual framework, particularly social constructionist theory and intersectionality, to understand women's participation and experience, analyzing multi-layered and intersecting structural injustices that marginalize women's choices, empowerment, scope for agency, and sense of ownership. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions gathered information from women living in Mankosi and women who are working for Zenzeleni Networks, respectively. Results show that gendered power dynamics of the community were reproduced within Zenzeleni Networks. Although women play a key role in the everyday operationalization of Zenzeleni Networks, their role has been considered part of their domestic duties, which results in misrecognition and underrepresentation of their work.
... Women's access to ICT remains low since the social barriers, such as illiteracy, weak economic power and limited mobility due to domestic roles, pose a more significant challenge to women (Wamala, 2012). However, ICT use could result in a positive impact, from personal transformation such as self-efficacy, capacity improvement, dissemination of right-based information and amplification of voices and perspectives or even impact on the community level (Buskens & Webb, 2014;Crittenden et al., 2019). ...
... For example, the Internet could bring women's products to the market directly. Moreover, if ICT can enable connectedness, social transformation through the role of women is possible (Buskens & Webb, 2014). Women could harness the impact if only they have access to ICT through the increased transfer of technology and delivery of ICT-based solutions that fits their necessities (Huyer & Sikoska, 2003). ...
In Chennai, Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement (DIDR) pushes the urban poor to resettlement sites in the outskirts of the city. One of those sites is Kannagi Nagar, located 15 km from the city centre, in which women suffer from more significant livelihood deprivation. As there is evidence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) being useful in development, this study aims to explain the role of ICT in the livelihood restoration and enhancement of the social and financial capital for women in Kannagi Nagar. Through a case study with a blend of quantitative and qualitative techniques, the research incorporated a closed-ended questionnaire survey and interviews. Among the women, ICT use is prevalent, however, they have not fully optimized the potentials of ICT for livelihood restoration. The use is still limited to the purpose of maintaining the contacts they already have. However, some women have been able to use ICT, especially through their phones, for the restoration and enhancement of their social and financial capital. Nonetheless, to harness the full potential of ICT and strengthen women’s agency, access to ICT should be improved.
... Action research is not widely used in ICT4D research or practice. Apart from our work, there is Oslo group's longstanding work in Health Informatics [36] and a few others [45,290,140]. 5 For an edited overview on action research see [236,258,154,153]. ...
... In ICT4D there are only a few studies that have applied action research: apart from our research in West Africa and Malaysia, there is the Oslo group with its longstanding work in Health Informatics [36,34] and some others ( [45,290,140]). ...
Over the past decades information system developers and knowledge engineers in ICT projects in wealthy regions of the world have come to realize that technical work can only be successful when situated in a broader organizational context. However, for low-resource environments (such as for example rural Africa), where contextual embedding is even more demanding given the complexity of these environments, practical, context-oriented methodologies how to "do" information systems engineering are still lacking. This book presents a new and comprehensive set of methods that covers the complete lifecycle of information systems engineering, with emphasis on context analysis, needs assessment and use case and requirements analysis.
This book can be used as a practical guide to designing, building and deploying information and communication technologies for development. It can be used by students and practitioners (in the development sector or in ICT business). It can inform policymakers and people interested in international development and technology. It gives a basic but thorough insight in how to develop information systems and services for people in low resource environments, from a socio-technical, information systems engineering perspective.
... Statistics from the US [20] in 2014 showed that women earn only 19% of engineering and 18% of computer science bachelor's degrees. Another alarming situation is the digital gap of women and ICT in Africa, e.g., Kafanchan or northern Nigeria [8]. Africa has recently seen rapid growth in Internet access but females are vastly underrepresented in this sector. ...
... In addition, in Austria, background material and information about female teenagers has been gathered, both from the literature as well as through interviews and focus group discussions with teenage girls [55]. As a result, the team encouraged them with new challenges, e.g., the Alice Game Jam event [57], attractive and appropriate sample content (tutorials) 8 , and media assets 9 that can be reused in one's own programs. Furthermore, the team integrated a special view in Create@School for female students on what programs have been uploaded to the sharing website. ...
The number of women in technical fields is far below the average number of males, especially in developed countries and across academic levels. Gender differences in STEM are already present in students aged 12 to 15 years. To address this gender bias at an early stage, a goal of the European project No One Left Behind included integrating the app Pocket Code, into different school lessons, thus making the study of STEM more accessible and attractive to young females. Data was collected over a period of two years through, e.g., submitted programs. The programs have been analysed to gauge the level of achievement of the learning goal defined by the teachers beforehand. With a focus on female teenagers, significant dependencies between whether or not the learning goal had been achieved could be seen based on the different ages of the students, the group constellation, and which teaching approach was used.
... And while there has been a growing understanding that social media can be used to ensure empowerment within development agendas, the narratives from all three participants demonstrate how women apply certain strategies gained from their local practices to exercise agency, so that they can continue to use social media by challenging patriarchal gender norms (Ali et al., 2017;Sarkar, 2016). Additionally, we argue that women are not always the 'victims' of abuse, but rather, they have developed strategies and imagined alternatives that have emerged from queer and disability studies, and feminist technosciences (Hamraie, 2015;Webb & Buskens, 2014). Moreover, the development and empowerment of marginalized groups through social media requires a contextual understanding and knowledge of local practices of gender norms, as well as how women negotiate these norms. ...
The current paper examines how women in Bangladesh contest
abuse within patriarchal systems of control. In many cases, women will
often decide the extent to which they adopt a particular technology to
prevent experiences of abuse on social media platforms. In the current
study, we analysed how women’s online presence is controlled by
patriarchal norms which impede their agency and recontextualise their
empowerment through social media. As such, we rely on the narratives
of three women in Dhaka, Bangladesh to understand how they exercise
agency on social media platforms to ensure their own empowerment
and avoid (further) experiences of abuse. Although we recognise that
ICT for Development (ICT4D) can be a crucial way to ensure women’s
empowerment, we argue that, as a male-dominated space, social media
platforms promote restrictive and unequal gender stereotypes that
require women to find alternative strategies to challenge and resist
existing patriarchal structures.
... The study present basic information on expansion of information and communication technology in region and suggest that equal access of both gender to ICTs will lead to economic growth and development. Webb and Buskens (2014) organize an extensive research project based on primary field survey. They found how the women can utilize ICTs for their empowerment and they investigated how ICTs can fight against gender violence in Africa. ...
This study is an attempt to investigate the impact of information and communication technologies (ICTs) development on the participation of women in economic activities in Pakistan. Data for the period 1991-2017 was used for this research work and regressed on female economic involvement and ICTs development and another set of control variables like GDP, FDI and trade liberalization. Data sources are the WDI, IFS, and ESP. Johansen cointegration test, VECM and Granger causality tests were used to estimate data. Estimation techniques were applied after checking the properties of time series data. Results indicate the positive and significant relationship of dependent variable female economic participation and independent variables ICTs development and macro-economic variables in the long run. The study findings indicate that female economic participation has increased with the increase in ICTs in Pakistan. However, the rate of women's economic participation was not found as increasing as in other developed countries, and it is not as rapid as technology developed in the last decade.
... In 2017 the numbers in Australia show that although 46.2% of women make up the workforce, only 28-31% of workers in the roles of technology are women (Charleston, 2017). Also alarming is the digital gap in developing countries, as study of the Nigerian town of Kafanchan suggests (Buskens and Webb, 2014). According to statistics by Dalberg Design (2015) men in Africa are twice as likely to have access to the Internet as women; this is especially true for regions like sub-Saharan Africa (45% of the women have no internet access). ...
Although female students engage in coding courses, only a small percentage of them plan to pursue computer science (CS) as a major when choosing a career path. Gender differences in interests, sense-of belonging, self-efficacy, and engagement in CS are already present at an early age. This article presents an overview of gender stereotypes in CS and summarizes negative impressions female students between 12 and 15 experience during CS classes, as well as influences that may be preventing girls from taking an interest in CS. The study herein draws on a systematic review of 28 peer-reviewed articles published since 2006. The findings of the review point to the existence of the stereotypical image of a helpless, uninterested, and unhappy “Girl in Computer Science”. It may be even more troubling a construct than that of the geeky, nerdy male counterpart, as it is rooted in the notion that women are technologically inept and ill-suited for CS careers. Thus, girls think they must be naturally hyper-intelligent in order to pursue studies in CS, as opposed to motivated, interested, and focused to succeed in those fields. Second, based on the review, suggestions for inclusive CS education were summarized. The authors argue that in order to make CS more inclusive for girls, cultural implications, as well as stereotypization in CS classrooms and CS education, need to be recognized as harmful. These stereotypes and cultural ideas should be eliminated by empowering female students through direct encouragement, mentoring programs, or girls-only initiatives.
... Action research is not widely used in ICT4D research or practice. Apart from our work, there is Oslo group's longstanding work in Health Informatics [36] and a few others [45,301,146]. ...
The concept of ICT4D: Information and Communication Technologies for Development refers to the policy and ensuing efforts to make the advantages of modern ICTs available to “unconnected”, less privileged communities and regions in the world. However, despite decades of development programs and projects, it has still not been successful in serving the poorest and least privileged.
As exemplified by many cases from literature, ICT4D policy and ensuing practice are based on the idea of intervention. This is operationalised through transfer of technologies and knowledge to developing regions, rather than through an inclusive process of deliberation with envisaged beneficiaries. Moreover, common project management approaches in (donor-driven) ICT4D projects do in general not take into account the contextual complexities of low-resource environments.
Still, the contemporary development discourse claims to be participatory and user-centred. “Be collaborative” and “Design with the user” are two of the key principles, formulated by the community of international development donors for ICT4D practitioners. When reflecting on the meaning and purpose of these principles, the question comes up: how can one come to know what the “ unconnected people” actually want, need or have an interest in? This question should be central to those who design and build information and communication technologies for development. It is evident that this answer can be obtained only through dialogue and collaboration.
This book, as an alternative to the idea of intervention and transfer of technology and knowledge, sets out to design and develop an approach to ICT4D that is consistently user-centred. Its central question can be formulated as:
Can we design an operational approach to developing ICT systems and services that really serves the needs and goals of people in low resource communities in less privileged, unconnected regions of the world, such that it (i) takes into consideration the complex realities of local context, and (ii) involves the envisaged users in decision-making, design and evaluation?”
As an operational, actionable answer to this (design) question an approach is proposed, which is practical and field-based. The underlying theoretical framework and methodology, dubbed “ICT4D 3.0” have been developed “bottom-up”. This framework covers the full life cycle of (socio-technical) information systems development. It puts emphasis on (i) the composition of a trans-disciplinary and multi-cultural team and (ii) the importance of early upstream stages of ICT systems development. It emphasises needs analysis on the ground, as ICT4D services have a heavily contextualized nature: the ‘known unknown’ that requires significant amounts of field-based research. It has been extensively tested and validated by local users in the field, during field-based research in West Africa between 2009 and 2019. It is a collaborative, iterative, adaptive approach.
The ICT4D 3.0 framework shows how ICT4D can be “done” in the field. It consists of five stages, all performed in collaboration and co-creation with the envisaged users: (i) context analysis in the field; (ii) needs analysis and collaborative goal construction; (iii) use case and requirements analysis following a structured narrative approach (iv) collaboratively and iteratively building, testing, deploying the system; (v) sustainability analysis and evaluation in local eco-systems.
Based on complexity theory and extensive field research, ICT4D can be conceptualized as complex networked process of innovation, in which knowledge sharing occurs through social networks, whereby many social and cultural factors come into play in rather unpredictable ways. Complexity theory underpins the need for an adaptive, collaborative, iterative approach. Adaptive to fit the variety of contextual requirements of innovation as a networked non-linear process; collaborative to encompass as many viewpoints and knowledge domains (academic/non-academic) as possible on the subject and context; iterative (because of cycles of learning-by-doing and gradual improvement in open, dynamic contexts).
An important critique at current ICT4D policies and programs is that they do not adequately take into account the nonlinear, adaptive lessons from innovation diffusion, complex systems and social network theory. Intervention models, which are based on linear cause-effect models, thus ignore that innovation and its diffusion is a complex nonlinear dynamic process that works out differently and adaptively in different parts of the world.
Finally, when reflecting on the articulation of the ICT4D 3.0 framework, it becomes evident that the general issue is not just about better methodological approaches to ICT4D practice. Beyond the operational level, one has to ask and investigate whose interests in the Global South (or North) one is representing, what goals one is trying to achieve, where these goals and policies are coming from or how they are constructed, and which core values are implicated. Therefore, in this book, we argue that collaboration is not just a method for successful innovation, but also a fundamental human value. It should be an intrinsic part of an open dialogue, in which the voices of the envisaged beneficiaries are truly included, and development goals are not imposed from outside, but emerge from locally expressed needs.
This book therefore proposes praxis: operational methods based on deliberation, practical wisdom and critical reflexion, aimed at serving and supporting people in complex, dynamic low-resource environments. It shows that socio-technical innovation is not a linear transfer of technologies but a networked process, driven by local agency, diffusing and evolving in a complex world.
... Analyses have been further enriched by recent studies exploring the rise of revolutionary efforts over the past 5 years and the role of technology in coordinating and mobilizing dissent. Focusing on the Global South, writers such as Ineke Buskens and AnneWebb (2009Webb ( , 2014also Buskens, 2013) have featured the use of technology for women's mobilization over the past decade in Africa and Asia. The progress of the cyberfeminist vision is challenged by continued underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within the field of technology. ...
... Analyses have been further enriched by recent studies exploring the rise of revolutionary efforts over the past 5 years and the role of technology in coordinating and mobilizing dissent. Focusing on the Global South, writers such as Ineke Buskens and AnneWebb (2009Webb ( , 2014also Buskens, 2013) have featured the use of technology for women's mobilization over the past decade in Africa and Asia. The progress of the cyberfeminist vision is challenged by continued underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within the field of technology. ...
The Activist Mothers of Xalapa is a group of women in the state of Veracruz, Mexico who provide support for each other in a political struggle with a patriarchal and corrupt government that has allowed their children to be taken from them in custody hearings where false charges are often trumped up against them (Facio, 2013b). This movement draws upon the strong devotion or respect for mothers in Latin cultures and provides a space for mothers to share grief and to take action as a united group.
Once Female students in Informatics and Technology (IT) and Computer Science degrees at European higher education institutions, in the 21st century, represent a smaller percentage compared with male students, this paper investigates the main reasons that may explain this fact, as well as presents new pedagogical strategies for female students in IT courses. These strategies derive from understanding stereotypes, perceptions, cultural implications, and propositions for inclusive IT education; and are relevant for supporting IT students’ equality and success. Further, good lecturing in general together with positive reinforcement with students lays a crucial foundation for supporting all students in IT. The present research was developed in five European universities: Croatia, Italy, Slovakia, Poland, and Portugal. Starting from a literature review on the topic was developed a questionnaire that was applied to a sample of IT students in these five universities. The results were analyzed to define some new pedagogical strategies. These allowed us to conclude about the main reasons for the decision of female students to choose to study IT programs and higher education institutions develop pedagogical strategies more adequate and more attractive to female students, as well as to contribute to increased employability and successful integration in the labor market.
Differences in access, skills, and usage of digital technology between men and women have resulted in an unequal experience in using digital technology in changing work environments, especially in education, which is expressed as the gender digital divide. This divide serves as a barrier to digital empowerment and tends to be wider in developing countries. However, there is a scarcity of literature on digital empowerment among female teachers at the secondary school level. Therefore, based on Makinen’s (2006) perspective, this study investigated digital empowerment among Bangladeshi teachers with respect to gender-based differences. Data on the four components of digital empowerment mentioned by Makinen were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from a random sample of 326 respondents, along with the qualitative method of an in-depth interview and focused group discussion from three city corporations: Dhaka, Khulna,and Rajshahi, according to their digital divide rates. The findings reveal that both overall awareness and technical access status are satisfactory. Yet, female teachers lacked significant intrinsic motivation and computer abilities to perform specific tasks. Findings also revealed that empowered women had better levels of professional capabilities, self-confidence, and more Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-based pedagogy. Female teachers should be recognized and encouraged in institutional programs to promote digital empowerment and reduce the digital divide between genders.
Purpose
This study investigates how enhancing information and communication technology (ICT) affects female economic participation in sub-Saharan African nations.
Design/methodology/approach
Three female economic participation indicators are used, namely female labour force participation, female unemployment and female employment rates. The engaged ICT variables are fixed broadband subscriptions, mobile phone penetration and Internet penetration. The Generalized Method of Moments is used for the empirical analysis.
Findings
The following main findings are established: First, there is a (1) negative net effect in the relevance of fixed broadband subscriptions in female labour force participation and female unemployment and (2) positive net effects from the importance of fixed broadband subscriptions on the female employment rate. Secondly, an extended analysis is used to establish thresholds at which the undesirable net negative effect on female labour force participation can be avoided. From the corresponding findings, a fixed broadband subscription rate of 9.187 per 100 people is necessary to completely dampen the established net negative effect. Hence, the established threshold is the critical mass necessary for the enhancement of fixed broadband subscriptions to induce an overall positive net effect on the female labour force participation rate.
Originality/value
This study complements the extant literature by assessing how increasing penetration levels of ICT affect female economic inclusion and by extension, thresholds necessary for the promotion of ICT to increase female economic inclusion.
Communication policies intended to contribute to changing persistent inequalities need to be informed by an in-depth understanding of systemic barriers to gender equality and women's empowerment. Not taking into account complex, historically entrenched forces that perpetuate established gendered hierarchies may result in policies effecting only superficial change. The research presented in this article demonstrates how availability of information and communication technology (ICT) does not ensure equitable access and gender equality. Access needs to be imbedded in a women's empowerment and equality agenda to contribute to transforming gender relations. Understanding what that involves is critical to the design of ICT policies that challenge gender inequalities.
This article explains a conceptual tool that was used in the Gender Research in Africa and the Middle East into ICT for Empowerment (GRACE) Network, to map journeys of personal and social change toward a self-determined purpose of transformation. Named the Personal Trajectory Map, it was initially intended as a self-management tool for the GRACE members to help clarify thinking, manage emotions and stay focused on project purposes, but its use got extended over time. This article is a moment in the ongoing theorization of this conceptual tool and the approach it was an intricate part of. Its usefulness can be theoretically explained through the interlinkages between the concepts of agency, intent, conation, and the capacity to aspire. Illustrating how it was used in some of the participatory action research processes, this article argues that it is worthwhile to open the black box of the female-self-in-transformation since it will clarify for female participants as well as for their researchers, what they are up against when they want to empower themselves in a male dominated world. Furthermore, offering women a deeper understanding and more guidance in their processes of personal and social change, will not only support female participants, it will enhance research quality and the chances for project success.
In this article, we present 6 cases (contained in 13 studies) variously connected with women’s health in a range of Indian contexts. Analyzing these cases, we highlight that “women’s health” is inextricably linked with extrinsic factors that also need addressing, to propose a broadened focus of “women’s wellbeing,” as defined through the lens of Martha Nussbaum’s central human capabilities . Drawing again on our cases, we discuss the importance of taking a long, holistic, and intersectional view to women’s wellbeing. Consolidating lessons learned across studies, we emphasize the potential of framing challenges around women’s health as learning problems, rather than problems of information access alone. Leveraging this perspective, we propose the use of design-based implementation research as a potential approach in identified learning ecologies, given its emphasis on long-term engagement with multiple stakeholders in the learning process. Although the empirical research we draw from took place in various Indian contexts, we conclude by arguing that key contextual characteristics may translate to other cultures and geographies as well.
This article reports on focus group research in Pakistan about the symbolic value and use of mobile phones by students in constructing their identities on the phone, in the phone, and through the phone. A striking conclusion is the difference between how men and women use their phones, and we provide accounts of the harassment and bullying of women through their mobiles.
Research on the use of ICTs for international development, or information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) research, has a history going back some 30 years. The purpose of this paper is to take stock of the ICT4D research field at this important juncture in time, when ICTs are increasingly pervasive and when many different disciplines are involved in researching the area. The paper first provides some reflections on the history of the field broken down into three phases from the mid-1980s to the present day. This is followed by a detailed discussion of future research agenda, including topic selection, the role of theory, methodological issues and multidisciplinarity, and research impact. ICT4D research started largely in the academic field of information systems but it is concluded that the future lies in a multidisciplinary interaction between researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers.
Communication policies intended to contribute to changing persistent inequalities need to be informed by an in-depth understanding of systemic barriers to gender equality and women's empowerment. Not taking into account complex, historically entrenched forces that perpetuate established gendered hierarchies may result in policies effecting only superficial change. The research presented in this article demonstrates how availability of information and communication technology (ICT) does not ensure equitable access and gender equality. Access needs to be imbedded in a women's empowerment and equality agenda to contribute to transforming gender relations. Understanding what that involves is critical to the design of ICT policies that challenge gender inequalities.
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