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Toxic Hot Spots in Java and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Eggs
Abstract and Figures
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) contamination in developing countries can include both domestic and foreign sources of pollution. This study focused on sites potentially polluted by such sources on the island of Java, Indonesia, in particular sites affected by plastic and paper waste imports, secondary aluminum production, and waste incineration.
Globally regulated toxic substances contaminating the eggs and analyzed in our study include polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs, called “dioxins” in brief), PCBs, HCB, PeCB, SCCPs, PBDEs, HBCD, and PFAS substances such as PFOS. We also included analyses of novel Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) which replaced already regulated PBDEs and HBCD, and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs, called “brominated dioxins” in brief), which are not regulated yet but exhibit the same toxicity as PCDD/Fs.
The results of the chemical analyses revealed levels of POPs among the highest ever measured in several pooled free-range chicken egg samples.
Plastic waste dumpsites:
Analyses performed in this study have shown that plastic landfills on the island of Java are not only a waste problem, but they are also a source of environmental contamination from a wide range of persistent organic pollutants. Many of them are already contained in the plastics themselves as additives, but others are created by burning waste to clear space for new waste brought in for sorting.
The level of POPs contamination caused by dumping, incineration, and open burning of plastic waste ranks some sites on Java among the most contaminated in the world, alongside sites heavily affected by industrial production or sites contaminated due to military conflicts.
E-waste:
It was most likely plastics from e-waste that contributed significantly to the food chain contamination in Bangun, Tropodo, and Tangerang found during the November 2019 round of sampling. This was reflected in the high concentrations of brominated flame retardants found in free-range chicken eggs.
In the case of Tangerang, we also found a significant contribution of brominated dioxins to the overall toxicity of the chicken eggs samples, due to plastic residues from refrigerator insulation.
Waste incineration:
In the vicinity of the hazardous waste incinerator facility in SidokampirSumberwuluh, Lakardowo, we found contamination of hens' eggs, mainly with dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs. In Tropodo, where plastic wastes separated in Bangun village are burned, we also found high concentrations of PBDEs in eggs.
The level of dioxin contamination of the food chain in Tropodo has reached the level of sites such as the Bien Hoa former U.S. Army base in Vietnam, a loading site for Agent Orange during the Vietnam war.
Secondary aluminum smelters:
Secondary aluminum smelters in the Jombang Regency are significant sources of releases of dioxins, dl-PCBs, and possibly PBDEs into the environment. This was demonstrated by analyses of hens' eggs, rice crop, soil, ash, and dust from the villages of Kendalsari and Sidokampir.
Ash residues:
The situation in the Jombang Regency around villages where secondary aluminum smelters are located, and in Tropodo documents that dioxin-containing ash as a result of combustion processes causes or significantly contributes to the contamination of food chains with POPs.
Our study also gives suggestions how to reduce POPs contamination at researched sites in Java.
More Toxic Hot Spots: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334600149_Toxic_Hot_Spots_in_Thailand
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314389513_Toxic_Hot_Spots_in_Kazakhstan_Monitoring_Reports
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326369754_Toxic_Hot_Spots_in_Armenia
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... There are also a large number of studies looking at POPs levels at sites affected by e-waste dismantling in China (e.g. Zeng, Luo et al. 2016;Zeng, Huang et al. 2018), Vietnam (Anh, Tomioka et al. 2018;Nishimura, Suzuki et al. 2018;Anh, Tomioka et al. 2019) or Indonesia (Petrlik, Ismawati et al. 2020). ...
... The levels at urban/suburban sites are considerably lower, while the levels from e-waste recycling sites are higher than those observed in Khok Sa-ad non-shredding workshops (range 26.5 -5,040 ng/g d.w., sum of 16 PBDE congeners). Muenhor, Harrad et al. (2010) determined a median concentration of 28,000 ng/g (range 320 -290,000 ng/g) for the sum of 21 PBDEs in indoor dust at e-waste storage facilities in Ayutthaya and Nonthaburi (Blake 2005;Yogui and Sericano 2009;Quinn 2010;Qin, Qin et al. 2011;Zheng, Wu et al. 2012;Labunska, Harrad et al. 2013;Labunska, Harrad et al. 2014;Petrlik 2016;Polder, Müller et al. 2016;Zeng, Luo et al. 2016;Petrlik, Kalmykov et al. 2017;Petrlik, Adu-Kumi et al. 2019;Petrlik, Ismawati et al. 2020;Petrlik, Bell et al. 2021). The sum of PBDEs congeners considered in the studies varies. ...
... A concentration gradient between working and living areas of e-waste recycling workshops could not be determined for PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs due to an insufficient number of such samples analysed for these POPs. (Muntean, Jermini et al. 2003;Nghiem, Hoang et al. 2022;Kudryavtseva, Shelepchikov and Brodsky 2020;Petrlik, Dvorska et al. 2018;Petrlik, Bell et al. 2021;Petrlik, Bell et al. 2022;Petrlik, Ismawati et al. 2020;Petrlik, Ismawati et al. 2022;Shen, Guan et al. 2017;The Epoch Times 2005;Traag, Hoang et al. 2012). Levels of congeners below LOQ were substituted by half of the LOQ in most of the cited studies; a minority of the studies used lowerbound or upperbound concentrations. ...
Electronic waste and its imports from abroad represent a big burden for the environment and human health in Thailand. This study is focused on research of community based informal e-waste separation and dismantling operations in the Khok Sa-ad subdistrict, Khong Chai district, Kalasin province in northeastern Thailand, where also a large dumpsite with substantial quantity of waste from electronic equipment and machineries is found. The main goal of sampling was determining the present levels of contamination in the area of interest. This study is focused on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) which are used as additives in electronic equipment and plastic used for its casing, such as, for example, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), Dechlorane Plus (DP) and others. We also focused on POPs produced unintentionally during the production of BFRs, and particularly during incineration and other thermal processes used for the disposal and recycling of plastics from e-waste. The spread of persistent organic pollutants into the environment caused by e-waste recycling was studied by sampling at various stages of the processing pathways of the waste and the POP burden in local e-waste workers was studied, too.
Two main subcampaigns for taking environmental and food samples were conducted, i.e. at the dumpsite and its surroundings and in the villages (homes and small enterprises currently or formerly involved in e-waste dismantling and sorting, plastic shredding enterprise). The spread of selected and novel POPs caused by informal e-waste recycling into the environment was studied, i.e. the pathways of the waste processed in Khok Sa-ad were followed and sampled. The sampling was designed in order to describe how the processing of e-waste pollutes the whole area and different types of sites (enterprise, workshops, living areas, roads, dump, fields) and foodstuffs by spreading the pollution.
We took 61 samples of environmental matrices and foodstuffs in December 2021 and February 2022. Environmental sampling was focused on soil, sediment, dust, ash and waste. Sampled foodstuffs comprised rice, wild living aquatic animals occasionally gathered and consumed by locals and free-range chicken eggs rarely consumed by locals. A wide range of samples was taken at and nearby a dumpsite near Ban Nong Bua. Also formerly or currently operating small e-waste recycling workshops at workers homes in Ban Nong Ma Tho, Ban Noi, Ban Khok Prasit, Ban Don Kha and Ban Nong Bua villages were sampled as well as the environment at the plastic shredding enterprise in Ban Nong Bua.
Ten reference (background) samples of dust, soil, sediment, fish and snails were taken in a clean area of an organic farm in Na Somboon, Don Somboon subdistrict, Yang Talat district, Kalasin province. The rice reference sample was obtained at an organic rice farm in Ban Nong Khu village, Nong Pling subdistrict, Mueang district, Maha Sarakham province. A reference sample of chicken eggs was obtained in a supermarket in Maha Sarakham.
The POP burden in local e-waste workers was studied by taking human blood serum samples from 40 adults employed in e-waste recycling in workshops in Ban Nong Ma Tho, Ban Nong Mek, Ban Nong Bua and Ban Noi villages, nearby Wat Pho Si temple in Ban Sa-ad and at the Nong Bua dumpsite. Blood samples were further taken from a control group of 26 adult organic farm workers and agriculturalists from the Ban Na Somboon village (Don Somboon subdistrict, Yang Talat district, Kalasin province) who have never worked in the e-waste processing business or lived in such an area. All blood samples were taken in November 2022.
The results of the analyses of 137 samples in total are evaluated in this study. A wide presence of most of the studied POPs in the environment of the concerned e-waste recycling area as well as in e-waste workers themselves was confirmed. The found POP contamination of these communities can be linked to waste and e-waste recycling activities due to the following findings:
- Levels in the Khok Sa-ad environment and foodstuffs of animal origin are in comparison with reference samples considerably higher for Dechlorane Plus, PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, PBDD/Fs, HCB, PeCB, ndl-PCBs and PBDEs. A considerable difference is also found in concentrations of some nBFRs in dust, especially DBDPE.
- There is a substantial difference between the concentration of PBDEs and Dechlorane Plus in the blood serum of e-waste workers and the reference group of organic farmers and agriculturalists.
- Concentration gradients of Dechlorane Plus, PBDD/Fs, PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, ndl-PCBs, HCB, PeCB, nBFRs and PBDEs were found in sediment and dust, eventually soil samples. The pollution by these substances was the highest at the dumpsite with substantial quantity of waste from electronic equipment and machineries or right next to this dumpsite and decreased with distance from it. Also, concentrations of Dechlorane Plus, PBDD/Fs, HCB, PeCB, TBBPA, nBFRs and PBDEs were generally higher in dust of working areas of households running an e-waste workshop when compared to resting and eating areas of these households.
Ingestion of contaminated dust is considered one of the major pathways for human POP exposure in e-waste recycling areas and elsewhere. Contamination of the local food chain in Khok Sa-ad is indicated by high concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PBDD/Fs in some of the sampled chicken eggs exceeding European legal limits by one order of magnitude. However, these eggs are not primarily intended for human consumption. Therefore, dietary exposure may only partly explain the blood serum Dechlorane Plus and PBDE concentration differences between e-waste workers and the control group.
The one clear danger of the found elevated Dechlorane Plus and PBDE levels in e-waste workers is alteration in thyroid function. Since thyroid hormone regulates human metabolism, anything that interfere with thyroid function increases risk of a variety of symptoms, ranging from altered cognitive function, altered energy levels, weight, and overall health. Hypothyroidism promotes obesity, tiredness, more fatigue, dry skin, and reduced energy while hyperthyroidism has the opposite effects. Since thyroid is a hormone that affects almost every aspect of human physiology, there can be other organ-specific effects.
Based upon the results of the study, recommendations for Kalasin e-waste workers were suggested including medical monitoring and personal protection measures for reducing exposure to POPs. Measures recommended to be adopted at the dumpsite include immediate stop of waste burning. Finally, policy recommendations for POPs were formulated.
The extensive contamination by POPs in the Khok Sa-ad area, Kalasin province, reflects the conundrum of environmental restoration in Thailand. Currently, there is no clear example of successful restoration of POPs contaminated environment in Thailand. The lack of a specific law for environmental restoration and compensation in Thailand's national legal milieu is a big factor in this issue. It further highlights the importance of restoration and restitution for POP contamination in developing countries within the context of the Stockholm Convention. The Khok Sa-ad site must receive environmental restoration as soon as possible, to protect those people living in the locality and working in e-waste recycling operations.
... Indonesia has re-exported several containers back to Australia due to the contamination level violating the MoT Regulation standards and misdeclarations [119,120] (also see Section 5.7). One of the observed impact of these shipment violations on the ground were the infamous use of as fuel in tofu-making processes, mostly from the imported paper waste [109,121,122]. Indeed, Australia's most exported waste-derived products to Indonesia is paper waste [123]. ...
... Until 2019, there were unwanted plastic waste residuals that did not make the technical and economic feasibility for importing companies' recycling processes, which were either 'donated' or sold to the communities for further sorted, recycled, or in some cases, used in other informal industries. For example, in several locations in Java, these unrecyclable imported plastics were used as fuels in the informal chalk production SMEs, tofu processing SMEs, and informal metal smelting processes as feedstocks for burners [121,122]. ...
... The communities burned the unrecycled plastic waste in the open spaces. As a result, samples of free-range chicken eggs collected in villages near the plastic waste dumping sites show the second highest dioxins and furans concentration globally, after the exposure to agent orange used in the Vietnam War [121,122]. ...
... Our previous study also discussed contamination at localities in Indonesia covering other environmental compartments and more pollution sources [6,7]. In addition, it has been shown that ash residues from combustion processes contribute significantly to the contamination of food chains [7]. ...
... Our previous study also discussed contamination at localities in Indonesia covering other environmental compartments and more pollution sources [6,7]. In addition, it has been shown that ash residues from combustion processes contribute significantly to the contamination of food chains [7]. ...
... Our previous study also discussed contamination at localities in Indonesia covering other environmental compartments and more pollution sources [6,7]. In addition, it has been shown that ash residues from combustion processes contribute significantly to the contamination of food chains [7]. This summary of POPs analyses in freerange chicken eggs from various sites on four continents has shown that bioassay analyses of chemicals. ...
International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN) summarized its multi-years of monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) entering the food chain at locations where plastic waste is being recycled, burned, incinerated or dumped. Samples of free-range chicken eggs were analyzed for brominated and chlorinated dioxins (PBDD/Fs and PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like PCBs, BFRs, SCCPs, and PFASs. Several bioanalytical tools are accepted by international standards for measuring dioxin-like activity in environmental and food samples. These methods are considered as easier and more cost-efficient options for screening larger quantities of environmental, food or human samples, and many studies use it to evaluate contaminations by dioxins and dioxin-like substances, e.g. for food. As for PBDD/Fs, not all samples in this study were analyzed using the DR CALUX method, but only 17 free-range egg samples and three reference samples. The laboratory results measured the highest levels of BEQs in the samples collected from Agbogbloshie (840 pg BEQ/g fat) and Tropodo (560 pg BEQ/g fat). Further, followed by samples from the sites affected by open burning and dumping of plastic waste in Tangerang, Indonesia (88 pg BEQ/g fat) or partly by e-waste in Samut Sakhon, Thailand (100 pg BEQ/g fat). There is a big difference between the total TEQ level (232 pg TEQ g fat) and the BEQ level in the sample from Tropodo (560 pg BEQ/g fat).
... The sampling focused on different industrial sites and sites influenced by waste management or contaminated sites. Their results were published in several studies focused on Armenia [12][13][14], Czechia [15], Kazakhstan [16,17], China [18], Thailand [19], Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia [20], Ukraine [21], Cameroon, Ghana [22], Indonesia [23], Kenya, Tanzania [24], Moldova [25] and sites specifically affected by waste incineration residues in Africa, Asia and Europe [22,23,26] or by management of plastic waste in four continents [27]. In addition, we have conducted egg sampling and analyses for POPs in other countries like Belarus or the UK. ...
... The sampling focused on different industrial sites and sites influenced by waste management or contaminated sites. Their results were published in several studies focused on Armenia [12][13][14], Czechia [15], Kazakhstan [16,17], China [18], Thailand [19], Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia [20], Ukraine [21], Cameroon, Ghana [22], Indonesia [23], Kenya, Tanzania [24], Moldova [25] and sites specifically affected by waste incineration residues in Africa, Asia and Europe [22,23,26] or by management of plastic waste in four continents [27]. In addition, we have conducted egg sampling and analyses for POPs in other countries like Belarus or the UK. ...
... The level is six times higher than the highest previous level found in a 2005 study in Helwan, Egypt (126 pg WHO-TEQ/g of fat). Also, the eggs from localities affected by using plastic waste as fuel in Topodo and Karawang, Indonesia, contained very high levels of 200 and 178 pg WHO-TEQ/g of fat dioxins respectively [23,28]. Sites affected by use of Agent Orange during the Vietnam war are still highly contaminated with dioxins which is reflected in the eggs from these sites at levels up to 490 pg WHO-TEQ/g of fat [34]. ...
Polychlorinated dioxins and furans, as well as PCBs, as unintentionally produced POPs (UPOPs) were listed under Annex C to the Stockholm Convention as part of the so-called ‘dirty dozen’ POPs at the very beginning of the Convention. In order to assess how well the convention has worked, these original POPs should also be monitored in the environment and the results of such monitoring are part of the effectiveness evaluation of the Stockholm Convention and regional reports published for each UN region. Maximum levels of PCDD/Fs and total WHO-TEQ levels (PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs) observed in free range poultry eggs at different hot spots from reviewed literature (including Arnika/IPEN studies) are summarized and sorted by UN regions. This is second updated edition of previous conference paper prepared for Conference of Parties to the Stockholm Convention held in June 2022 in Geneva. It contains more data from various regions than previous edition and also reflects new findings in other studies on dioxins.
... The sampling focused on different industrial sites and sites influenced by waste management or known or suspected contaminated sites. Their results were published in a range of reports focused on Africa (Cameroon, Ghana) [22]; Armenia [23,24], Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia [25]), China [26], Indonesia [22,27,28], Kazakhstan (Petrlik 2016b), Moldova (Petrlik et al., 2022), Ukraine [29], Thailand [18], and sites specifically affected by waste incineration residues in Asia and Europe [30]. Normally between 2 and 6 eggs were pooled for analysis of one flock. ...
... or at dump sites (see Section 3.2.9) or on sites partly paved with ash from waste incineration or metal smelters [28]. In particular the families of the poor informal waste management sector frequently living at or around these recycling and dump sites are raising chickens and other livestock in subsistence farming [22,27,61]. ...
... Therefore soils at these sites are a major source for gross contamination of eggs by PCDD/Fs and PCBs. On some sites, hens have access to unsafely stored/distributed ashes from waste incineration and/or metal smelters [22,28]. ...
This review compiles information on PCDD/F- and PCB-contaminated eggs from 20 years of global egg monitoring around emission sources conducted by the International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN) and Arnika as well as a compilation of data from scientific literature. IPEN monitored 127 pooled egg samples including samples from 113 chicken flocks at potential PCDD/F- and PCB-contaminated sites around priority sources listed in the Stockholm Convention (e.g. waste incinerators, metal industries, cement plants, and open burning). 99 (88%) of pooled egg samples were above the EU maximum limits for PCDD/Fs (2.5 pg PCDD/F-TEQ/g fat) or the sum of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs (5 pg PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ/g fat). Children consuming such eggs exceed the tolerable weekly intake (TWI). This demonstrates that close to 90% of these areas were not safe for the production of free-range eggs. Sixteen out of the 113 egg samples (14%) were contaminated above 50 pg TEQ/g fat and exceeded the EU maximum limit more than 10 times. From the 26 pooled egg samples around incinerators 24 (92%) exceeded the limit with a mean of 43.1 pg TEQ/g fat (2.6–234 pg TEQ/g). All 21 egg samples around metal industries (4.4–112.6 pg TEQ/g fat) were above limits with mean concentration of 26.0 pg TEQ/g fat. Also all 7 egg samples measured at e-waste recycling sites were above limits (mean 308 pg TEQ/g fat). In 58 (51%) pooled egg samples the PCB-TEQ was above 5 pg TEQ/g fat exceeding the EU maximum limit with dioxin-like PCBs alone. This highlights the role of commercial PCBs for global contamination with dioxin-like compounds. It was discovered that around metal industries, shredder plants, open burning sites of e-waste and dump sites, a high share of contamination was caused by dl-PCBs. This clearly shows severe PCB release from the end-of-life management of PCB-containing equipment in developing countries. Also highly contaminated eggs were found at many sites where plastic was incinerated. The highest contaminated egg sample ever measured came from an e-waste site in Ghana and had 856 pg TEQ/g fat plus 300 pg TEQ from brominated dioxins (PBDD/Fs). Other extreme PCDD/F contaminations of eggs were found at a chlor-alkali site (514 pg TEQ/g fat), Agent Orange contaminated areas in Vietnam (490, 249 and 246 pg TEQ/g fat) and e-waste sites (568 and 520 pg TEQ/g fat). Where DR CALUX® bioassay revealed higher TEQ compared to measured PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ in IPEN studies, polybrominated PBDD/F were also measured and detected up to 300 pg TEQ/g fat at e-waste sites. One positive outcome from the IPEN studies is that all 10 pooled supermarket eggs in developing countries were below regulatory limit. A range of policy recommendations are made including: a systematic assessment of areas around PCDD/Fs and PCBs sources; measures for reduction of exposures of populations; urgent control of emission sources including PCB equipment, the open burning of plastic, and the use of plastic as fuel in boilers/incinerators in developing countries without air pollution control. Furthermore, soil limits need to be re-assessed and lowered for free-range poultry.
... The dioxin congener profiles for the eggs from Ciobanovca, Mebelchik, and Dumbrava vary greatly between the samples, showing that the potential sources of pollution with these chemicals are most probably also different at all three sites. The sample of eggs from Mebelchik, with a dominant OCDD congener, is very similar to the profile observed in eggs from Bangun, Indonesia [40], where plastic waste is often burned. The profile of PCDD/F congeners in the eggs from Dumbrava is closer to the waste incineration one demonstrated in a study from China [41]. ...
... The sum of HBCD isomers was also below LOQ in the reference sample from Prague [26]. The levels of PFASs in all three pooled egg samples were lower than, for example, in eggs from the vicinity of plastic waste yards in Java, Indonesia [40] and comparable to the levels observed at some other locations in Java [40] or to the levels observed in reference egg samples from other countries ...
... The sum of HBCD isomers was also below LOQ in the reference sample from Prague [26]. The levels of PFASs in all three pooled egg samples were lower than, for example, in eggs from the vicinity of plastic waste yards in Java, Indonesia [40] and comparable to the levels observed at some other locations in Java [40] or to the levels observed in reference egg samples from other countries ...
The study was focused on the monitoring of cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, zinc, nickel, arsenic, and mercury in the drainage basin of the Dniester River in Moldova. The aim of the study was to identify potential heavy metal pollution sources in the Moldovan environment. A set of samples of soil, sediments, and surface water was collected in the surroundings of five potential industrial sources of heavy metals in July 2021. The localities that were sampled included two landfills for municipal waste – the Tintareni Landfill and the Balti Landfill – and three other industrial areas within the towns of Vatra, Rezina, and Rybnitsa. The Tintareni Landfill has apparently been operated in an inappropriate manner for a long time and the Balti Landfill is still very probably, because of its low security and poor operation, a source of pollution for its surroundings. In general, we recommend efficient and sophisticated measures to ensure their safe operation and the introduction of European legislative instruments on land-filling as well as their application in practice. The basic measures that result from this legislation include security against the entry of unauthorised persons, prevention of wild burning of waste, regular compaction of the waste, and the installation of a system for collecting landfill gas and landfill leachate. In particular for the Balti Landfill, where the operating conditions are very poor, immediate measures to prevent it from burning, regular compaction, and overlaying by soil can be recommended. The Vatra Industrial Area is very probably a source of heavy metals – particularly lead, arsenic, and mercury – into the Bic River, a tributary of the Dniester. It is not possible to determine exactly which industrial plant is the source of heavy metal pollution, because the plants are clustered and the impact of each of them cannot be individually separated. The towns of Rybnitsa and Rezina affect the Dniester River by introducing heavy metal pollution into the river basin. This conclusion is driven from a comparison of heavy metal concentrations in water sediments above and below the towns of Rezina and Rybnitsa showing the lowest measured concentrations of most heavy metals above the towns and concentrations downstream from the towns that are twice as high (lead, chromium, copper, nickel, and mercury). According to our data, the Rybnitsa Industrial Area is a significant heavy metal source for the watershed in comparison to the cement plant in Rezina. The Rybnitsa Industrial Area is most likely to release heavy metals into agricultural land and the Rybnitsa brook, with concentrations of some heavy metals (especially cadmium, lead, and zinc) increasing several times as the brook flows through the town of Rybnitsa. In addition, a small metalworking factory in the town of Rezina is a likely source of heavy metals in the Dniester River. The impossibility of determining the sources of pollution exactly is related to the non-existence of a comprehensive and reliable Pollution Release and Transfer Register. However, the study revealed some of the sources of pollution that have an impact on the environment and should be monitored.
... Obtained results from hot spots and remote areas were compared with analyses of 4 reference samples of eggs from supermarkets. The majority of the analytical results presented in this study come from larger reports released in 2011 -2018, where more information about the sites and sampling can be found [5][6][7][8][9][10]16,17 . Normally between 2 to 6 eggs were pooled for analysis of one flock. ...
There is a range of studies on polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in eggs. Free-range poultry eggs have been found to be sensitive indicators of PCDD/F and PCB contamination in soils and are an important exposure pathway from soil pollution to humans1. Eggs from contaminated areas can readily lead to exposures which exceed thresholds for the protection of human health2,3. Chickens and/or ducks and their eggs might therefore be considered ideal “active samplers” and indicator species for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) contaminated sites.
The International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN) in cooperation with local civil society organizations (CSOs) have conducted the first global study about dioxin, PCBs and HCB contamination of free-range eggs from sites in 17 countries worldwide suspected to be polluted by POPs in 20052. Almost twenty years work by IPEN and Arnika in this field, combined with data from other studies on this topic, were summarized in a global review of PCDD/Fs and dl PCBs in free-range chicken eggs4. Many samples collected in cooperation with more than 50 national or local CSOs were also analyzed by Chemical Activated LUciferase gene eXpression (CALUX) bioassay analyses for dioxin activity (DR CALUX). These analyses are presented in this report and compared with other publicly available studies using DR CALUX for evaluation of dioxin-like compounds in poultry eggs. A summary of the entire range of data has now been prepared to supplement our previous report.
... Influence of waste incineration and other ash residues on PCDD/Fs levels in free-range chicken eggs was demonstrated already in previous studies. 29,30 One of the previous studies in Africa very well described the practice of MedWIs bottom ash disposal: "The ash is carried in plastic buckets and dumped in open municipal waste sites … In other cases and especially during the crop planting season, incinerator bottom ash is spread on agricultural farmlands as fertilizer supplement" 31 . This practice calls for setting strict limits for PCDD/Fs in wastes used on the land surface, and bottom ash from MedWIs should not be accessible to hens raised as local food. ...
Medical waste is all the waste generated by healthcare facilities, medical laboratories and biomedical facilities, as well as waste from home healthcare. The bulk of healthcare waste is produced by hospitals. It is universally accepted as a potential danger to human health and environment if it is not managed in an environmentally safe manner. Improper treatment and disposal of medical (healthcare) waste pose serious risks of disease transmission due to exposures to infectious agents among waste pickers, waste workers, health workers, patients, and the community in general. Not all wastes generated from healthcare facilities are infectious and/or hazardous. Between 75% and 90% of the waste produced by healthcare facilities is comparable to domestic waste and usually called “non-hazardous-waste”. Open burning and incineration without adequate pollution control exposes waste workers and the community to toxic contaminants in air emissions and bottom ash. These contaminants include unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants (UPOPs) such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl PCBs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) and recently also some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Waste incineration is listed among major sources of UPOPs such as PCDD/Fs in Annex C to the Stockholm Convention.
PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs and chlorinated benzenes have been observed in emissions to air as well as in bottom ash, fly ash and other air pollution control residues from medical waste incinerators (MedWIs). Emission factors for PCDD/Fs were established in the Dioxin Toolkit based on previous studies. High levels of PCDD/Fs were also observed in residues from simple, batch-type MedWIs. There has also been observed contamination of the food chain in the vicinity of small MedWIs not limited to developing countries.
... So we can compare the results presented in this study with the data summarised in the report "Toxic Hot Spots in Thailand" (Petrlík, Dvorská et al. 2018), and several abstracts presented at Dioxin Conferences , Teebthaisong, Saetang et al. 2021. There is also a large number of studies looking at POPs levels at sites affected by e-waste dismantling in China (Zeng, Luo et al. 2016, Zeng, Huang et al. 2018, Vietnam (Anh, Tomioka et al. 2018, Nishimura, Suzuki et al. 2018, Anh, Tomioka et al. 2019, and Indonesia (Petrlik, Ismawati et al. 2020). We compared the results of the analyses in this study with these previous studies as well. ...
Electronic waste and its imports from abroad represent a big burden for the environment and human health in Thailand. This study is focused on mapping pollution by POPs (Persistent organic pollutants) in the vicinity of two facilities processing e-waste in Chachoengsao Province, and one site affected by the disposal of sludge of unknown origin (Hat Nang Kaeo) in Prachinburi Province. We focused on POPs which are used as additives in electronic equipment and plastic used for its casing, such as, for example, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), and others. We also focused on POPs produced unintentionally during the production of BFRs, and particularly during incineration and other thermal processes used for the disposal and recycling of plastics from e-waste.
For the sampling in this study, we chose two sites near factories which handle electronic waste. They declare their focus to be recycling. However, the e-waste is mainly dismantled and only metal parts are recycled there in the factories. Residual waste, including plastic, is very often burned in some kind of incineration operations.
We took samples of soils, sediments, dust, and free-range duck eggs. The widest range of samples was taken in the surroundings of the so-called “dioxin factory”, the Supcharoen Recycle Co. Ltd. factory in Khao Hin Son. Soil and dust samples were also taken close to the CT Steel Co. Ltd. Factory, one of the electronic waste recycling factories located in Moo 1 “Ban Muang Phrong” village, Khao Hin Son subdistrict, Phanom Sarakham district, Chachoengsao Province.
Reference samples of dust, soil, and sediment were taken in a clean area of an organic farm in Na Somboon, Chachoengsao Province. A reference sample of chicken eggs was obtained in a supermarket in Maha Sarkham in February 2022. These reference samples were also taken for another set of samples from Kalasin.
The results of the analyses for thirteen samples in total are evaluated in this study.
Contamination with POPs was revealed at all three locations researched in this study, Nong Khok, Khao Hin Son Moo 1, and Hat Nang Kaeo. The highest levels were observed in the surroundings of the Supcharoen Recycle Co.Ltd. factory, in the village of Nong Khok, where contamination of the food chain was confirmed by high levels of some POPs in free range duck eggs. The dismantling and incineration of e-waste is most likely to be the source of this serious contamination. The dumping of industrial sludge from a drum “donated” to villagers caused serious contamination with SCCPs.
Very high levels of unintentionally produced POPs were confirmed in the free range duck eggs from Nong Khok. The level of PCDD/Fs is the tenth-highest level ever measured in poultry eggs in Asia, and the second-highest level measured in eggs from Thailand. The level of PBDD/Fs in the eggs from Nong Khok is the sixth highest measured in free range poultry eggs from polluted sites globally. Also, the levels of PCDD/Fs and PBDD/Fs in the soil samples from this locality are many times higher compared to the reference site. The PeCB and HCB levels in these eggs belong among the highest measured in free range egg samples in Thailand.
The level of PCDD/Fs and total TEQ level of PCDD/Fs and dl PCBs in the sample of duck eggs from Nong Khok exceed the maximum levels set in the EU by more than 24 and 14 times, respectively.
Serious contamination with SCCPs was discovered at Nong Khok, as well as Hat Nang Kaeo, most probably as a result of the dumping of industrial sludge at these sites. It also resulted in a high concentration of SCCPs measured in the free range duck eggs at Nong Khok. A relatively high level of ndl PCBs was measured in the soil at Hat Nang Kaeo, in addition to contamination with SCCPs.
The levels of PBDD/Fs were most significant among the chemicals analysed in the samples from the Khao Hin Son Moo 1 locality, followed by PCDD/Fs, which shows that the burning of e-waste residues is the most important pathway of contamination at this locality.
Poultry eggs from cage, ecological and free range production were analyzed in terms of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Taking into account all fourteen analyzed compounds, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) reach the highest concentrations (mean 0.23, 0.24, 0.27 μg/kg wet weight (w.w) for organic, cage and free range eggs respectively. Taking into account the lower bound sum of four PFASs: PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS which according to EFSA, made up half of the lower bound exposure to PFASs, organic eggs were the most contaminated (0.10 μg/kg wet weight) followed by free range (0.04 μg/kg wet weight) and battery cage (0.00 μg/kg wet weight). The percentage share in the lower bound concentration indicates the dominant role of PFOS (37–100%). Linear PFOS accounted for 71–92% of the sum of linear and branched PFOS. Estimates of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS intake via eggs based lower-bound concentrations were 0.00–0.65 ng/kg b.w for children and 0.00–0.21 ng/kg b.w for adults which corresponds to 0–15% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) and 0–5% TWI for children and adult respectively.
This report focused on abandoned pesticides storage and preparation rooms in Klatovy – Luby, and revealed serious contamination with HCHs, DDT, atrazine, fenson and other pesticide residues including their metabolites. Analytical reports also revealed significant groundwater contamination by pesticides. The main contaminants of groundwater were pesticides from the group of chlorinated organic pesticides and also from the group of triazine pesticides. The results of the atmogeochemical research signaled a relatively high degree of local contamination of the unsaturated zone of the soil horizon by hydrocarbon derivatives (petroleum hydrocarbons). More recent analyses found also relatively high levels of OCPs and their residues in fish and free range chicken eggs.
The above findings and the cited studies show that the buildings of the former pesticide warehouse are significantly contaminated with a wide range of toxic substances. For many analytes and at various sites, the C criteria for soils were exceeded. Exceeding criteria C represents pollution that can pose a significant risk to human health and the environment. The severity of the risk can only be confirmed by its analysis. The recommended values of the target parameters for remediation, depending on the result of the risk analysis, may be higher than the stated criteria C. A necessary basis for deciding on the method of clean up action are above the scope of this study and need to include also the technical and economic aspects of the proposed solution. (In Czech language only).
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Tato studie se zaměřila na opuštěný sklad a přípravnu pesticidů v Klatovech - Lubech a odhalila vážnou kontaminaci HCH, DDT, atrazinem, fensonem a dalšími rezidui pesticidů včetně jejich metabolitů. Chemické analýzy také odhalily významnou kontaminaci podpovrchových vod pesticidy. Jejich hlavními kontaminanty byly pesticidy ze skupiny chlorovaných organických pesticidů a také ze skupiny triazinových pesticidů. Výsledky atmogeochemického výzkumu signalizovaly relativně vysoký stupeň lokální kontaminace nenasycené zóny půdního horizontu uhlovodíkovými deriváty (ropnými uhlovodíky). Novější analýzy také zjistily relativně vysoké hladiny OCP a jejich reziduí v rybách a slepičích vejcích z volného chovu. Výše uvedená zjištění a citované studie ukazují, že budovy bývalého skladu pesticidů jsou výrazně kontaminovány širokou škálou toxických látek. U mnoha analytů a na různých místech byla překročena hladina kritéria C pro půdy. Překročení kritéria C ukazuje míru znečištění, která může představovat významné riziko pro lidské zdraví a životní prostředí. Závažnost rizika může potvrdit pouze další podrobnější analýza. Doporučené hodnoty cílových parametrů pro sanaci, v závislosti na výsledku analýzy rizik, mohou být vyšší než uvedená kritéria C. Rozhodnutí o opatřeních k vyčištění této zátěže je nad rámec této studie a musí zahrnovat také technické a ekonomické aspekty navrhovaného řešení.
Executive Summary Free-range chicken eggs collected near the Bolshoi Trostenec dumpsite located 5 km outside Minsk. the capitol city of Belarus, showed high levels of PCBs and elevated levels of dioxins. PCBs levels expressed in WHO-TEQs exceeded background levels by more than 10-fold and were four times higher than the proposed European Union (EU) limit for eggs. Levels of dioxins exceeded EU regulatory limits for eggs by almost 1 pg WHO-TEQ/g. To our knowledge, this study represents the first data about POPs in chicken eggs from Belarus.
Brominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) are increasingly reported at significant levels in various matrices, including consumer goods that are manufactured from plastics containing certain brominated flame retardants. PBDD/Fs are known ligands for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) but are not yet considered in the hazard assessment of dioxin mixtures. The aim of the present study was to determine if PBDD/Fs levels present in plastic constituents of toys could pose a threat to children's health. PBDD/Fs, unlike their chlorinated counterparts (PCDD/Fs), have not been officially assigned toxic equivalence factors (TEFs) by the WHO therefore, we determined their relative potency towards AhR activation in both human and rodent cell-based DR CALUX® bioassays. This allowed us to compare GC-HRMS PBDD/F congener levels, converted to total Toxic Equivalents (TEQ) by using the PCDD/F TEFs, to CALUX Bioanalytical Equivalents (BEQ) levels present in contaminated plastic constituents from children's toys. Finally, an estimate was made of the daily ingestion of TEQs from PBDD/Fs-contaminated plastic toys by child mouthing habits. It is observed that the daily ingestion of PBDD/Fs from contaminated plastic toys may significantly contribute to the total dioxin daily intake of young children.
Over 40,000,000 tons of toxic waste from discarded electronics (e-waste) is created each year with an annual growth rate of 4-5%. Meanwhile, there is a lack of efficient, safe and sustainable infrastructure for its disposal in the regions of the world where the majority of the exported e-waste stream is destined to end up. A typical place in Africa where e-waste has been received and recycled in an informative setting is the large scrap yard in Agbogbloshie, near the center of Accra, Ghana.
One of the most dangerous aspects of e-waste is due to the fact that it contains chemicals known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Chemicals defined as POPs are the world's most toxic and persistent chemicals. They are found in e-waste and can also be generated at high levels when e-waste is burned as is often the case in developing countries.
New studies by IPEN and Basel Action Network (BAN) have revealed how weak controls have been exported to waste electronic equipment from developed countries to dangerous levels of human exposure and food chain contamination in African countries.
Two types of controls that need to be strengthened are: 1) hazardous waste limits for toxic substances in the Stockholm Convention; and 2) greater control over e-waste export in the Basel Convention for exports for alleged recycling and repair.
PCDD/Fs contamination of free-range chicken eggs and soils from private Vietnam households was studied. The possibility of using free-range eggs as bio-indicators of dioxin contamination was considered as the soil-chicken-egg exposure pathway is considered to be the most sensitive exposure pathway of dioxins in soils to humans. A large territory from Dong Nai province in the south to Lao Cai province in the north was covered by the research. All analyses were performed by HRGC-HRMS method. PCDD/Fs levels in eggs from the majority of southern households exceeded the EC limit for eggs and egg products (2.5 pg WHO-TEQ2005 g−1 lipid). Total TEQs ranged from 0.4 to 361 pg WHO-TEQ2005 g−1 lipid in eggs and from 0.1 to 1272 pg WHO-TEQ2005/g in soil. 2,3,7,8-TCDD contribution was statistically significantly higher in both eggs and soils in sprayed with Agent Orange areas, indicating its long-term impact. In order to assess within site variation, a total of 62 individual eggs from 14 private households were analyzed. Mean relative standard deviation of total TEQ values in individual eggs within the separate households was 27%. Rather good correlation of PCDD/Fs concentration in eggs and respective soils was observed for all dioxin congeners and for hexa- and hepta-furans (except for 1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDF). Higher bioaccumulation for lower chlorinated congeners was confirmed. The current study of using eggs as bio-indicators for large POPs contaminated sites may be suggested as a policy approach to evaluate human exposure to dioxin/POPs contaminated sites for known or suspected contaminated areas. Keywords: PCDD/Fs, Free-range chicken eggs, Dioxin contamination, Vietnam, Agent Orange, Bioaccumulation
Even though production and open use of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been phased out in Western industrialised countries since the 1980s, PCBs were still present in waste collected from different waste handling facilities in Norway in 2013. Sums of seven indicator-PCBs (I-PCB7: PCB-28, -52, -101, -118, -138, -153 and -180) were highest in plastic waste (3700 ±1800 μg/kg, n=15), waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (1300 ± 400 μg/kg, n=12) and fine vehicle fluff (1800 ± 1400 μg/kg, n=4) and lowest in glass waste, combustibles, bottom ash and fly ash (0.3 to 65 μg/kg). Concentrations in leachate water varied from 1.7 to 2900 ng/L, with higher concentrations found at vehicle and WEEE handling facilities. Particles in leachate water exhibited similar PCB sorption properties as solid waste collected on site, with waste-water partitioning coefficients ranging from 105 to 107. I-PCB7 in air samples collected at the sites were mostly in the gas phase (100-24000 pg/m3), compared to those associated with particles (9-1900 pg/m3). In contrast, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in the same samples were predominantly found associated with particles (e.g. sum of 10 brominated diethyl ethers, ΣBDE10, associated with particles 77-194,000 pg/m3) compared to the gas phase (ΣBDE10 6-473 pg/m3). Measured gas-phase I-PCB7 concentrations are less than predicted, assuming waste-air partitioning in equilibrium with predominant waste on site. However, the gas-particle partitioning behavior of PCBs and BFRs could be predicted using an established partitioning model for ambient aerosols. PCB emissions from Norwegian waste handling facilities occurred primarily in the form of atmospheric vapor or leachate particles.
The problem of the negative impact of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on public health and the environment is a global one. Nowadays, the solution of the POPs problem is one of the priority environmental tasks of the international community. Relevance of the problem of implementation of obligations of the Republic of Belarus on persistent organic pollutants lies in the fact that a certain amount of these substances still remains in the territory of our country. According to adopted and implemented programs on reduction and complete cessation of use of these substances, all stocks of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and obsolete pesticides in Belarus have to be destroyed by the end of the current decade.
The extremely rapid growth of plastic production, combined with the current shortcomings of mechanical recycling and the recent breakdown of global export markets, have left many local and national governments desperate to contain the problem of post-consumer plastic waste. In response, there has been a rapid rise in proposed technologies which are claimed to effectively and sustainably convert waste plastic into either fuel or petrochemical precursors.
This report reveals that chemical recycling is is not a viable solution in the short window of time left to solve the plastic problem, especially at the scale needed. To address the problem, this report considers the following questions with regard to chemical recycling of plastic:
What are these technologies and how do they compare with other methods for treating plastic waste?
What are the environmental implications?
Are they sustainable?
Is the technology mature or likely to be so in the next ten years?
In this paper, a study for Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) trade is conducted by using graph theory. In specific, exports and imports for UN COMTRADE data code 854810 which corresponds to waste and scrap of prim cell are collected for 175 countries around the world, spanning the period from 2002 to 2014. WEEE trade networks are generated for each year and communities are produced applying spinglass community detection algorithm. Communities are compared with groups of countries produced by applying detection community algorithms on networks based on common currency, differences in CO2 levels, geographical distances, common language, colonial ties, and regional trade agreements (RTA). An estimation of the factors that affect key network metrics has also been conducted, using a random effect linear regression. The model assesses the effect that economic, environmental, geographical, and social, as well as intra-country commercial agreements have on degree of nodes, betweenness score, and clustering coefficient. The results indicate that communities of WEEE trade network are very similar with groups produced by clustering countries regarding CO2 emissions and distance. Distance, contiguity, common currency, colonial ties, common language, and differences in CO2 levels tend to affect significantly the degree of countries engaged in WEEE trade network. Betweenness score is affected only by common currency while clustering coefficient by common language and CO2 levels between countries. A statistical validation of WEEE network, with Erdos – Renyi, Small – World and Scale – Free networks, was conducted. The results reveal that in, cycle, and middle clustering coefficients of Erdos – Renyi and Small – World networks were statistically equal to the corresponding of WEEE network for the period 2004–2008, while Scale – Free's out and clustering coefficients coincided with WEEE's across all years.
A recycling and disposal technology for municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash using high temperature sintering process was evaluated in an industrial scale facility with daily disposal capacity of 100 t/d. The emission, mass balance and distribution characteristics of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) as well as heavy metals (HMs) were assessed during two test runs. The PCDD/Fs emission from stack varied in range of 0.019 to 0.025 ng I-TEQ /Nm3, below international standards. The PCDD/Fs in the sintered product was reduced to 0.002-0.008 μg I-TEQ/kg from 2.593 to 2.704 μg I- TEQ/kg of the original MSWI fly ash (Mix-FA). However high concentration of 14.3 μg I-TEQ/kg were found in the secondary fly ash (Sec-FA). Therefore, a large share of PCDD/Fs just desorbed from the ash and the destruction efficiency (DRE) for PCDD/Fs was only 8.9%. The distribution characteristics of investigated HMs were primarily dependent on the evaporative properties. The results of HMs leaching test for the sintered product were considerably below the Chinese legal limits. The HMs leaching toxicity test for Sec-FA indicated which is a hazardous waste presented high risk to the environment. The use of the sintered product as construction material need further assessment on its long term HMs leaching behavior.