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Terrestrial laser scanning, geomorphology and archaeology of a Roman gypsum quarry (Vena del Gesso Romagnola area, Northern Apennines, Italy)
Abstract
Roman-period extractive sites in gypsum outcrops are very rare, and most have become very degraded by later weathering or quarrying activities. This paper describes, using laser scanning, photogrammetry and survey using a UAV-based survey, the uniquely well-preserved Roman-period gypsum quarry of Ca’ Castellina (Northern Apennines, Italy). This site was excavated only in the last few years and the excavations have brought to light some gypsum blocks and the ancient quarry benches showing excavation marks, the remains of a rectangular building and a great number of artefacts that range between the Protohistoric Period and the modern times. The size of the extracted blocks, the extraction methodologies and the age of a charcoal fragment (361 – 178B CE) found immediately at the contact between the gypsum quarry floor and the infilling sediments date the quarry back to the Roman age. Archaeological evidences demonstrate the building to have been used for a short period of time during the XVI-XVII century. Immediately after its abandonment most of the quarry floor has been covered with a thick detrital layer, protecting it from dissolution (fossilizing this floor and leaving it as if it was abandoned very recently), whereas the naked or poorly covered floor of this quarry has been subjected to dissolution phenomena of the exposed gypsum rocks, with a lowering of the surface, the smoothening of the corners and the formation of a set of deeply carved karren features.
A 3D survey using both a laser scanning instrument and a drone-mounted photo camera have allowed to get precise measures on the size of the blocks that were extracted in this quarry, the traces of pick axe marks, and on the dissolution morphologies that have developed on the bare gypsum rock. These typical gypsum landforms show how fast these solution forms can develop where concentrated runoff flows on bare gypsum. To prevent this exceptional archaeological extractive site of being further dissolved, it will be important to plan some measures to be put in place in order to protect this delicate historical landmark.
... Here, LiDAR data provide new insights into mapping and classifying geomorphologic mining features, as well as their distribution, dimensions, and spatial relationships. This knowledge is important for research on landscape change, especially for monitoring landform evolution (Jancewicz et al., 2021) and providing greater insight into archaeology and mining history (Fabbri et al., 2021;Gawior et al., 2017). ...
High-resolution Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) scanners provide detailed information on terrain surfaces, thus enabling the detection of the topographic signatures of historical anthropogenic landforms overgrown by trees or covered by the soil surface. This study aimed to examine the potential of incoming nationwide LiDAR data for detecting the cultural landscape features in Slovakia. We derived a detailed digital elevation model from LiDAR points and adopted upgraded visualisation techniques based on the combination of local relief models, sky view factor, slope steepness, and colour blending. We visually identified examples of different anthropogenic landforms and confirmed our findings with existing literature. In addition, we provide examples of previously unknown historical anthropogenic landforms discovered from LiDAR images. Finally, we discuss the potential and limits of LiDAR data in exploring and protecting different groups of historic anthropogenic landforms as remnants of past cultural landscapes in Slovakia.
... Paved roads were developed, and the most suitable stones for their elaboration were volcanic or philonian stones such as basalt, porphyry and diabase [104,105], due to their low abrasion index. These communication routes allowed the transport of heritage stones to cities and villages [106,107] to build walls, bridges, aqueducts, dams, stelae, sarcophagi, mosaics [108], mills [109] and ornamental elements [110]. Quarries were scattered throughout the Roman Empire [111][112][113] and a trade in ornamental stones was created, mostly from Egypt [114][115][116]. ...
Human activity has required, since its origins, stones as raw material for carving, construction and rock art. The study, exploration, use and maintenance of building stones is a global phenomenon that has evolved from the first shelters, manufacture of lithic tools, to the construction of houses, infrastructures and monuments. Druids, philosophers, clergymen, quarrymen, master builders, naturalists, travelers, architects, archaeologists, physicists, chemists, curators, restorers, museologists, engineers and geologists, among other professionals, have worked with stones and they have produced the current knowledge in heritage stones. They are stones that have special significance in human culture. In this way, the connotation of heritage in stones has been acquired over the time. That is, the stones at the time of their historical use were simply stones used for a certain purpose. Therefore, the concept of heritage stone is broad, with cultural, historic, artistic, architectural, and scientific implications. A historical synthesis is presented of the main events that marked the use of stones from prehistory, through ancient history, medieval times, and to the modern period. In addition, the main authors who have written about stones are surveyed from Ancient Roman times to the middle of the twentieth century. Subtle properties of stones have been discovered and exploited by artists and artisans long before rigorous science took notice of them and explained them.
Through an interdisciplinary investigation, a hastily exploited individual quarry of limestone is studied. The quarry was made all at once for the construction of a nearby military camp to improve the defence of a remarkable Celtiberian city during the Sertorian Wars. This is a perfect Roman military engineering project: on the one hand, the geological deposit was exploited selectively, differentiating the areas of extraction of large and small blocks of stone, according to the needs of the work. On the other hand, the material was transported by means of small roads along a carefully studied and laid out road of about 600 m in length and of clear Roman origin. The archaeological evidence shows the existence of a large camp that, according to previous surveys, adopts the known classical models of rectangular plans and the typology of Roman construction. In the camp environment, there are enough scattered remains that seem to point to a battlefield. All this indicates the importance of the primitive Celtiberian settlement, which is justified by an analysis of the territory by the existence of springs of high guarantee for human water supply, livestock and irrigation. The existence of silver mines is another added economic value. Due to the predominance in the monetary findings of the mint of Titiakos , the possibility is raised that the Celtiberian city was linked to the ethnic group of the Titos indicating their active participation during the Sertorian Wars.
This paper provides an introduction to the contributions presented in this thematic issue dedicated to the spatial humanities. Three main themes are addressed: (1) the processing of spatial information in textual corpora resulting from work in the human and social sciences, mainly in literary studies; (2) problems of acquisition, spatialisation and dissemination of geographical data of the past and from cultural heritage, thus, here, more connected with research in history; (3) spatial information and its processing and uses in archaeology. For each of these topics, we present the founding initiatives with historiographical elements, a brief status quaestionis and a synthesis of the contributions.
In 2015, we mapped surface and near-surface physical properties of a Paleo-Inuit lithic quarry site, LbDt-1, located in the interior of southern Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada using a multi-method approach. The survey site is characterised by a dense chert flake deposit. The purpose of the survey was to document this survey site’s surface features using three-dimensional laser scanning and to investigate the utility of active remote sensing and geophysical methodologies at prehistoric lithic quarry sites. Manual and automated data reduction, interpretation and inversion methods were applied across each dataset to isolate the surface and subsurface distribution of flakes. Laser scanning results demonstrate a remarkable dispersal of surface chert flakes confined to a general area of the geophysical survey. To define the base of the lithic deposit layer, a combination of enhanced radar reflections and two-layer inversion models of magnetic responses obtained using electromagnetic measurements was used. Radar results suggest the deposit has a thickness of around 10–20 cm and indicate that there are no additional parts of the deposit masked by soil in this area. The magnetic susceptibility data define an upper layer of ~ 20 cm thickness and susceptibility (0.004–0.008 SI) overlying a less magnetic (< 0.004 SI) lower layer, with the spatial variations in the upper layer suggesting debitage and gravel deposits have lower magnetisation than the topsoil at the site. Overall, this study demonstrates the capacity of remote sensing and geophysical methods to non-invasively investigate some prehistoric activities without the need for full-scale excavation and the collection of large material assemblage characteristic of lithic quarry sites.
Although outcropping rarely in Italy, evaporite (gypsum and anhydrite) karst has been described in detail since the early 20 th century. Gypsum caves are now known from almost all Italian regions, but are mainly localised along the northern border of the Apennine chain (Emilia Romagna and Marche), Calabria, and Sicily, where the major outcrops occur. Recently, important caves have also been discovered in the underground gypsum mines in Piedmont. During the late 80s and 90s several multidisciplinary studies were carried out in many gypsum areas, resulting in a comprehensive overview, promoting further research in these special karst regions. More recent and detailed studies focused on the gypsum areas of Emilia-Romagna and Sicily. Sinkholes related to Permian-Triassic gypsum have been studied in Friuli Venezia Giulia. This article reviews the state of the art regarding different aspects of evaporite karst in Italy focusing on the main new results.
Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the north-eastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emilia Romagna region (Italy). More than six hundred of these caves have been surveyed, including the longest known epigenic gypsum cave systems in the world (Spipola-Acquafredda, ~11 km). Although this area has been intensively studied from a geological point of view, the age of the caves has never been investigated in detail. The rapid dissolution of gypsum and uplift history of the area have led to the long-held view that speleogenesis commenced only during the last 130,000 years.
Epigenic caves only form when the surface drainage system efficiently conveys water into the underground. In the study area, this was achieved after the dismantling of most of the impervious sediments covering the gypsum and the development of protovalleys and sinkholes. The time necessary for these processes can by constrained by understanding when caves were first formed.
The minimum age of karst voids can be indirectly estimated by dating of the infilling sediments. U-Th dating of carbonate speleothems growing in gypsum caves has been applied to 20 samples from 14 different caves from the Spipola-Acquafredda, Monte Tondo-Re Tiberio, Stella-Rio Basino, Monte Mauro, and Castelnuovo systems. The results show that: i) caves were forming since at least ~600 kyrs ago; ii) the peak of speleogenesis was reached during relatively cold climate stages, when rivers formed terraces at the surface and aggradation caused paragenesis in the stable cave levels; iii) ~200,000 years were necessary for dismantling of most of the sediments covering the karstifiable gypsum and the development of a surface mature drainage network.
Besides providing a significant contribution to the understanding of evaporite karst evolution in the Apennines, this study refines our knowledge on the timescale of geomorphological processes in a region affected by rapid uplifting.
Early Khmer societies developed extensive settlement complexes that were largely made of non-durable materials. These fragile urban areas perished many centuries ago, and thus a century and a half of scholarly research has focussed on the more durable components of Khmer culture, in particular the famous temples and the texts and works of art that are normally found within them. In recent years however there has been a considerable effort to broaden the perspective beyond conventional approaches to Khmer history and archaeology. Remarkable advances have been made in the domain of remote sensing and archaeological mapping, including the application of advanced geospatial techniques such as airborne laser scanning within studies of heritage landscapes at Angkor and beyond. This article describes the most recent applications of the technology in Cambodia, including the results of a newly-completed campaign of airborne laser scanning in 2015—the most extensive acquisition ever undertaken by an archaeological project—and underscores the importance of using these methods as part of a problem-oriented research program that speaks to broader issues within history and archaeology.
Gaius Plinius Secundus, better known as Pliny the Elder, Roman naturalist and philosopher who lived between AD 23-79, described a particular and transparent stone known as Lapis Specularis, widely used in Roman times for the production of door and window panels.
This particular stone similar to glass was quarried in many areas of the Roman Empire in Spain, Italy, Greece and North Africa from cavities or natural gorges, trying to follow the fractures in which this rock was formed. The stone is gypsum in its secondary macrocrystalline form that may be easily split to form thin transparent sheets.
The first exploitation site for Lapis Specularis discovered in Italy is located in a cave called " Grotta della Lucerna ". This name derives from the discovery of some Roman lamps used by miners to lighten the cave during the mining operations.
This paper describes the detailed laser scanner survey that we performed in this important archeological site.
The aim of this research was the survey and the study of the many quarries located in the first spurs of the Gebel el-’Adila, close to Antinoopolis (Middle Egypt). These quarries are an excellent opportunity for observation and research concerning the “landscape archives” and preserve traces of man’s activity, representing a real cultural heritage. The paper gives a short geological setting of the area and reports our recent study (2006 onward) on traces, typologies, methods and development of the quarrying activity in the area, focussing on the Roman period. The working traces allowed us to define the working tools used for quarrying, the organisation of the works and of the quarry exploitation, as in the area many remains of the quarry organisation network are extant or recognisable, such as: service posts, sledge-ways, docks.
The IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon calibration curves have been revised utilizing newly available and updated data sets from 14C measurements on tree rings, plant macrofossils, speleothems, corals, and foraminifera. The calibration curves were derived from the data using the random walk model (RWM) used to generate IntCal09 and Marine09, which has been revised to account for additional uncertainties and error structures. The new curves were ratified at the 21st International Radiocarbon conference in July 2012 and are available as Supplemental Material at www.radiocarbon.org. The database can be accessed at http://intcal.qub.ac.uk/intcal13/. © 2013 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona.
Amongst a large number of ancient quarries scattered along the North African coast, those at Sidi Ghedamsy (Monastir, Tunisia) have supplied building stones of Pliocene age. Two lithofacies have been distinguished in the quarry faces: (i) fine sandy limestone, which has been used in the construction of Roman and Arabic monuments; and (ii) porous and coarse limy sandstone, which is of bad quality for construction. Laboratory analysis results confirm that the exploitation of stone in antiquity was well focused on the levels containing the first type. This is confirmed by geotechnical tests, which show that the fine sandy limestone is harder and less porous than the coarse limy sandstone. Extraction of these stones began in the Roman period. The Romans exploited the quarries using steel tools that permitted the extraction of blocks from several levels. In the eighth century, Arabic quarry workers continued the stone extraction using the same technique, but they produced blocks of small and medium size. Statistical measurements have been done on the quarry faces and on the walls of the Ribat in order to understand the degree of conformity between the dimensions of the extracted blocks and those used for building, and ultimately to attempt to date the quarries and the construction of the Ribat.
The sources of gypsum, used as an interior building material in the Bronze Age palaces of Crete, some buildings at Akrotiri in Thera and in the mainland palaces at Mycenae and Tiryns, have been attributed by archaeologists to geological deposits in Crete itself, on mainland Greece, or in the Ionian islands of Zakynthos and Kephallenia. Isotopic analyses of sulphur and strontium have been used to characterize the Greek gypsum deposits and to investigate the provenance of gypsum excavated at Knossos, Hagia Triadha, Akrotiri, Mycenae and Tiryns. These analyses show that central Cretan gypsum deposits of Pliocene age supplied the Minoan palaces, Akrotiri on Thera and the palace at Mycenae. In contrast, Tiryns obtained its gypsum from Triassic gypsum deposits, either on Crete or in the Ionian islands or on mainland Greece.
The analytical problems of dating gypsum speleothems with the U-series technique are reviewed. Gypsum speleothems are, in general, very low in U content, challenging the limits of detection methods. Various approaches to dissolving gypsum and isolation of actinides from the matrix include ion-pairing dissolution with magnesium salts and using nitric acid. The most precise dating technique is Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), combined with Fe(OH)3 scavenging and anionic exchange chromatography. Less satisfactory, but much quicker, is direct retention of actinides from HNO3 by means of TRU resin and MC-ICP-MS detection. We have tested these methods on gypsum speleothems from the Sorbas karst in Spain and from the Naica caves in Mexico.
In the last decade, archaeological fieldwork has seen the increasing use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs, also: drones) and photogrammetrical techniques as tools for mapping archaeological traces in two and three dimensions. Drones allow for great control over the collection of imagery and in combination with photogrammetry put airborne 3D data capture at the disposal of archaeologists, whether they are dealing with excavations, monuments, or complete landscapes. The success of applying any new tool must however be judged in the end by a careful assessment of its tangible improvements of the primary data collection process considering expended project resources. In this context, it is important to point out that the added value of producing, often still laborious, 3D models for the primary process of data collection in field archaeology is not yet completely self-evident. Although 3D recording may be a useful additional layer of documentation for those who can afford it, the question remains to what degree the time, equipment and personnel investment actually improves our capabilities of doing archaeology. In this paper, I propose a new, well-defined, transparent and standardized mapping approach based on the combination of a budget UAS and straightforward photogrammetrical techniques, fully embedded in the workflow of knowledge production in archaeological excavation. I will reflect on the future potential of this approach, as well as engage with the ongoing discussion about developments in the processes of documentation and interpretation.
observations using terrestrial laser scanning and 3D photogrammetry in a gypsum cave Abstract Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and 3D photogrammetry techniques were used in a relatively small (100-m-long) cave developed in Messinian gypsum in Emilia-Romagna (N. Italy). The surveys were carried out to compare the results obtained by both methods in mapping small-to medium-sized morphologies. These measurements allowed reconstructing the evolution stages of the paragenetic (anti-gravitative) morphologies (ceiling channels and pendants) that carved the roof of the cave, and their relationship with local geomorphology, infilling sediments, speleothems, and structural elements. Field measurements were integrated with morphometrical analyses of the digital models that then allowed a much greater number of observations to be made. The results are a clear example of how the combination of TLS and 3D-photogrammetric data can be used to study and measure mm-to dm-scale morphologies in geomorphological studies, including caves, helping to unravel the speleogenetic and, consequently, the hydrological evolution of these environments.
The topic of this research consists in the description of landscape modifications occurring from the 4th century BC to the 19th century AD as a consequence of quarrying activities on carbonate slopes along a tract of the ancient Appia route crossing the central Apennine belt at the Aurunci Mountain pass (Lazio region, central Italy).
The main objectives were to discern different quarrying phases and techniques, quantify quarrying activities and understand the role of quarrying in create morphological features.
Multidisciplinary studies were completed including aerial photogrammetry, geoarchaeological field surveys, morphometric characterization of quarry areas, structural analysis of rock outcrops aided by terrestrial photogrammetry, GPS measurements.
The results of this study show how the local geomorpological and tectonic setting determined which kinds of extractable rock material, i.e., rock blocks or breccias, were used for different purposes. Moreover, different phases of extraction were evidenced. A main Roman quarrying phase, lasting between the 4th century BC and the 1st century AD, was recognized as taking place over eight quarry areas. These are delimited by sharp edges and have regular shapes, revealing in some cases a staircase-like morphological profile, and are characterized by similar volumes of extracted rock material. A later quarrying phase —the Bourbon Age, 19th century AD—is assumed to be evidenced instead by five quarries with a peculiar semi-elliptical shape and different volumes of carved material. Seven quarries were found to be of uncertain age.
The quarry system described in this paper, together with geomorphological records of slope cuts, terraced surfaces, and the remains of retaining walls, represents a unique and important example of anthropogenic landscape modification in the territory of the central Apennines caused by the construction and maintenance of a Roman road over the centuries. This could be relevant for further studies on the relations between natural environments and the development of civilisation. In addition, the multi-methodological analyses of geomorphological records originated by quarrying activities may be considered for the characterization of similar quarry landscapes
Researchers today recognize the importance of production techniques when studying architectural elements, works of art and, in general, all dressed stone. Despite important contributions by fore-runners such as Stanley CASSON and J. WARD PERKINS it must be recognized that this kind of research still presents large unexplored areas. Technical data are often forsaken because archaeologists and art historians are rarely trained for studying them in detail. Yet these data are very i.nterdependant on the artistic, architectural, economic and cultural questions raised by these same productions. In order to deal correctly with this complex problem, while giving it a statistical reliability, it is essential that the elementary knowledge necessary for collecting data in the field be spread largely outside the narrow circle of specialists in stone and marble. Without attempting to cover such a vast programme in a few lines, it seems useful to present a rapid review of the principal marks likely to be left by Greek and Roman tools on marble and similar stone. These stones are in general hard, consequently this brief summary mentions only accessory tools used for working soft stone. Some chronological questions and some specific technical problems will also be treated from time to time. Because of difficulties of vocabulary and of the translation of traditional technical terms, whenever possible, a translation of tool names will be given in German, Spanish, French, Italian and Dutch. When the name does not exist in English, the tool will be simply described (1). In order to illustrate as clearly as possible the appearance of tool marks, the illustrations concerning dressing and carving operations show fresh tool impacts photographed in oblique light.
Image-based 3D modeling has already proven its value for the recording of excavations, however until now its application has remained rather small-scale. We have examined the possibilities and limitations of image-based 3D modeling in the recording of an entire excavation, and its impact on the workflow of the excavation process and the post-excavation processing. Our results suggest that image-based 3D modeling can be an excellent and suitable method for the recording, documentation and visualization of the excavated archaeological heritage. It offers great possibilities for increasing the quality of the archived archaeological excavation record. The high-resolution geometric information allows a straightforward quantification of the data. However it also brings along new challenges, including a change in the workflow of the excavation and the post-excavation process. Although there are limitations, these are greatly surpassed by the possibilities of the method. We believe that image-based 3D modeling can cause a(n) (r)evolution in archaeological excavation practice.
Ancient quarries are intriguing archaeological sites, but their detailed recording is complex. This paper presents a cost-effective approach to mapping of the Roman quarry site of Pitaranha (Portugal–Spain). First, aerial photographs were acquired using a radio-controlled digital reflex camera attached to a Helikite, which allowed the acquisition of the necessary low-altitude aerial footage in the very unstable wind conditions above the quarry. Using computer vision algorithms, the resulting set of photographs was semi-automatically transformed into a Digital Surface Model (DSM) and a corresponding orthophotograph. Besides focusing on the acquisition and processing method, this paper evaluates the accuracy of the generated products. The orthophotograph proved to be satisfactorily accurate for 1:200 hard-copy mapping.
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