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Padrões da paisagem
Abstract
Os vários recursos de uma paisagem obedecem a uma disposição, a um arranjo, ou seja a um determinado padrão. Os diferentes padrões que podem ser observados nas paisagens resultam de diferentes processos que ocorrem simultaneamente em áreas geográficas de grandes dimensões, e que variam de lugar para lugar. É com este enfoque que o capítulo se desenvolve, considerando os elementos fundamentais que descrevem as paisagens, ou seja, a estrutura, os processos, as interações entre a estrutura e os processos, e a sua evolução temporal. Para uma melhor compreensão da natureza destes padrões, são ainda descritos os fatores que determinam a sua formação e como se pode sistematizar a caracterização, avaliação e modelação da paisagem através da identificação dos componentes da sua estrutura.
The different patterns that can be observed in the landscapes result from different processes that occur simultaneously in large geographic areas and that differ from place to place. This chapter is developed on the basis of this evidence, considering the fundamental elements that allow describing the landscapes, namely the structure, the processes, the interactions between the structure and the processes, and their temporal variation. For a better understanding of the nature of the landscape patterns, the factors that drive its formation are also described, as well as how landscape characterization, assessment and modelling can be systematized by identifying the components of its structure.
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Each landscape is determined and can be characterised by two types of environmental factors: stable biophysical characteristics and manageable land use patterns. The consideration of both these characterisation domains allows the definition of a homogeneous system of reference (the stable characteristics) with which every possible land use pattern can be compared through the use of common evaluation algorithms. The Integrated Landscape Assessment (ILA) concept builds a framework for data retrieval and evaluation processing that maximizes the following advantages: through the use of a stable reference system, it allows the comparative simulation of different land use scenarios, as well as the permanent availability of the same reference system, independently from the intensity of land use changes throughout the years. It also allows the use of different evaluation algorithms according to different evaluation contexts or paradigms, without having to repeat or adapt the characterisation process.
The present paper illustrates the basic concepts on which ILA is based and developed as well as its application to ecological planning and systematic conservation planning in the Pico Island (Azores Archipelago).
This paper examines the usage and measurement of “landscape connectivity” in 33 recent studies. Connectivity is defined as the degree to which a landscape facilitates or impedes movement of organisms among resource patches. However, connectivity is actually used in a variety of ways in the literature. This has led to confusion and lack of clarity related to (1) function vs structure, (2) patch isolation vs landscape connectivity and, (3) corridors vs connectivity. We suggest the term connectivity should be reserved for its original purpose. We highlight nine studies; these include modeling studies that actually measured connectivity in accordance with the definition, and empirical studies that measured key components of connectivity. We found that measurements of connectivity provide results that can be interpreted as recommending habitat fragmentation to enhance landscape connectivity. We discuss reasons for this misleading conclusion, and suggest a new way of quantifying connectivity, which avoids this problem. We also recommend a method for reducing sampling intensity in landscape-scale empirical studies of connectivity.
A system of natural reserves, each surrounded by altered habitat, resembles a system of islands from the point of view of species restricted to natural habitats. Recent advances in island biogeography may provide a detailed basis for understanding what to expect of such a system of reserves. The main conclusions are as follows:The number of species that a reserve can hold at equilibrium is a function of its area and its isolation. Larger reserves, and reserves located close to other reserves, can hold more species.If most of the area of a habitat is destroyed, and a fraction of the area is saved as a reserve, the reserve will initially contain more species than it can hold at equilibrium. The excess will gradually go extinct. The smaller the reserve, the higher will be the extinction rates. Estimates of these extinction rates for bird and mammal species have recently become available in a few cases.Different species require different minimum areas to have a reasonable chance of survival.Some geometric design principles are suggested in order to optimise the function of reserves in saving species.
Habitat fragmentation causes extinction of local animal populations by decreasing the amount of viable "core" habitat area and increasing edge effects. It is widely accepted that larger fragments make better nature reserves because core-dwelling species have a larger amount of suitable habitat. Nevertheless, fragments in real landscapes have complex, irregular shapes. We modeled the population sizes of species that have a representative range of preferences for or aversions to habitat edges at five spatial scales (within 10, 32, 100, 320, and 1000 m of an edge) in a nation-wide analysis of forest remnants in New Zealand. We hypothesized that the irregular shapes of fragments in real landscapes should generate statistically significant correlations between population density and fragment area, purely as a "geometric" effect of varying species responses to the distribution of edge habitat. Irregularly shaped fragments consistently reduced the population size of core-dwelling species by 10-100%, depending on the scale over which species responded to habitat edges. Moreover, core populations within individual fragments were spatially discontinuous, containing multiple, disjunct populations that inhabited small spatial areas and had reduced population size. The geometric effect was highly nonlinear and depended on the range of fragment sizes sampled and the scale at which species responded to habitat edges. Fragment shape played a strong role in determining population size in fragmented landscapes; thus, habitat restoration efforts may be more effective if they focus on connecting disjunct cores rather than isolated fragments.
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