Evaluation of the Integration of the Traditional Architectural Element Mashrabiya into the Ventilation Strategy for Buildings in Hot Climates

Abstract

This paper reviewed related research works and developments on the traditional architectural element “mashrabiya” focusing on its history, design and structure, typology, and functions in hot climates. Moreover, the paper assessed the effect of the traditional mashrabiya on the indoor thermal environment and thermal comfort in a selected case study building. For this purpose, two similar rooms were investigated in a selected historic building with abundant mashrabiyas located in the Makkah Region, specifically in Old Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The field tests were conducted during a typical hot summer month with two different configurations. The study demonstrated that opening the mashrabiya allowed more airflow into the room during the day and reduced the indoor temperature by up to 2.4 °C as compared to the closed mashrabiya. Besides, the building envelope played an important role in preventing the high fluctuation of the indoor air temperature, where the fluctuation of the rooms air temperature ranged between 2.1 °C and 4.2 °C compared to the outdoor temperature which recorded a fluctuation between 9.4 °C and 16 °C. The data presented here can be used for the future development of the mashrabiya concept and the potential incorporation with passive cooling methods to improve its design according to the requirements of modern buildings in hot climates. Moreover, further studies and tests on mashrabiyas under different climatic conditions are required. Also, the different strategies or materials can be incorporated with mashrabiyas in order to improve its thermal performance.

Full text


Energies2021,14,530.https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030530www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Article
EvaluationoftheIntegrationoftheTraditionalArchitectural
ElementMashrabiyaintotheVentilationStrategyforBuildings
inHotClimates
AbdullahAbdulhameedBagasi
1,2,
*,JohnKaiserCalautit
2
andAbdullahSaeedKarban
1

1
DepartmentofIslamicArchitecture,UmmAl‐QuraUniversity,MakkahP.OBox715,SaudiArabia;
Askarban@uqu.edu.sa
2
DepartmentofArchitectureandBuiltEnvironment,UniversityofNottingham,NottinghamNG72RD,UK;
John.calautit1@nottingham.ac.uk
*Correspondence:Aabagasi@uqu.edu.sa;Tel.:+966‐5555‐63252
Abstract:Thispaperreviewedrelatedresearchworksanddevelopmentsonthetraditionalarchi‐
tecturalelement“mashrabiya”focusingonitshistory,designandstructure,typology,andfunctions
inhotclimates.Moreover,thepaperassessedtheeffectofthetraditionalmashrabiyaontheindoor
thermalenvironmentandthermalcomfortinaselectedcasestudybuilding.Forthispurpose,two
similarroomswereinvestigatedinaselectedhistoricbuildingwithabundantmashrabiyaslocated
intheMakkahRegion,specificallyinOldJeddah,SaudiArabia.Thefieldtestswereconducteddur‐
ingatypicalhotsummermonthwithtwodifferentconfigurations.Thestudydemonstratedthat
openingthemashrabiyaallowedmoreairflowintotheroomduringthedayandreducedtheindoor
temperaturebyupto2.4°Cascomparedtotheclosedmashrabiya.Besides,thebuildingenvelope
playedanimportantroleinpreventingthehighfluctuationoftheindoorairtemperature,where
thefluctuationoftheroomsairtemperaturerangedbetween2.1°Cand4.2°Ccomparedtothe
outdoortemperaturewhichrecordedafluctuationbetween9.4°Cand16°C.Thedatapresented
herecanbeusedforthefuturedevelopmentofthemashrabiyaconceptandthepotentialincorpo‐
rationwithpassivecoolingmethodstoimproveitsdesignaccordingtotherequirementsofmodern
buildingsinhotclimates.Moreover,furtherstudiesandtestsonmashrabiyasunderdifferentcli‐
maticconditionsarerequired.Also,thedifferentstrategiesormaterialscanbeincorporatedwith
mashrabiyasinordertoimproveitsthermalperformance.
Keywords:mashrabiya;roshan;thermalperformance;thermalmass;passiveventilation;thermal
comfort;daylight;indoorthermalenvironment;SaudiArabia

1.Introduction
TheaccelerateddevelopmentofSaudiArabiaduringthelastdecadesledtomajor
changesintheeconomic,social,andbuildingsfieldsandexperiencedahighincreasein
energydemand.ThehightemperaturesthroughouttheyearinSaudiArabiamakecool‐
ingsystemsanecessitytoachievehumancomfort [1].Ingeneral,alargeportionofenergy
isconsumedgloballytokeeptheindoorairtemperatureofbuildingswithintherequired
comforttemperature[2].
Forahundredyears,severalarchitecturalelementswereemployedeffectivelyand
widelyonthetraditionalhousingintheArabGulfregionsuchasmashrabiyas,court‐
yards,andwindcatchersthathavedemonstratedtomeettheneedsofthepopulationand
havestronglocalclimatecompatibility.
InanumberofoldcitiesintheMiddleEastsuchasJeddah,Makkah,Yanbu,Bagh‐
dad,Cairo,Damascus,andTunis,mashrbabiyasstillexistasoneofthemostprominent
traditionalarchitecturalelements[3].Mashrabiyashavealsobeenfoundandadopted
Citation:Bagasi,A.A.;Calautit,J.K.;
Karban,A.S.Evaluationofthe
IntegrationofMashrabiyaintothe
VentilationStrategyforBuildingsin
HotClimates.Energies2021,14,530.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030530
Received:7December2020
Accepted:14January2021
Published:20January2021
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstaysneu‐
tralwithregardtojurisdictional
claimsinpublishedmapsandinsti‐
tutionalaffiliations.

Copyright:©2021bytheauthors.
LicenseeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland.
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle
distributedunderthetermsandcon‐
ditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAt‐
tribution(CCBY)license(http://cre‐
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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widelyindifferentcountriesaroundtheworldfromtheFarEasttoSouthAmericasuch
asIndia,Japan,China,Portugal,andSpain.
AmashrabiyawasdescribedbyFathy[4]asaspacecoveredincantileverswitha
woodengrid,inwhichsmalljarsofwaterwerepositionedtocooltheairthroughthe
aperturesbytheinfluenceofevaporation.Itcanalsobedefinedasawoodenframecov‐
eringawindowopeninganddecoratingthebuildingfaçade.Mashrabiyasaretradition‐
allycharacterisedbytheirfunctions,allowingairanddaylighttopenetrateandproviding
privacybesidetheaestheticpurpose(Figure1).

Figure1.ExampleofMashrabiyademonstratingtheprincipalfunctions.ReproducedfromBagasi
andCalautit[3].
Thebuilding’sthermalmassplaysanimportantpartinenhancingthermalefficiency
inhotclimatesalongsidethefunctionofthemashrabiya.Inwarmseasons,wallsand
floorsabsorbheatontheirsurfaces,conductedinternallyandemittedastheairgetscolder
atnight[5,6].Ventilationatnightthroughamashrabiyacanminimisethecoolingloadin
buildings[7].Furthermore,highthermalmasseslikeheavybricksandstonescaneffec‐
tivelyreducetemperaturevariationswithinaspaceovertime[8].
Inthepastdecades,manyresearchershavestudiedvariousaspectsofmashrabiyas.
Asfarasweknow,moststudiestendtofocusoneithertheirhistoryorondeveloping
mashrabiyaswithouttestingorconsideringtheactualperformanceandinfluenceonthe
indoorthermalenvironment.
Therefore,thisstudyaimstoreviewmashrabiyasandrelatedresearchworkandde‐
velopmentsfromtheenvironmentalsideinresidentialbuildingsinhotclimates.Also,
assesstheeffectoftraditionalmashrabiyasontheindoorthermalenvironmentinaresi‐
dentialbuildinginhotclimates.Theworkalsoassessestheeffectofthermalmassand
evaluatestheeffectivenessofthemashrabiyainachievingthermalcomfort.
Overall,thepaperpresentsanoverviewofthemashrabiya;itshistory,functions,
structureanddesign,andrelatedresearchworksaswellasthemostprominentapplica‐
tionsanddevelopments.Furthermore,acasestudybuildingwithmashrabiyaslocatedin
ahotclimatewasselectedandtested.
2.TraditionalMashrabiya
Amashrabiyacanbedefinedasawoodenframecoveringawindowopeningand
decoratingthebuildingfacade.Mashrabiyasisknownunderdifferentnamesbasedon
thereign,itisknownasshanasheelinIraqandIran,mushabakinIran[9],roshaninSu‐
dan,takhrimameans“fullofholes”inYemen,andmoucharabiehinAlgeria[10].While
inSaudiArabia,mashrabiyaiscalledeithermashrabiyaorroshan.
Theword“mashrabiya”isofArabicorigin,buttherearesomedifferencesinthein‐
terpretationofitssource.MashrabiyainArabicisderivedfrommashrabah,meaningthe
placefromwhichtodrink[11].Inanotherinterpretationmashrabiyalinguisticallytakes
itsoriginfrom“mashrafiya”thenounoftheverb“ashrafa”whichmeanstheplacetolook

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outorobservefromtheupperlevel[12,13].Withtimeandasaresultoftheaccentsand
effectofthenon‐Arabspeakers,mashrafiyabecametheutteringmashrabiya[10].Onthe
otherhand,Fathy[4]saidthatthewordmashrabiyaoriginatesfromtheArabicword
‘sharbah’meaning“drink”andoriginallyreferringto“adrinkingplace”.Healsomen‐
tionedthattheword(mashrabiya)cametorefertoawoodengridscreenwithcircular
balustradesthatarepartiallysmallandarrangedinregularspacesdelineatedbyanintri‐
catedecorativegeometricpattern. MashrabiyasweredefinedbyKamal[14]as“projecting
windowswithwoodenlatticeworkfornaturalventilationandprivacy”.
2.1.HistoryofMashrabiya
Whenandwheremashrabiyasoriginatedthuscannotbeconfirmed,duetothecon‐
flictingresearchers’opinions.Thefollowingisabriefreviewofsomeresearchers’state‐
mentsabouttheemergenceofthemashrabiya. Khan[15]statedthattheoriginsof
mashrabiyamightdatebacktotheancientcastlesorfortsofthepastthatwerebuiltwith
distinctivebaywindowsthatwereusedfordefensivepurposesbycastinghotwateror
oilontheenemiesbelowthroughsmallopeningsinthebottomofthebay[16].Khan[15]
alsoaddedthatmashrabiyaswereknownanddominantintheIslamicworldarchitecture
duringtheMamlukandOttomaneras.Sudy[17]mentionedthatthemashrabiyawascre‐
atedinthethirteenthcenturyAD,whereitwasdevelopedbyMuslimbuildersduringthe
MamlukErainCairo.Abdelgelil[18]statedthemashrabiyafirstappearedinEgypt(1517–
1905)duringtheMamlukandOttomanperiods.DuringtheMamlukruleera(1248–1516),
mashrabiyawereapredominantarchitecturalelementwheremaybetheoldest
mashrabiyacanbefoundintheGreatMasjidatQayrawan[19].Alitanyetal.[20]men‐
tioned:“Thetermroshancanbetracedasfarbackas1100ADandinNorthAfrica,Egypt
andYemenhascometobeknownasmashrabiya”.IntheOttomanera,themashrabiya
reachedtheclimaxofitsspreadandwidelyusedacrossalmosttheentiretyofIraq,Syria,
EgyptandtheArabianPeninsula.
InthewesternregionofSaudiArabia,Jeddahhasplayedavitalandsignificantrole
asagatewayforpilgrimsduetoitsseaportwhichisneartheholiestcitiesMakkahand
Medina.Thus,thesecitiesbenefitedfromtheexchangeofcultureswiththecaravansof
theHajjpilgrimage,whichcamefromdifferentcountriesbringingtheirskills,exchanging
ideaswiththedomesticpeopleandenrichingthearchitecturalart,includingthe
mashrabiyasinHijaz[21].
However,themashrabiya“interlacedwoodenscreen”isnotlimitedtoArabcoun‐
tries,butratherexistsandhasbeenadoptedinnumerousregionsaroundtheworldrang‐
ingfromtheFarEasttoSouthAmerica.Asaresult,mashrabiyahasseveralnamesand
variationsinspelling(Figure2).Forexample,inIndia,itiscalled“Jali,Jaali,Jaalis,or
Jalis”,whichmeansthelatticeworkscreen.

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Figure2.TraditionalMashrabiyaaroundtheworldanditslocalnames.
2.2.MashrabiyaDesignandStructureDetails
Mashrabiyadesignsvaryfromregiontoregiondependingonseveralphysicalvari‐
ables.Thesevariablescanbeitssize,constructionmaterial,patternsandornamentation,
andopenings.Themostinfluencingfactorsaffectingtheperformanceofthemashrabiyas
aretheirshape,aperturesandprojection.
Moreover,theregularconstructionmaterialusedinthemashrabiyastructureis
wood.Manytypesofwoodareusedforthesestructures,butthemostcommononesused
inSaudiArabiaareteak,ebony,oakandmahogany[16].Anothermaterialhistorically
usedinsomecountriessuchasIranandIndiaforstructuredlatticedscreensisso‐called
“terracotta”[22].
Mostly,thestructureofamashrabiyacomprisesthreemajorparts:theupper,middle,
andthelowerpart.Eachparthasseveralcomponentsthatareeitherfunctional,aesthetic
orboth.Alitany;etal.[23]definedthesepartsasthehead“crownortajj”,thebody“sud‐
dir”,andthebase“qaida”(Figure3).Al‐Shareef[16]describedthedivisionoftheexternal
detailsofmashrabiyasintofiveelements:crown,firsthorizontalpanel,openingsashes,
secondhorizontalpanelandbrackets.Inaddition,therearesomeotherelementsthatcan
beadoptedasadditionsbasedontheprevailingclimatesuchaswoodenscreens(sheesh)
andwaterjars[16].

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Figure3.MainpartsofamashrabiyainJeddah.ReproducedfromAlitanyetal.[23].
Typicalmashrabiyapartscanbedividedbroadlyintothreemainstructuralcompo‐
nents—thehead,thebody,andthebase—eachwithseveralelements(Figure4).The
crownintheupperpartworkasacanopyforthemiddlepartofthemashrabiya,while
thepearlisinthemiddleofthecrown.Theupperbeltconnectstheupperpartwiththe
middlepart.Undertheupperbelt,thesashesareinthemiddlepartofmashrabiyathat
canbedesignedaslouvres,shutters,orscreens[24].Thesashesareconsideredtheessen‐
tialpartduetotheirsignificantroleinmostofthemashrabiya’sfunctionsforallowing
penetratingairanddaylightandprovidingprivacy.
Thesashescoveranapertureandusuallydividedhorizontallyintotwoequalsec‐
tions.Vertically,themiddlepartusuallycontainsthreetofivesashes.Eachsashhassev‐
eralhorizontalslidingslatsor“louvreblades”[25].Theprimarypurposeofmovablelou‐
vresistocontroltheentryoflightandairintoaroomasdesiredbytheoccupant[19].
Overthelowersasheswithaoverhangof0.5mfromtheexternalpart,awoodenscreen
locallynamed“sheesh”wasplacedinsomemashrabiyaswhereitprovidesaplacefor
waterjars,whichworktocooltheairbyevaporation[25].Thebottompartofamashrabiya
consistsoftwosections:thelowerbeltandbrackets.Thebracketsworkasthemainsup‐
portofthewholemashrabiyastructure.
2.3.MashrabiyaTypology
Mashrabiyasdifferintheirformsfromoneregiontoanotherduetoseveralfactors.
Thesedifferencesweremainlyduetotheclimatetype,theskillofthelocalcraftsmen,the
accuracyofthedetailsandthewoodwork,anddependontheclient’srequestandfinan‐
cialability.Anabundanceofinscriptionsandanincreaseindetailingdetailsandthesize
ofamashrabiyaandthequalityofthewoodusedinitsconstructionareindicativeofthe
wealthandsocialstatusoftheownerofthehouse.

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Figure4.DetailedviewofpartsandcomponentsforamashrabiyainJeddah,amendedfrom
Alitanyetal.[20].
Salloum[26]dividedthemashrabiyaintothreesortstakingintoconsiderationthe
size:(1)simplewoodenscreensorlouvrescoveringtheopenings;(2)thecantilevered
mashrabiyaasanexpansionpartoftheinteriorspaces;(3)woodenlouvresontwoorthree
sidessurroundingaroomlocatedontheuppermostfloorofapropertynamed“almabit”
wheretheoccupantssleepduringhotdays.Aljofi[27]alsodividedthemashrabiyainto
threetypes:(1)cantilevered,(2)screenpanels,(3)louvredtimberwallsandlouvredwin‐
dows.InJeddah,mashrabiyacomeinmanydifferentshapesandsizes;themostcommon
shapescanbeclassifiedintothreegroups:mashrabiyas,plainmashrabiyas,andprojected
mashrabiya,asshowninFigure5.
2.4.Dimensions
Duetothedifferentshapesandsizesofmashrabiyas,therehavenofixedsize.How‐
ever,someresearchershaveoutlinedthetypicaldimensionsofmashrabiyas.Greenlaw
[28]describedthemaininternaldimensionsofthetraditionalmashrabiyabysaying:“The
sizeofaroshanisrelatedtothedimensionsofthehumanbody;itiswideenoughtolie
downincomfortably,thatisjustovertwometers,2.40musually;highenoughtostand
in,about3m,andprojectingabout60cmintothestreet”.Atypicalmashrabiyawasde‐
scribedbyAlitanyetal.[23]andAdas[29].Itswidthis2.4–2.8manditsinternalheight
2.7–3.5m.Itcanprotrudeexternallyabout0.4–0.7m.Byaddingthethicknessoftheex‐
ternalwallwiththeprojectionoftheMashrabiya,itmayresultinawidththatrangesup
to1.2m,andthiscanbeconvenientlyusedasaseatingarea.Hariri[30]statedthefloorof
amashrabiyawaseitheranextensionoftheflooroftheroomorhigherthanafloorlevel
byaround0.5m.Al‐Shareef[16]stated,“Theusualdimensionsofasingletraditional
roshanunitare3minheight,2.3minwidthand1.1–1.9mindepth,toallowsufficient
spaceforasleepingadult.Someroshansarebuiltwithadepthof1.9mtoaccommodate
amanandhiswife”.

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Figure5.DifferentshapesofMashrabiyainHistoricJeddah.
3.FunctionsofMashrabiya
Althoughmashrabiyawerewidelyusedinmanydifferentcountries,theygenerally
havethesamefunctions.Functionally,amashrabiyaisprimarilyfocusedonenvironmen‐
tal,socialandarchitecturalfactors.Mashrabiyaperfectlyworksasaprotectiondevice
fromdirectsunlightandeffectivelyreducesheatgain,especiallyduringhotseasons.Tra‐
ditionalmashrabiyasaredurabkeanddonotneedfrequentmaintenancewhereexcellent
qualitywoodtypesareusedinthemashrabiya,suchasteakormahoganywood,which
aredurableandcanbeusedforlongperiodswithoutdamageandresistextremeweather
conditionssuchasheatandhumidity[30].AccordingtothearchitectHassanFathy“The
mashrabiyaintersticesbothinterceptthedirectsolarradiationandsoftentheuncomfort‐
ableglare.Besides,consideringthatthemashrabiyaismadeofoutwood,ithelpsregulate
thehumidityinsidethespace.Itisknownthatwoodabsorbs,retainsandreleaseswater.
Whenairpassesthroughtheintersticesoftheporouswoodenmashrabiya,itvaporises
someofthemoisturegatheredinthewoodandcarriesittowardstheinterior”[31].Sabry
andDwidar[32]statedthat“Mashrabiaprovideshadewithinthehousingwithoutcom‐
pleteclosureofwindowsandallowthemovementofair,whichhelpstoreducethetem‐
peratureinthesummer”.AlgburiandBeyhan[33]mentionedthatthelatticeapertureson
mashrabiyasurfacesallowthepassageofnaturalfreshairandhenceprovidethermal
comfort.Mashrabiyasworkperfectlyforsociallifeinhouses.Theyprovideprivacyto
roomoccupantsandgrantsthemfreedomintheiractionsandmovements.Atthesame
time,itallowslookingoutwardwithoutisolationfromthesurroundingenvironment.
Aestheticismisanotherimportantfunctionofthemashrabiya,asitsshapesandde‐
signsadornhouses’facades.Mashrabiyasgenerallyarecharacterisedbyanaesthetic
shapeandprecisiongeometricandbeautywithornamentalinscriptionsofdifferentstyles.
Besides,themashrabiya’soutlineandpartsareinlinewiththeverticalextensionofthe
façades,whichdirectlycontributetomakingthefunctionsofmashrabiyaefficient.Al‐Ban
[34]notedthatthecolours,latticeworks,motifsandfacadesofMashrabiyascontributed
tocreatingadistinctivevisualcharacterinJeddah.Themashrabiyaanditscarvedwood
openingsfosterauniquedialoguebetweentheinteriorandtheexteriorwhilecreatinga
beautifulandpleasantlinkbetweenprivacyandpublicityforthehome[34].Moreover,
Ashour[35]said:“Regardingpsychologicalneeds,onecaninvestigatehowthe
mashrabiyaenhancesthefeelingsofconfidence,bliss,andquietrelaxationexperienced
bytheoccupantsandhowmuchitarousesandinspirescreativeenergy”.

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4.MashrabiyaStatus
Withtherapiddevelopmentinthepastdecades,climatechangeandincreasinghu‐
manitarianneeds,someissueshaveemergedintheuseofmashrabiya.Duetotheperim‐
eterofadjustablelouvres,itisnotpossibletocloseMashrabiyatightly.Thelouvresneed
aslidingpath,andastheygodown,thefrictionwiththewoodincrease,andflippingis
neitherpossiblenordifficult.Allofthatcanleadtodustpermeabilityandpenetrationof
insects,includingnoisedisturbance[30].Inaddition,continuousairleakageisnotcom‐
patiblewithoneoftheessentialneedsofmodernhousesinSaudiArabia(aircondition‐
ing),whichdependsontheisolationofexternalairtocontroltheinternalairtemperature
effectivelyandeconomically.
Moreover,thecostofthemashrabiyaisseveraltimeshigherthanthatofregularwin‐
dowsmadeofwoodoraluminium.Batterjee[24]mentionedthat“Roshanismadefrom
expensivewoodssuchasteak,ebony,oak,andmahogany.Thesewoodsaredifficultto
findlocallyandexpensivetoimport.Thatraisesthecostofconstructionandmaintenance
considerably”.Inadditiontothat,theperiodrequiredtoimplementamashrabiyaislong
wherethemanufactureandinstallationofonemashrabiyamaytakeuptotwomonthsor
morebasedonthesizeanddesign.
Otusanya,etal.[36]stated“Newpassivecoolingtechnologiesarebeingdiscovered
everyday,butundeniablytheinternalthermalcomfortofbuildingscannotbeattained
utilisingonlyonepassivecoolingmethod”.Also,newtechnologiessuchasfansandair
conditionersprovidealternativesolutionsthataddressthedrawbacksofmashrabiyas.
Thesetechnologieshavereplacedthemajorityofmashrabiyas’essentialfunctions,suchas
naturalventilationandcoldair,asfasterandmoreactiveefficiencytomeetthermalneeds
inthehotclimates.[37].However,inviewoftheneedtoreducetheemissionsofgreenhouse
gases,passivetechniquesshouldbeappliedinbuildingsandintegratedwithactivetech‐
niques[38].Alothman[39] statedthatairconditionershavefailedinsomewaycompared
tomashrabiyas,duetothefacttheyrequirealotofenergyandareexpensivetorun.
4.1.PreviousStudiesonTraditionalMashrabiya
Sinceseveralstudieshavestudieddifferentaspectsofmashrabiyas,inthefollowing
sectionwewillreviewanddiscusssomerelatedstudies,especiallyconcerningventilation,
daylight,andintegrationwithpassiveevaporativecooling.In1996,Al‐Shareefstudied
themashrabiyaasanelementtocontroldaylightforenergyconservationintropicalar‐
chitectureconsideringtheHejazarchitectureusedinthewestofSaudiArabiaasacase
study.Thetypeofmashrabiyaconsideredconsistsofmovablehorizontallouvresineight
sashesarrangedinseveralcolumnsandrows.Thesashesweretestedwithslatdeclination
anglesof30°,45°and60°.Al‐Shareefconcludedthattheflatmashrabiyaproducesvery
highinternalilluminancecomparedtotheprojectedone,andasthemashrabiya’ssizeis
increased,theilluminanceincreasestoo.Also,adjustmentoftheslatdeclinationangles
playsasignificantroleinthelevelanddistributionofilluminanceontheworksurface[16].
In2002,Maghrabi[25]studiedmodulatedlouverwindowswithreferencetoJed‐
dah’smashrabiyastoexaminetheventilationefficiencythroughmodelingandsimula‐
tion.Thestudyrevealedthatthemainreasonsforpoorventilationintheroomswere
whentheslideswereadjustedinanacuteinclinationposition.Also,theventilationopen‐
ingsandfreespaceinthemashrabiyawereaffectedwiththeslatstiltedto±60°resulting
inadecreaseinthemainpressure.Maghrabistatedthattheformofthemashrabiya
playedanimportantroleintheflowpatterninsidetheroomsincetheflatmashrabiya
allowedmoreairflowinitscentrecomparedtoprominentmashrabiyas.Inaddition,in
Jeddahthebestoptionwastousewindowsneartheroof,whichincreasesairflownear
thefloorandmakestheatmosphereathomemorecomfortable.
AccordingtoAljofi[27]“Orientation,timesofthedayplayanimportantroleinthe
amountoflightingpassingthemashrabiya”.In2005,Aljofitestedsixscreenpanelsof
differentregularshapes.Theilluminationvaluesofroundedscreencellswerethelowest

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incomparisonwithotherscreenpaneltypes.Comparedtothedarkoakwoodscreen,the
lightoakcontributedmorelightbyanaverageDFof17%.Besides,itwasfoundasthe
diameterofthescreencellincreasesthereflectedlightincreasestoo.Al‐Hashimiand
Semidor[40]studiedmashrabiyas’effectsondaylightvaluesinJeddah’sresidentialbuild‐
ings.ThestudyexaminedaroomwithawoodenmashrabiyaasshowninFigure6.Three
designcaseswereexamined:aroomwithmainopeningsclosedbyVenetianblinds,a
roomwithopenopenings,andaroomwithasingleglazedwindowfacingnorthduring
daytime[40].Thestudyfoundthemostmassivedaylightvalueduringdaytimecorre‐
spondedtoamashrabiyawithaopenedVenetianblind.Althoughthespacewithaclosed
Venetianwasdark,somesmallquantityofdaylight(<1%)alwaysentersfromthetopof
mashrabiya.In2020,Alwetaishi,etal.[41]investigatedthethermalcomfortinahistorical
buildingwithmashrabiyalocatedinTaif(SaudiArabia).Thestudyusedanevaporative
coolingtechniquetoenhancethethermalcomfortbyincreasingtheindoorairspeed.It
wasfoundthatthe“evaporativecoolingtechniquehasaconsiderableimpactonreducing
indoorairtemperaturewitha4°Cdrop,improvingthethermalcomfortsensation
level”[41].


Figure6.Theevaluatedroomandmashrabiyadimensions.ReproducedfromAl‐Hashimiand
Semidor[40]


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4.2.ContemporaryMashrabiya“MashrabiyaDevelopment”
Inthecurrentera,variousshapesderivedfrommashrabiyacanbefoundonthefa‐
çadesofbuildingsinvariouscountriesaroundtheworld.Also,severalstudiesandappli‐
cationshavesubmittednewdesignsorproposalsforthedevelopmentofmashrabiyaei‐
therusingdifferentmaterialsinsteadofwoodsuchasaluminium,steel,ceramic,orglass
fibrereinforcedconcrete(GRC),incorporatinginteractivetechniquesforopeningand
closing,orwithintegrationofevaporativecoolingsystemsinanattempttoboostthein‐
doorthermalandenergyconsumptionconditions.In2010,Batterjeeproposedasolution
foramashrabiyainJeddahbydevelopingitsdaylightpenetrationperformanceandde‐
creasingtheenergyconsumption.Batterjeedesignedfivemodelswithdifferentparame‐
tersandexaminedthedaylightlevelsusingEcotectandRadiancesoftware(Figure7).The
dimensionsofthemashrabiyamodelswere2.4m(w)×3m(h)×0.4m(prominentdepth).
Thebestcasewasadesigned10cm×10cmopeningtilted45°upwardontheinteriorside
usingstainlesssteelanddoublelow‐Eglazingwithanaluminiumframe.Thisreduced
thecoolingloadbyupto49%andprovedtobethebestoverallsolutionsuggestedexcept
fortheeastorientationduetothelowpositionoftheSunduringthatperiod.

Figure7.SimulationviaRadianceforevaluatinglightinglevel.ReproducedfromBatterjee[24].
Benedettietal.[42]investigatedtheevaporativecoolingpotentialofmashrabiya
screensinstalledinBolzanoItaly,testingtwotypesoflocalhardwoods(oakandchestnut)
andtwosoftwoods(spruce,andlarch)todeterminetheirwaterreleaserate.Thestudy
recommendedspruceformashrabiyascreensduetoitsgreatercoolingpotentialanda
higherpermeabilityand,consequently,abetterevaporativecoolingeffect.Thestudycon‐
cludedthatlarchwoodcouldbethemostappropriatespeciesformashrabiyascreensin
Bolzanogivenitscoolingefficiencyandconstructionfeatures.
IntheGibsonDesertofAustralia,Samuels[43]proposedanewconceptfora
mashrabiya,whichisconstructedasaspraydevicethatsprays0.2mmdiameterwater
dropletsfromtheconnectingholes.Thestudyindicatedthatthesystemestablishedan
effectiveandsufficientcoolingtechniqueforthestructure,butnoresultsormeasurements
ofthermalefficiencyandperformanceweregiven.
Karamata,etal.[44]proposedanewsysteminspiredbythemashrabiyaconcept
comprisingashapevariablemashrabiya(SVM)andspecifiedAbuDhabiasacasestudy.
TheSVMwasmadefromthreeidenticalperforatedopaqueshields;thefirstisfixedwhile
thesecondandthethirdonecansinglymovealongtheverticalandlateralaxis.There‐
sultsofannualdaylightperformancesimulationsshowedthatSVMprovidesadequate
andwell‐balancedillumination(mostofthetimeacrossthewholespace).Incontrast,the
SVMshieldsdecreaseandscattertheamountofdiffuselight.
In2015,theSVMwasstudiedagainbyKaramata[45]whoshowedthattheSVM
minimisedoverheatingproblemsandconsequentlythevaluesoftheprimaryenergyde‐
mandforcooling(−17.2%and−9.9%comparedtoselectiveglazing=41%andVenetian
blinds,respectively).Italsominimisedtheprimaryenergyrequiredforlighting(−65.7%
and−30.7%comparedtoreflectiveglazing=%16andVenetianblinds,respectively)and

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theefficiencyoflightingandglobalprimaryenergy(−27%and−16.3%comparedtoRG16
andV.B.,consecutively).
Sabryetal.[46]designedseveralsolarscreensinanattempttoachievevisualcomfort
andreduceenergyuseinresidentialdesertenvironment.Thestudyassumedaresidential
livingroomspaceof4.30m×5.20minJeddahwithdifferentscreendesigns.Itconcen‐
tratedontheinfluenceofvaryingtheaxialrotationofthesolarscreenandtheaspectratio
ofitsopeningsbeneaththecleardesertsky.Thestudyconcludedthatthesolarscreens
couldprovide66–97%daylitareasintheinspectedspacesreduceenergyconsumptionto
25%incomparisonwithastandardglazedwindow.
KhadraandChalfoun[47]attemptedtoimproveanintegratedfaçadetechnology
thatinteractswithandadaptstoclimatechangeinhotaridareas,specificallyinTucson
(Arizona,USA).Thestudyaimedtooptimisethermalcomfortforoccupantsinmixed‐
modeofficebuildingsusingpassiveventilationandevaporativecoolingmethodsinorder
toreducemechanicalcoolingenergyloads.Thecasewasatypicalofficespacefacingsouth
by6m(w)7.6m(d)2.7m(h),anda33%windowtowallratio.Thestudytestedthree
differentoperatingsystems:amechanicalcoolingsystem,passiveventilationandan
evaporativecoolingsystem.Theproposedmodeldemonstratedthatthecoolingloadde‐
creasedbynearly70%throughouttheyearwhiletheheatingloadincreasedslightlyin
thewintermonths.
Batool[48]estimatedtheimpactofarangeofperforationratios(30%,40%and50%)
ofhexagonaljaliscreensonenergysavingsanddaylightperformanceinamodernoffice
buildinglocatedinLahore(Pakistan).Thestudycompriseddatacollectionandanalysis
usingtheIESVEsimulationsoftwareforthefieldmeasurementsandenergymodelling.
Theresultsindicatedthepositiveimpactofjaliscreensoncoolingloadsandimproved
visualconvenience.The50%voidratioinwindowsfacingsouthwasalsofoundtobea
betterwayofachievingabalancedcoolingandlightingenergystrategy.
Anewsystemofwoodenlatticeopeningswasproposed byDiTuriandRuggiero[49],
inordertocontrolthedaylightthatentersabuilding.Thestudywascarriedoutforan
isolatedtestroomusingcomputationalfluiddynamics(CFD)asasimulationtool,show‐
ingthatthiscouldprovidebetterindoorconditions,increasedairspeedandimprovedair
changerateintheroom.Alrashedetal.[50]integratedamashrabiyawithasimulated
buildinginSaudiArabiaandconcludedthatitcouldreduceannualdemandforelectricity
andmaximumpowerneedby4%and3%,sequentially.AnotherstudybyAlgburiand
Beyhan[33]simulatedanair‐conditionedhouseinIraqwithaproposedmashrabiyaand
demonstratedthattheuseofamashrabiyacouldsave12.56%ofthetotalcoolingload.
TalebandAntony[51]simulatedanofficebuildinginDubaitoevaluatetheperformance
ofamashrbiayaanddifferenttypesofchosenglazing.Theproposedmashrabiyahada
hexagonalpatternwith40%coverageoftheglazingunit.Thestudyfoundthattheuseof
mashrabiyaastintedglazingcouldreducethecoolingloadby23%.
Theintegrationofevaporativecoolingelementswithmashrabiyashasbeendis‐
cussedorinvestigatedinsomestudies.In2004,Schiano‐Phan[52]proposedanevapora‐
tivecoolingsystemthatwasderivedfromthemashrabiyaconceptusingaporousceramic
mediumcalled“Evapcosystem”developedbyCain,etal.[53]andtheaimwastoaddress
someofthecoolingneedsofresidentialbuildingsinhot‐dryregions.Incomparisontothe
useofairconditioning,thetotalannualenergysavingswereabout3.08MWhforthese‐
lectedapartments.
In2015,aninnovativedesigninspiredbyatraditionalmashrabiyaandwater‐filled
ceramicvesselsbywasreportedbyRaelandFratello[54].Theformconsistsof3Dim‐
pressedporousceramicbricks,whereeachbrickabsorbswaterandenablesairtopass.The
designusedtheevaporativecoolingprinciple,wheretheairpassesthroughtheformand
evaporatesthewaterinthepores,refractingairandreducingtheinternaltemperature.
Table1summarisesmostofthosestudiesinsomecriticalcriteriaforthispaper.Asa
summaryofthissection,mostofthestudiesaddressedeitherthedaylightorventilation
aspectsofthemashrabiyaandafewincludedevaporativecooling.AlthoughSamuels[43]

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consideredallaspects,thestudydidnotcoveranyanalysisandmeasurementsorsimu‐
lationdemonstratetheeffectivenessoftheproposedMashrabiya.
Table1.Reviewsomeprimaryresearchonmashrabiyasanddifferentaspects.
RefAuthor,DateDesignDaylightVentilationEvaporativeCoolingAnalysis
[24]Batterjee,2010TXX
[25]Maghrabi,2000TXX
[27]Aljofi,2005TXX
[30]Hariri,1990S.T. XX
[30]Hariri,1992TXX
[40]Al‐HashimiandSemidor,2013T XX
[43]Samuels,2011AX
[46]Sabryetal.,2014STXX
[47]KhadraandChalfoun,2014AX
[55]Schiano‐Phan,2010STX
[44]Karamataetal.,2014AXX
[56]NermineandNancy,2014S.T.X
[57]Faggal,2015AXX
[58]Headleyetal.,2015S.T.X
[59]Alsharif,2016AXX
[60]ElkhatiebandSharples,2016AXX
[Design:T=Traditional][S.T.=SemiTraditional][A=Advance]
Table2brieflyhighlightssomeoftheapplicationsfromtheresearchers’viewpoint
basedontwoaspects:(1)mashrabiyaimprovementsthroughdesignandmaterials;(2)
designofinnovativemashrabiyas,whichgenerallyhaveanideainspiredbythedesign
conceptandfunctionsoftraditionalmashrabiya.
Table2.DifferentapplicationsofMashrabiya[42,43].
Project|Built|LocationApproachConcept 
ArabWorldInstitute
1987
Paris,France
‐Interactive
‐Kinetic
Eachunitinthemashrabiyaperformsasa
cameralens.Thesouthfacadewascovered
b
yavastmashrabiyaof30×80msize
madeupofhundredsoflight‐sensitivedia‐
phragmsthatadmitacertainamountof
lightintothebuildingandgoverncooling.


CH2MelbourneCityCouncil
House2
2006
Melbourne,Australia
‐Innovative
‐Kinetic
Thebuilding’sfaçadewasinspiredbyNa‐
ture,whilethemicro‐ventilationductsare
integratedwithdaylightstrategiesandthe
walledconcretefloorstructureplaysacen‐
tralroleinheatingandcoolingthebuild‐
ing.


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PearlAcademyofFashion
2008
Jaipur,India
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
Thedoubleskinisdesigned4maway
fromtheexteriorwalls,actsasathermal
b
arrierthatreducesdirectheatgain
throughthewindows.Thedrippingchan‐
nelsalongthejaaliinternalfaceallowpas‐
siveevaporativecooling,hencereducing
theairflowtemperature.

PaulValeryHighSchool
2009
Menton,France
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
Thewoodenlouvresonthefacadeacttolet
daylightpassandinteractwiththeexterior
spaces.Thedesigntookintoconsideration
visualunitywhileensuringthermalcom‐
fortboundtosolarprotection.

MasdarcityResidentialBuild‐
ings
2010
AbuDhabi,UAE
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
Themashrabiyawasbuilttobeaesthetic
andintegratedwiththesurroundingdesert
b
yusingdevelopedGRCcolouredwithlo‐
calsandinasustainableway.Theconcept
oflightandshadowaperturesisbasedon
typicalIslamicarchitecturepatterns.
TheQ1Headquarters
2010
Essen,Germany
‐Interactive
‐Kinetic
InresponsetotheSun’smovment,theki‐
neticfaçadeconsistsofabout400,000stain‐
lesssteellamellasthatallowlighttobere‐
directedwithoutobstructingtheview.

Privatehouse
2011
NewDelhi,India
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
‐Themashrabiyaisstructuredfrom
mouldedredbrick.Thebrickactsasaveil
inthescreensthatshadethewestfacadeof
thebuilding.

AlBahrTowers
2012
AbuDhabi,UAE
‐Interactive
‐Kinetic
Thisadaptivemashrabiyalookslikeatri‐
anglewhenitexpands.Everysixunitscon‐
nectfromajointpointlooksliketherhom‐
b
usshape.Itismadefromstainlesssteel
supportingframes,dynamicaluminium
framesandfibreglassmesh.


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
DohaTower
2012
Doha,Qatar
‐Fixed
‐Interactive
Thefacadeconsistsoffouraluminium
“butterfly”componentsofvarioussizes,
whichprotectagainstthedirectsunlight.
Theshapevariesdependingontheorienta‐
tionandthesolarprotectionthatindividu‐
alsrequire:25%northward,40%south‐
ward,60%eastwardandwestward.

VishranthiOffice
2014
Chennai,India
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
Thebuilding’stotalfaçadeisdividedinto
600mmtransparentpanelswithwhitealu‐
miniummullionsthatshapetheframes.
Twodifferenttypesofskinbetweenthe
mullionswereadded:alightingpaneland
ajaliscreenpanel.

CommunityCenter
2015
Roses,Spain
‐NewFixedDe‐
sign
‐Improved
Thefacadedesignallowstheviewtowards
theseawithrespectingtheenvironment
andtheprivacyofthesurroundingbuild‐
ings.Theventilatedfacadeconsistsofper‐
foratedpanelsinthesamepatternasthe
originalgeometricmosaiccoveringtheold
floorofthebuilding.
5.TheCaseStudy
ThebuildingofthisstudyislocatedintheheartofhistoricJeddah“Al‐Balad”. His‐
toricJeddahhasthemostabundantareaofbuildingscharacterisedbytraditional
mashrabiyasorroshansinSaudiArabia. Itshouldbepointedoutthat“Al‐Balad”isone
ofthemostimportanthistoricalareasthattheSaudigovernmenthasbeenkeentosponsor
andsupportinordertopreserveitasaUNESCOheritagesite,aswellasbeingoneofthe
Vision2030initiativesthatconsidersuchsitesaspartoftheheritageandcivilisationof
theKingdomofSaudiArabia.
“BaeshenHouse”whichistheselectedcasestudybuildingforthiswork,isshown
inFigure8.ThehousewasconstructedbyMohammedSalehAliAbdullahBaeshenabout
200yearsagoduringtheOttomanera[3].Thebuildingwasbuiltfromapproximately60–
80cmthickload‐bearingwallscontainingthreetypesofstones:limestone,coral,marine
andcoralreef[3].AsillustratedinFigure9,theconstructionwallswereprotectedfrom
thehumidity,heatandsalinitybycoveringthemwithwhiteplaster.

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
Figure8.Thebuildingfromoutside.

Figure9.Cross‐sectionviewoftheexternalwall.
Thebuildingwasdesignedinsuchawaythatallowseffectiveuseofnaturalventila‐
tionanddaylight,whilethefaçadeopeningsarecoveredwithmashrabiyasofdifferent
shapesandsizesthataddedadistinctiveaestheticcharactertothebuilding (Figure10).
Basedonseveralcriteria:validityandconditionofmashrabiyas,functionsandtime,the
availabilityofdrawings,experimentalpossibilitiesandtheaccesstothebuilding,the
buildingwasselectedasacasestudy.Theresultsofthecasestudygenerallyprovidea
clearframeworkforthemashrabiyaeffectandabetterunderstandingofitsactualinflu‐
enceontheindoorthermalcomfortofoldhouseswithload‐bearingwallsinJeddahin
particularandthusfeedthestudyscopewithmorerealisticdataabouttheperformance
ofthemashrabiya.

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
Figure10.Westernfaçade(left)andacrosssectionwithageneralperceptionoftheairflow(right).
5.1.Methods
Thefieldworkwascarriedoutinselectedhistoricbuildingwithmashrabiyaslocated
inOldJeddah inthesummerof2018from4Augustto1September.Theexperimentalin‐
vestigationsusedcalibrateddigitalinstrumentstomonitorairtemperature,relativehumid‐
ity,airvelocity,andglobetemperaturefortwoselectedroomsandthecourtyard(Table3).
Inthisstudy,thecourtyardisanopenlandareaadjacenttothebuildingfromthewest,as
showninFigure11.

Figure11.A3Dperspectiveofthebuildingandthecourtyard.
Alltemperaturesandrelativehumidityvalueswerecontinuouslymonitoredfor28days
fromthefirsttothelastdaytheexperiment,whiletheothermeasurements;airvelocity,globe
temperatures,andsurfacetemperature,weretakeninspecificdaysandperiods.


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Table3.Overviewofthebuildingandmeasurementequipment.
City|LocationJeddah|21°29’12.8”N39°11’11.5”E
ClimatezoneHotarid
BuildingTypeHistoricalResidentialBuilding
CurrentuseExhibitionandGallery(Groundand1stfloor)
Instruments(Intervals)
HotWireAnemometer1min
WBGTDatalogger1min
TinytagPlus2DualChannel1h
TinytagView21h
DualLaserInfraredThermometer1h
Indoor,Out
Indoor
Indoor,Out
Indoor,Out
Indoor,Out
MeasurementsAirTemperature,GlobeTemperature,RelativeHumidity,
AirVelocity,SurfaceTemperature.
MashrabiyaOrientation:West/Mode:open‐closed
Materials
Wall:calcareousandcoralstones
Celling:StonesandTimber
Mashrabiyas:Wood

ThedevicesusedformonitoringtheexperimentaredetailedinTable4.Duringthe
entireinvestigationperiod,eachinstrumentwasplacedinaparticularposition.Theob‐
servedroomsandcourtyardduringtheexperimentwerenotoccupied,exceptformo‐
mentsofsettingthedataloggersorcarryingoutsomeinstantaneousmeasurements.
Table4.Theequipmentusedinthefieldwork.ReproducedfromBagasiandCalautit[3].
NumberInstrumentParametersandRangeAccuracyandResolution
3HotWireAnemometerwithReal‐
TimeDataLogger#HHF2005HW
‐Airvolumeandvelocity
‐Range0.2to20m/s
±(10%+lsd)FullScale
±0.8°C
2WBGTDataLoggerPCE‐WB20SD
‐WetBulbGlobeTemperature
‐Blackglobetemperature(TG)
‐Range0to59°C
WBGT:±1to1.5°C
TG:±0.6°C
2TinytagPlus2DualChannelTemper‐
ature/RelativeHumidity#TGP‐4500
‐Temperaturerange−25to+85C°
‐Relativehumidityrange0to100%.
‐Suitableforoutdooruse.
T:0.01°Corbetter.
RH:±3.0%at25°C
1TinytagView2Temperature/Relative
HumidityLogger#TV‐4500
‐Temperaturerangefrom−25to+50C°
‐Relativehumidityrange0to100%.
‐Suitableforindooruse.
T:0.02°Corbetter.
RH:Betterthan0.3%RH
1DualLaserInfraredThermometer
‐SurfaceTemperature
‐Rang−50°C~550°Ctemperature
‐Emissivity0.10to1.0.
+/−1%ofreading
Theselectedroomsofthisstudylocatedinthewestpartofthebuildingwherethe
firstroom(R1)locatedonthefirstfloorandthesecondroom(R2)inthesecond,asshown
Figure12.Bothroomshavethesameconditions,withtheexceptionofthedifferencein
heightfromgroundleveltoeachfloor.Eachroomhasonemashrabiyaonthewestwall
andoverlooksthecourtyard,exposedtotheprevalentwindandtheRedSeabreeze.Be‐
sides,eachroomhasthreeopeningsineachwallthatwereblockedtoisolateandprevent
theinfluencefromadjacentrooms.

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
Figure12.Firstandsecond‐floorplanswiththedataloggerslocations.
Theroomdimensionsare4mlong,3.6mwide,and3.9mhigh,andthemashrabiya
is2.4mwide×3.1mhigh.Fourdataloggerswereusedineachroomformonitoringthe
airtemperature,velocity,relativehumidity,andtheglobetemperature.Inadditionto
that,aduallaserthermometerwasusedtomeasurethesurfacetemperatureofthe
mashrabiyaandtheadjacentwalls.Inordertomeasurethesurfacetemperature,grid
pointswereplacedinspecificspotsonthemashrabiyaanditsadjacentwallsofR1,as
showninFigure13.

Figure13.ThemashrabiyaandgridsinRoom1.
Thedataloggersfortheairandglobetemperaturesinbothroomswereat0.6min
heightand2mawayfrommashrabiyaonthebasisofASHRAEsuggestions[61].Atthe
internaledgeofeachmashrabiyaatalevelofabout1.1m,airflowvelocitydataloggers
wereplaced.Duringthetestperiod,eachroomwasmonitoredforairandrelativehumid‐
ityandtheglobaldataloggersandanemometersrecordedduringcertaintimesoftheday.
Threemetersapartfromtheexteriorwallinthecourtyard,twotypesofdataloggers
havebeeninstalled:TinytagPlusandaanemometer.TheTinytagwasrecordingoutdoor
TaandRHfrom4Augustto1September2018atalevelofaround1.7mbasedononeof
thelevelsrecommendedbythe2010ASHRAEstandards.Theanemometerwasrecording

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specificperiodsofdaysandwasplacedat0.1mheightandwasshadedbyatable.On
specificdaysandperiodsofthefieldwork,aduallaserinfraredthermometerwasusedto
measurethesurfacetemperaturesoftheopenmashandclosedmashfrominsideand
outsideincludingtheadjacentwallofthemashrabiyas.
Figure14presentsthetimelineoftheexperimentindicatingthedaysofmeasure‐
mentsfromthefirstday“Setup”tothelastday.Thechartshowsthattheexperiments
monitoredtheoutdoorandindoorairtemperature”Ta”andrelativehumidity“RH”for
theentireperiod.Also,thegraphdisplaysthemonitoringdaysfortheothermeasure‐
ments;airvelocity“AV”,globetemperature“Tg”,andsurfacetemperature“Ts”.

Figure14.Timelineoftheexperiment.
5.2.ResultsandDiscussion
Thissectionpresentstheindoorandoutdoormeasurementsdatacollectedinthis
work.Theresultsoftheairtemperature,airvelocity,humidity,andsurfacetemperatures
willbepresentedandanalysedindetail.
5.2.1.IndoorAirTemperatureandRelativeHumidityResults
Figure15presentsthemeasurementsofindoorandoutdoorairtemperaturefrom5
to31August.Asobserved,thethermalmassandthemashrabiyaplayedaanimportant
roleinregulatingtheindoortemperatureduringthehighfluctuationswherethetemper‐
atureofRoom1rangedbetween32.2and38.5°C,Room2from32.5to38.4°C,whilstthere
wasarecordedhighvariationinthecourtyardtemperaturesbetween30.9and48.7°C.The
thermalmassandclosedmashrabiyadelayedtheheatfluxintoRoom2uptothreehours
perdaywhiletheopenmashrabiyainRoom1reducedthetimelagtoonehourasshown
inFigure16.However,theopenmashrabiyaallowedmoreairflow,whichmostlylowered
theRoom1temperature,especiallyduringtheafternoonbyupto2.4°Ccomparedto
Room2.AsobservedinFigure16,bothroomswereabletokeepthetemperaturebelow
38°Cwhentheoutdoortemperaturepeakedat43.6–45.4°C.Thiseffectisagainmainly
attributedtotheroleofthebuilding’stotalthermalmass.Itcanalsobeobservedthatnight
ventilationeffectdecreasedtheindoorairtemperatureupto34°Candcontributedto
loweringtheexcessheatandcoolthebuildingfabric.Also,ithelpedtoreduceanddelay
thepeaktimeoftheindoortemperatures.

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Figure15.Indoorandoutdoorairtemperaturefrom5to31August2018.
Theaverageairtemperatureandrelativehumidityresultsfromthefieldworkmeas‐
urementsfortheoutdoorandselectedroomsareshowninTable5.Themeasurements
werecarriedoutfrom4Augustuntil1September2018foreachspace.Allairtemperature
andrelativehumiditydatawererecordedfor24hinalldatesexceptthefirstandlastday
duetothedataloggers’setup.AsshowninTable,5Augustrecordedthehighestaverage
airtemperatureinbothroomswhentheoutdoorrecordedthehottestby37.62°C.Incon‐
trast,thelowestindoorairtemperatureaverageswererecordedon29Augustwhenthe
averageoutdoorairtemperaturereachesthelowestby37.62°C.Asoccurredtotheindoor
airtemperaturefromtheinfluenceoftheoutdoorairtemperature,theroomswereclearly
affectedbytheoutdoorrelativehumidity.Thehighestrelativehumidityinallspaceswas
on31Augustandtheloweston23Augustwithvariationrateslessthan3%.

Figure16.Hourlyindoorandoutdoorairtemperatureon11,12&13August2018.


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Table5.Dailyaverageairtemperature(Ta)andrelativehumidity(RH)fortheselectedspaces.
 Room1Room2Outdoor
DateTaRHTaRHTaRH
4
AUG36.7639.9136.7238.0741.6833.59
5AUG36.1148.2136.4146.8837.6247.12
6AUG35.1855.0135.5853.0536.5153.73
7AUG34.7161.6835.3156.6636.1358.12
8AUG34.5663.4235.0160.7836.0560.84
9AUG35.2348.9635.3147.8236.6047.40
10AUG35.5347.7235.6048.5937.0548.73
11AUG35.4753.5835.9649.3637.0649.48
12AUG35.0858.9935.6555.2836.6856.83
13AUG34.9656.6335.1955.9835.9356.79
14AUG35.0451.9135.1849.7536.8848.80
15AUG34.4353.0234.8150.2134.8253.49
16AUG34.9052.7135.1550.4436.4849.79
17AUG34.9548.9035.1048.4235.5550.68
18AUG34.5057.0435.0253.9435.5154.90
19AUG34.6459.5135.0356.4336.5055.63
20AUG35.3549.9235.6149.9236.3748.91
21AUG35.6148.9635.7847.6037.4646.07
22AUG35.3846.1935.5845.1836.6646.06
23AUG35.0143.5335.0742.8736.2643.02
24AUG34.7645.3434.8744.0135.8444.85
25AUG34.5554.9334.8452.7035.9353.13
26AUG34.1162.4334.5359.1435.0661.65
27AUG34.2055.7534.3454.4035.4454.77
28AUG33.9253.8034.0952.4235.0653.23
29AUG33.5456.0433.6853.6334.4155.17
30AUG33.7763.5034.0460.9135.1961.36
31AUG33.6667.4233.9164.9734.7165.95
1SEP34.2963.1734.3361.5435.8460.07
Bule:MaximumAverageRelativeHumidity;Pink:MaximumAverageAirTemperature;Orange:
MinimumAverageRelativeHumidity;Green:MinimumAverageAirTemperature.
Figure17ashowstherelationshipbetweenaverageairtemperature(Ta)andrelative
humidity(RH)inRoom1,Room2andthecourtyardbetween5and31August2018.As
expected,therelativehumiditydecreasesastheairtemperatureinbothroomsincreasesand
viceversa.Thehighestrelativehumiditywasrecordedon31Augustwitharangeofabout
65and67.4%whilethelowestwas43%on23August.DuetoairflowintotheRoom1
throughtheopenmashrabiya,Room1reducedmoreheatandallowedmorerelativehu‐
miditythanRoom2.
Theaveragedailyindoorandoutdoorabsolutehumidityfrom5to31August2018
arepresentedinFigure17b.Thegraphdemonstratesthattheabsolutehumidityratesin
theroomswereaffectedbytheoutdoorabsolutehumidity.Therooms’averagesofabso‐
lutehumidityrangedbetween16.8and25gofmoisturepercubicmeterofair(g/m3)and
inthecourtyardfrom18to25.5g/m3.

Energies2021,14,53022of34
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
(a)

(b)
Figure17.(a).AverageairtemperatureandrelativehumidityforR1andR2from5to31August2018;(b).Thedaily
Absolutehumidityforeachroomandcourtyardfrom5to31August2018.
5.2.2.IndoorAirVelocityResults
Table6demonstratesthefrequencypercentagesandmaximumindoorandoutdoor
airvelocityduringaspecificperiodofdays.Themonitoringdaysincluded4–5,11–12,18,
26Augustand1Septemberduringtheafternoonhours.Itshouldbepointedoutthatthe
roomsairflowvelocitiesweremeasuredataspecificpointateachmashrabiya,asmen‐
tionedearlierinthemethodpart.Moreover,themashrabiyaforRoom2wasnotcom‐
pletelyclosedduetothedifficultyofmovingthetiltingrods,whichcausedtheamountof
naturaldaylighttopassandtheairflowthroughtheopeningsofthesemi‐open
mashrabiyaslats.Asforthecourtyardairvelocity,readingsmaybewereinfluencedby
severalfactorssuchastheanemometersposition,proximitytogroundlevel,andsome
surroundingobstacles.
Thetabledisplaystherangesofindoorandoutdoorairvelocitythatarevaryingfrom
0to8.1m/sincourtyard,0to6.9m/sinRoom1,and0to1.1m/sinRoom2.Accordingto
thetable,thehighestfrequencyvalueofairvelocitywasinRoom1withspeed2m/s
(18.27%),courtyard0.5m/s(28.9%)andinRoom2by0m/s(90.44%).Ingeneral,theair
velocityratesthroughthemashrabiyaofRoom1wasgreaterthancourtyardandRoom2

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duetotheopeningthemashrabiya,whichadmittedmoreairflowwithoutbeingaffected
byobstaclesasinthecourtyardorwhenbeenclosedasthemashrabiyaofRoom2.
Table6.Frequencyofindoorandoutdoorairvelocitymeasurements.

5.2.3.StatisticalAnalysisofIndoorandOutdoorMeasurements
Table7presentsabriefofstatisticalcomparisonsbetweentheairvelocity(Av)and
airtemperature(Ta)for;theopenmashrabiyainR1,theclosedmashrabiyainR2,and
courtyard.Datesincludedinthistablewereonlyrestrictedtodaysthatcoveredthesame
periodformonitoringbothairtemperatureandvelocity.Themeasurementtimesofeach
daycoveredtheperiodfromnoonto3:30p.m.ThemaximumairvelocityvaluesoftheR1
rangefrom4.50to6.90m/s,courtyardfrom1.60to5.20m/s,andR2from0to1.10m/s.
Thisindicatesthattheroomwithopenmashrabiyahashigherairvelocitythanthecourt‐
yard whichisthebenchmarkandtheroomwithclosedmashrabiya.Theloweststandard
deviationvalueswerecalculatedinR2andthehighestinR1,whichmeanthatthereis
inconsistencyinR1inairvelocitycomparedtoR2andthecourtyard.Thismaybedueto
thelowairvelocityinR2andthecourtyard,whichequivalenttozerosomeperiods.
ThemaximumRoom1airtemperaturerangesfrom36.1to39.3°C,R2from40to43.4°C,
andthecourtyardfrom43.2to48.3°C.Theaverageairtemperaturemeasurementsofthe
R1rangefrom33.8to37°C,R2from37to40.9°C,andcourtyardfrom37to41.8°C.The
lowestvalueofminimumairtemperaturewasmonitoredinR132.7°C.Fromthis;itcan
elicitthatthehigherairvelocitycanimprovetheairtemperature.Forexample,thelowest
standarddeviationvalueshavebeencalculatedinR1andthehighestinthecourtyard.
TheloweststandarddeviationvalueshavebeencalculatedinR1andthehighestinthe
courtyard.ThismeansR1havemoreconsistencyinairtemperatureandlowestinthe
fluctuations.However,theroomwithopenmashrabiyashowsbetterairvelocityandair
temperaturethanthecourtyardandRoom2.

 Courtyard  Room1  Room2
 BinFreq%  BinFreq%  BinFreq%
 024.65  01.32  090.44
 0.528.90  0.57.64  0.11.97
 125.76  115.69  0.22.02
 1.512.15  1.517.56  0.31.92
 24.35  218.27  0.41.27
 2.51.77  2.514.37  0.50.81
 30.66  39.41  0.60.76
 3.50.46  3.56.98  0.70.30
 40.40  44.71  0.80.25
 4.50.20  4.52.28  0.90.15
 50.05  50.96  10.05
 5.50.20  5.50.35 Max 1.10.0504‐Aug‐18
 60.10  60.30    2:53
p
m
 6.50.10  6.50.10    
 70.05 Max 6.90.0511‐Au
g
‐18   
 7.50.05   1:07pm   
 80.10        
Max 8.10.0512‐Au
g
‐18
       
  3:12am       

Energies2021,14,53024of34
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Table7.Statisticalcomparisonsbetweenindoorandoutdoorairvelocityandtemperature.
SpaceDateAirVelocity(m/s)AirTemperature(°C)
MAXAVGMINS.D.MAXAVGMINS.D.
Room1
04‐Aug‐185.202.370.300.9739.337.0351.0
05‐Aug‐184.502.030.000.8938.137.035.80.5
11‐Aug‐186.901.710.001.1438.435.433.10.8
18‐Aug‐186.402.630.101.1336.634.132.70.7
26‐Aug‐185.302.080.200.7636.134.633.10.6
01‐Sep‐184.802.170.001.0336.734.833.10.8
Room2
04‐Aug‐181.100.270.000.2641.839.336.91.6
05‐Aug‐180.100.000.000.0143.440.938.41.1
11‐Aug‐180.000.000.000.0041.638.135.81.7
18‐Aug‐180.200.010.000.0340.237.034.61.5
26‐Aug‐180.000.000.000.004037.535.01.3
01‐Sep‐180.700.060.000.124037.836.31.0
Courtyard
04‐Aug‐182.800.780.000.6348.341.836.82.2
05‐Aug‐183.200.710.000.584640.737.71.4
11‐Aug‐183.700.450.000.5043.237.034.31.6
18‐Aug‐183.400.800.000.6346.438.934.92.4
26‐Aug‐181.600.510.000.3846.139.635.91.8
01‐Sep‐185.201.020.001.064538.433.42.5
Table8presentstheairtemperature(Ta)andairvelocity(Av)correlationcoefficient
forRoom1andthecourtyardofspecificdatesduringthesameperiod,from12p.m.to
3:30p.m.ItcanbenoticedfromthetablethattherelationshipsbetweenthevariablesAv
andTainbothspacesarenegativecorrelation.InRoom1,thecorrelationcoefficient
rangesfrom−0.19to−0.54,whichcanbeevaluatedasweaktomoderatecorrelation.In
comparison,thecorrelationcoefficientinthecourtyardrangesfrom−0.10to−0.68,which
canbeevaluatedasweaktostrongcorrelation.Itmaybeconcludedfromthistablethat
asairvelocityincreases,theindoorairtemperaturemaydecrease.
Table8.TheairtemperatureandvelocitycorrelationcoefficientforRoom1andthecourtyard.
4Aug5Aug11Aug18Aug26Aug1Sep
Room1−0.19−0.45−0.5−0.05−0.19−0.54
Courtyard−0.59−0.68−0.62−0.69−0.1−0.67
Table9providesastatisticalsummaryofindoorandoutdooraveragesandrangesof
airtemperature,relativehumidity,airvelocity,andtheindoorglobetemperatures.The
range(RNG)valuesinthetablerefertothedifferencebetweenthemaximumandmini‐
mumreadingsofeachspaceforaday.Thetableonlydisplaysthedayswhenallthermal
measurementsweretakenforallobservedspaces.Itshouldbenotedthatglobetempera‐
ture(Tg)readingsinR2on4&5AugustwerenotlistedduetoanissueintheinsertedSD
cardmemory.
Thehighestaverageoftheoutdoortemperaturewasrecorded41.7°Con4August
witharangeof19.6degreesascanbeobservedfromthetable.Itisworthnotingthatsome
ofthereadingsmayhavebeenaffectedsomewhatbecausethedataloggerwasnotshaded
properlyduringsomeperiodsoftheday.However,theoutdoortemperaturerangefor4
Augustwasreflectedontheindoorvaluesasbothroomsrecordedthehighestaverage
andrangeonthesameday.Ontheaveragesofindoorairtemperature,Room1waslower
by0.5thanRoom2.
Theaverageglobetemperaturevalues(Tg)forbothroomswereclosetotheaverage
airtemperature,indicatingtheabsenceorlowthermalradiation.Furthermore,thevaria‐
tionsbetweenindoorairtemperatureandglobetemperaturemeasurementshavenotex‐
ceededtwodegrees.

Energies2021,14,53025of34
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Thehighestrangeofrelativehumiditywas45%inthecourtyardon12August,while
thehighestaveragerelativehumiditywasrecordedonthelastdayoftheexperimentby
63.2%inRoom1,61.5%inRoom2,and60.1%inthecourtyard.Despitethehigherrelative
humidityrangesinthecourtyard,theroomsonaverageswerewetterthanthecourtyard,
whichisbeneficialforthermalcomfort.Thisbehaviourwasattributedtothebuildingen‐
velopethatreducedtemperaturefluctuations,thusleadingtomoremoisturestabilityin‐
sidethebuilding.
ThehighestaveragesandrangesforairvelocityweremostlyrecordedinRoom1due
totheopenmashrabiyafacingairdirectlywithoutbeingaffectedbyobstaclesorclosure.
Table9.Summaryofthermalconditionsduringdifferentdaysoftheexperiment.
DateDESCT(°C)GlobeTemperature(°C)RH(%)Av(m/s)
R1R2OutR1R2R1R2OutR1R2Out
4AUGAVG 36.836.741.737.0n/a39.938.133.62.40.30.8
RNG3.83.919.63.9n/a27.713.829.14.91.12.8
5AUGAVG36.136.437.636.8n/a48.246.947.12.000.7
RNG2.3311.32.9n/a23.117.529.34.50.13.2
11AUGAVG35.536.037.135.035.953.649.449.51.700.4
RNG2.82.610.33.63.231.328.3376.903.7
12AUGAVG35.135.736.734.935.759.055.356.80.800.9
RNG2.9312.23.43.223.919.6452.708.1
18AUGAVG34.535.035.534.435.557.053.954.92.600.8
RNG3.23.314.67.32.234.730.937.46.30.23.4
26AUGAVG34.134.535.134.735.362.459.161.72.100.5
RNG2.62.69.71.71.628.328.835.15.101.6
1SEPAVG34.334.335.835.035.463.261.560.12.20.11.0
RNG3.42.89.41.21.616.29.425.54.80.75.2
Surfacetemperaturevaluesweremeasuredfortheopenmashrabiyaandclosed
mashrabiyafrominsideandoutside,andthecourtyard,asshowninthenexttables.All
averagesofmeasuringpointsatvariouspositions,daysandtimesaredisplayedinTables
10–12.Thepointsrepresenttheaveragesofmeasurementareasfortheopenmashrabiya
(Mash1),closedmashrabiya(Mash2)andwallsbesideeachmashrabiyafrominsideand
outside(Figures18and19).
Themeasurementsweremonitoredon4Augustatabout1:00,2:00,3:00p.m.alsoat
noonon5,11,18,26Augustand1Septemberwhilemonitoredatabout6:00p.m.on13
August2018.Asshownintables,surfacetemperaturemeasurementsincreasedandreach
thehighestvalues,usuallyat3p.m.whiletheentirefacadewasexposedtodirectsunlight.

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Table10.SurfacetemperaturemeasurementsofRoom1,Room2,andthecourtyardon4and5August2018.
 4August5August


Time1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.12:00p.m.1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.
AboveMash1AM138.038.939.838.238.238.138.6
MiddleMash1BM138.139.240.239.238.438.839.8
BottomMash1CM137.337.538.837.837.738.038.4
RightWallMash1WAM136.936.738.338.437.737.337.9
LeftWallMash1WBM136.736.738.138.337.837.237.7
AboveMash2AM239.039.441.042.041.040.641.5
MiddleMash2BM240.041.544.043.041.542.043.8
BottomMash2CM237.039.045.842.040.540.241.2
RightWallMash2WRM2 

LeftWallMash2WLM2 

OutRightWall
Mash1
OWR
M1   

OutLeftWallMash1OWL
M1      
OAboveMash1AO47.049.051.049.047.049.553.0
OMiddleMash1BO49.050.055.047.049.047.050.0
OBottomMash1CO43.043.045.046.047.049.049.0
OBelowMash1WO  43.042.044.044.045.0

Figure18.Interiormeasurementzonesonthemashrabiyaandabbreviatednames.

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
Figure19.MeasurementzonesandabbreviatedontheMash1fromoutside.
Table11.SurfacetemperaturesofRoom1,Room2,andthecourtyardon11,13and18August2018.
11August13August18August

Time12:00p.m.1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.6:00p.m.12:00p.m.1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.
AM136.536.135.435.936.935.035.135.236.3
BM136.435.935.736.535.934.435.136.337.1
CM133.736.637.136.237.235.435.535.736.0
WAM136.536.036.435.236.035.535.435.635.6
WBM136.536.236.535.236.035.635.535.635.6
AM238.037.341.341.435.936.036.039.040.4
BM238.437.540.843.440.036.036.340.042.0
CM237.737.140.540.839.235.835.838.439.3
WRM2
40.039.238.036.235.937.838.0
WLM2
40.039.238.036.135.837.737.9
OWRM138.7539.943.7544.3537.6538.6539.741.9544
OWLM139.439.354344.2537.638.539.841.9543.8
AO42.043.049.052.041.039.546.049.057.0
BO40.043.546.550.038.040.847.047.050.0
CO38.041.044.046.040.041.044.043.052.0
WO37.039.942.543.038.039.041.041.042.0


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Table12.SurfacetemperaturesofRoom1,Room2,andthecourtyardon26Augustand1September2018.
26August1September
Time12:00p.m.1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.12:00p.m.1:00p.m.2:00p.m.3:00p.m.
AM134.835.936.436.036.735.734.735.8
BM134.736.436.737.337.636.035.937.5
CM135.135.736.135.536.135.235.436.3
WAM135.335.435.735.135.934.835.636.1
WBM135.235.535.835.136.034.935.336.1
AM235.536.337.339.237.236.939.940.5
BM236.037.039.741.037.937.540.842.8
CM235.436.137.138.536.736.539.039.7
WRM235.835.836.237.236.335.738.638.3
WLM235.535.736.337.136.235.838.638.1
OWRM139.539.5414240.240.74242.5
OWLM139.539.34141.840.64141.741.5
AO42.743.549.052.043.945.549.851.0
BO41.042.044.050.042.043.847.048.0
CO40.045.049.053.043.046.048.552.0
WO39.039.539.341.038.539.041.040.7
Moreover,Figure20showstheinsideandoutsideaveragesurfacetemperatureinthe
middleareaoftheopenmashrabiyaandadjacentsidewallsduringdifferentdays.Itis
importanttoclarifythatwesternfacade,whichincludestheexteriorframesofthetested
mashrabiyas,isnotexposedtodirectsunlightduringthemeasurementtimesuntilabout
12.30p.m.55°Cthemaximumvaluewasrecordedontheexternalsurfaceoftheopen
mashrabiyaat3:00p.m.on4Augustwhiletheminimumwas34.3°Contheinternalsur‐
faceofmashrabiyaatnoonon18August.Itcanbenoticedthatsurfacetemperaturesof
theexteriorwallaroundtheopenmashrabiyaabsorbedlessheatthantheexteriorsurface
ofthemashrabiyaindicatingthebenefitofthepropertiesandcolouroftheplaster.Alt‐
houghtheoutsidewallsurfacetemperaturewasbetween37°Cto45°C,theheatgaininto
theroomsreducedbythebuilding’sthermalmass,wherethetemperaturesrangefrom
34.8to38.4°Contheinternalsurfaceofthewall.FromFigure20,itcanbenoticedthat
outsidesurfacetemperatureofthewallandthemashrabiyas’externalsurfacebecome
equalduringthesunsetwithatemperaturearound38°C.

Figure20.Thesurfacetemperaturesoftheopenmashrabiyaandwallsurfaceinsideandoutside.


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5.3.ThermalComfortAssessment
Aspartofthestudyoftheperformanceofthemashrabiya,itwasimportanttoassess
theimpactofthemashrabiyaontheindoorthermalcomfort.Multiplemethodsandequa‐
tionscanbeusedtocalculatethetemperatureofindoorcomfort.AlthoughASHRAE55
isconsideredasamasterguide,theoutdoortemperatureaveragesoflessthan10°Cor
higherthan33.5°Carenottakenintoaccount.Astheaverageoutdoortemperatureofthis
buildingwasabovethisrange,anothermethodwasusedtoevaluatethecomforttemper‐
atureforpassivebuildingswiththeequationofNicolandHumphreys[62]forestimate
comforttemperatureinfree‐runningbuildingsasdescribedbelow:
𝑇𝑐=13.5+0.54𝑇𝑜
whereTcisthecomforttemperature,andToisthemonthlyoutdoorairtemperatureaver‐
age.Thisstudyconsideredtheaverageoutdoortemperaturemeasuredduringtheexperi‐
mentonly,whichwas36.2°C.Therefore,thecomforttemperatureforthiscaseis33°C,
dependingontheequation.ItisworthpointingoutthatPakistaniparticipantsfeltcom‐
fortableatindoortemperaturesaround33°CintheNicolandHumphreyfieldstudy.The
paperalsostatedthatduringthetests,theworkerschangedtheirclothingandusedfans
ofairmovement.
Figure21showstherooms’levelofcomfortbasedonthecalculatedcomforttemper‐
aturesandtotalmeasurementsforbothrooms.Eachbarrepresentsmeasurementsofthe
completeroomtemperatureforeachdayandtherequireddegreetoachievecomfort.The
left‐axis0valueinthegraphisequivalenttothecalculatedcomforttemperatureof33°C,
meansthevaluesequalorabove0consideredwithinthecomfortzonewhilethevalues
below0havenotachievedthis.
ItisclearfromthechartthatthetemperaturesinsidetheR1typicallywerecloserto
thelevelofcomfortandbetterthanR2by0.3degreesonaverage.Inanycase,thedecrease
inoutdoortemperaturestobelow33°C,contributedtoimprovingtheindoortempera‐
turesandreachingthemoderatetemperatureinsomeoftheexperimentdays.

Figure21.Roomstemperaturesascomparedtocomforttemperatureovertheexperimentdays.
AsshowninFigure22,whentheoutdoorairtemperatureinCourtyardwasbelow
32°C,bothroomsachievedcomfortbetween4and8:30a.m.on29August.Overall,the
roomswereabletoachievecomfortbetween3and7a.m.duringexperimentdayswith
theeffectofnightventilationandtheloweroutdoortemperatures.Itisimportanttonote
thattheexperimentwasconductedintheworstclimatesituations,whereAugustrepre‐
sentsthehighesttemperatureaverageoftheyear.Consequently,theeffectofopeningup

Energies2021,14,53030of34

themashrabiyaorapplyingotherpassivecoolingmethodswilloftenprovidebetterim‐
pactsinthemildseasons.

Figure22.Thehourlyoutdoortemperatureandroomtemperatureprofilesof29Augustcomparedtothecomfortlevel.
6.ConclusionsandFutureWorks
Thispaperreviewedthemashrabiyathroughseveralaspects:definitions,history,de‐
signandstructure,typology,andfunctionsfocusingonrelatedresearchworkanddevel‐
opmentsinhotclimates.Inaselectedbuildinginahotclimate,theimpactoftraditional
mashrabiyasonthethermalindoorenvironmentwasevaluated.Asreviewed,moststud‐
iestendtofocusoneitherthehistoryordevelopmentofmashrabiyaswithouttestingor
consideringtheiractualperformanceandinfluenceontheindoorthermalenvironment.
AcasestudywasselectedinthemostplentifulregionwithmashrabiyasinSaudi
Arabia“HistoricJeddah”toinvestigateandevaluatetheefficiencyofmashrabiyasonthe
indoorenvironmentandcomfort.Thestudydemonstratedthatopenmashrabiyasallow
daytimeairflow,andthusenhanceairmovementandcirculationintheroomandreduce
theindoortemperaturebyupto2.4°Cincomparisonwiththeclosedmashrabiya.The
evaluationoftheindoorthermalcomfortdemonstratedthatRoom1typicallywerecloser
tothetemperaturecomfort33°CandbetterthanRoom2by0.3degreesonaverage.The
openmashrabiyahadpositiveeffectsonRoom1,butduringsuchthiswarmoutdoor
weather,addingsomepassivecoolingmethodswerebeingneeded.Thebuildingenve‐
lopeplayedanimportantroleindelayingtheheatflowintotheroomsandmaintaining
thelowfluctuatingindoorairtemperaturerangingfrom2.1°Cto4.2°Ccomparedtothe
highfluctuatingtemperaturesoftheairoutdoorrangingfrom9.4°Cto16°C.
Itisalsonoteworthythatthisfieldworkhassomelimitations.Thestudyassessed
thermalcomfortbasedonlyontheenvironmentalfactorswithoutcoveringthepersonal
factors.Thatwasbecausenoinhabitantswereinthehouseduringthetests,andthediffi‐
cultyinvolvingpeopleinthistypeofexperimentundersuchclimaticandspatialcondi‐
tions.Thepresentedresultoftheindoorairvelocitywasmeasuredataspecificpointat
eachmashrabiya,andfutureworkwillbeinvestigatingmoremeasurementpointsinside
therooms.Fortheoutdoorairvelocity,readingsmaybeinfluencedbyseveralfactorssuch
asthepositionoftheanemometer,itselevationfromthegroundlevel,andsomesur‐
roundingobstacles.
Thisstudyprovidesareviewofexistingstudiesonthetraditionalmashrabiyadevice
andprovidesdataonitsperformanceinhotclimates.Moreover,thisknowledgecanbe
appliedtomodernbuildingsbycombiningthemashrabiyaconceptwithnewsolutionsor

Energies2021,14,53031of34

improvingitsdesignaccordingtotheusers’needsandmodernbuildingsystemsinhot
climates.Additionally,itcanbemoreeffectivetousethismethodintemperateclimates
andcanleadtomorethermalcomfortperiods.Furthermore,morestudiesandtestson
mashrabiyasunderdifferentclimaticconditionsarerequired.Inaddition,thedifferent
strategiesormaterialscanbeincorporatedwithmashrabiyaswiththeaimofimproving
theirthermalperformance.
AuthorContributions:Conceptualization,A.A.B.;methodology,A.A.B.andJ.K.C.;software,
A.A.B.;validation,A.A.B.andJ.K.C.;formalanalysis,A.A.B.andJ.K.C.;investigation,A.A.B.;data
curation,A.A.B.;writing—originaldraftpreparation,A.A.B.;writing—reviewandediting,A.A.B.,
J.K.C.andA.S.K.;visualization,A.A.B.andJ.K.C.;supervision,J.K.C.;fundingacquisition,A.S.K.
Allauthorshavereadandagreedtothepublishedversionofthemanuscript.
Funding:ThisresearchwasfundedbyDeanshipofScientificResearchandPrinceKhalidAl‐Faisal
ChairforDevelopingMakkahAl‐MukarramahandtheHolyPlacesatUmmAl‐QuraUniversity
grantnumber[DSRUQU.PKC‐42‐6].
InstitutionalReviewBoardStatement:Notapplicable.
InformedConsentStatement:Notapplicable.
DataAvailabilityStatement:Thedatapresentedinthisstudyareavailableonrequestfromthe
correspondingauthor.
Acknowledgments:TheauthorswouldliketothankDeanshipofScientificResearchandPrince
KhalidAl‐FaisalChairforDevelopingMakkahAl‐MukarramahandtheHolyPlacesatUmmAl‐
QuraUniversityforthefinancialsupport.TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgetoMahaOboud
Baeshen,asoneoftheBaeshenhouserepresentatives,forallowingustoconductthefieldexperi‐
mentinthebuilding.WearealsogratefultoHananAlKhatriforassistanceandsupportwiththe
equipment.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarethatthereisnoconflictofinterest.
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