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| Working Paper 1/2021
The Role of Gamification in Radicalization Processes
Linda Schlegel, Associate Research Fellow
1
| Intro
The livestreaming of attacks, the use of
Call of Duty
footage in propaganda videos, the modification of
popular video games to support extremist worldviews, and the development of games and playful apps
by extremist organizations have all contributed to an increasing focus on the so -called ‘gamification of
terror’.
2
Since the livestreamed attack in Christchurch and the realization that subsequent perpetrators
in Pittsburgh, El Paso and Halle not only copied the mode and style of attack but were embedded in
and sought to appeal to similar online communities, in which gamified language and references to
gaming were part of the subcultural practice, journalists, academics, and practitioners have begun to
analyze the role games and gamified applications may play in radicalization processes.
Understandably, as the Christchurch shooting has taken place less than two years ago, the analysis into
the potential role of gamification in radicalization processes has only just begun and much confusion
persists on both terminology and the exact mechanisms by which gamification may influence extremist
thought and action. The fact that gamification itself is a fairly new concept, which has only been seriously
researched for around ten years, complicates matters further. A large part of this report is therefore
dedicated to organizing the current state of knowledge and to provide readers with a baseline of
knowledge on gamification in extremist contexts. After a discussion on gamification as such and how it
may or may not be differentiated from other gaming appeals, an overview of the current evidence of
gamified radicalization processes is provided. Then, research findings on the psychological mechanisms
of gamification are applied to the issue of radicalization. Lastly, the report flashlights some preliminary
possibilities of applying gamification to preventing and/or countering extremism (P/CVE). Readers must
be aware that this final part of the report lacks robust empirical grounding and is not meant to be taken
1
Linda Schlegel is a PhD student at the Goethe University in Fra nkfurt, researching digital counter-narratives. She holds an MA in Terrorism, Security and Society
from King’s College London and is an associate fellow at modus | zad, the Global Network on Extremism and Technology (GNET) and the Peac e Research Institute
Frankfurt (PRIF). Prior to beginning her PhD, she was a Senior Editor at The Counterterrorism Group and the desk officer for counter- terrorism at the Konrad
Adenauer Foundation.
2
Mackintosh & Mezzofiore (2019) “How the extreme righ t gamified terror”
2
as evidence of what should or should not be done. Rather, it is meant as an invitation to explore and
discuss the implications of gamification for P/CVE.
| What is gamification?
The term gamification refers to the “use of game design elements within non-game contexts”.
3
It entails
the transfer of game elements such as points, leaderboards, badges, or avatars into contexts not
traditionally regarded as spaces of play with the aim of facilitating behavioral change in users.
4
The
behavior change encouraged by the gamified application is referred to as ‘desired action’. For example,
competing against one’s friends on a fitness app to lead the scoreboard and to collect achievement
badges or trophies often encourages users to increase the number of desired actions and work out more
often or with higher intensity to collect more points.
5
The desired action could be anything encouraged
by the gamified application, from clicking on links to buying products to eating healthy, inviting friends
to play an online game or spend hours collecting points, badges and increase one’s virtual ranking.
Because humans are naturally drawn to play and an increasing number of individuals engage in gaming
activities way into adulthood, gamified applications are perceived by many as appealing, engaging and
fun. Gamification is, in essence, a psychological tool to increase users’ motivation to become and stay
engaged.
6
While the concept of gamification was originally developed in the commercial sector to
increase sales and user engagement – used, among others, by Amazon, eBay, Deloitte, Google and
Facebook
7
– it is now increasingly applied in non-commercial settings such as education, health, work,
sustainability, the military, and the public sector.
8
While theoretically applicable to the offline world,
much of the literature on gamification focuses on digitally-mediated context, in which users engage with
an electronic device either throughout the whole experience or at least partially as in the case of the
fitness app motivating offline workouts.
To be sure, gamification is not a magic bullet that automatically increases user engagement and has
drawn its fair share of criticism.
9
Simply putting a leaderboard up and awarding some points to
employees, students or users is unlikely to be enough to facilitate sustained engagement and does not
automatically create a fun environment users like to participate in. There are plenty of expensive, well-
designed applications with amazing graphics that include all kinds of gaming elements a user might
want, which fail to generate the users’ motivation to engage.
10
Individuals differ in their preferences of
different gamified elements
11
and gamified elements that sparked the users’ interest may not be the
3
Deterding et al (2011) “From game design elements to gamefuln ess”, p.1
4
Robson et al, (2015) “Is it all a game?”
5
Hamari & Koivisto (2015) “Working out for likes”
6
Sailer et al (2017) “How gamification motivates”
7
Chou (2015) Actionable Gamification
8
Blohm & Leimeister (2013) “Gamification”; van Roy & Zaman (201 9) “Unravelling the ambivalent motivational power”; Robson et a l (2016) “Game on”; Gonzalez et
al (2016) “Learning healthy lifestyles”
9
Fleming (2014) “Gamification: Is it game over?”; Bogost (201 4) “Why gamification is bullshit”
10
Chou (2015) Actionable Gamification
11
Bartle (1996) “Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades”; Marcze wski (2015) “User types HEXAD”
3
same as the elements that sustain the users’ engagement over time. In addition, demographic factors
such as age partially mediate the motivational effect of gamification
12
, i.e. generally, the younger the
user the easier one can create motivation with simple gamified elements. Culture and values too may
influence the effects of various gamified elements on a given user.
13
Notwithstanding these caveats,
considering that 2.4 billion people
14
, 1/3 of the world’s population, play electronic games (albeit with
varying degrees of frequency and seriousness), well-designed gamified applications are likely to
resonate with a large number of digitally-savvy media users.
When applying gamification to radicalization processes, conceptual confusion arises. The term
gamification has been used to describe a variety of phenomena, from the creation of videogames by
extremist organizations, to the use of actual video game sequences in propaganda videos, the
production of video footage with HD-helmet cameras to mimic the visual style of first-person shooter
games or the alleged use of gaming to prepare for an attack, to gamified language in online forums and
apps such as
Patriot Peer
. The prominence of gaming in extremist subcultures partially mirrors broader
societal processes. Some argue that we live in an increasingly “gameful world”
15
even a “ludic century”
16
(from the Latin ludere = to play) characterized by the blending of work and play in both the private and
the public sphere and the ludification of culture as a whole. While gamification is certainly on the rise
in all areas of life and likely to be increasingly integrated in normal life, it makes little sense at such an
early stage of research on the gamification of radicalization to refer to everything containing even a
remote reference to gaming as ‘gamification’. If we want to uncover the psychological mechanisms by
which gamification might influence radicalization processes, we need to understand what exactly the
phenomenon entails.
For this report,
only the application of gaming elements in non-gaming contexts
, as described above,
will be discussed. Actual videogames developed by extremists such as the newly released
Heimat
Defender: Rebellion
17
are better categorized as the radicalization of gaming rather than the gamification
of radicalization. Similarly, the use of footage from games in propaganda videos, mimicking the style of
video games with helmet cameras
18
and the modification of existing games for ideological purposes,
such as Stormfronts modification of
Doom 2
to enable users to ‘play’ genocide
19
or gamers re-playing
their own version of the Christchurch massacre in
The Sims
20
, are purposefully excluded while
acknowledging the fuzziness of the boundaries between gaming, gamification and references to games
as part of popular culture. Similarly, while worrying in its own right, the mere presence of extremists on
12
Koivisto & Hamari (2014) “Demographic differences in p erceived benefits from gamification”
13
Khaled (2014) “Gamification and Culture”
14
Cyber Athletiks (n.d.) “How many gamers are there in the world ?”
15
Walz & Deterding (2014) The Gameful World
16
Zimmerman (2014) “Manifesto for a ludic century”
17
Schlegel (2020) “No Child’s Play”
18
Scaife (2017) Social Networks as the New Frontier of Terrorism
19
Ebner (2019) Radikalisierungsmaschinen
20
Stevens (2019) “Twisted gamers create first-perso n shooter video games”
4
gaming servers such as
Discord
21
and the utilization of such platforms to communicate is not regarded
as gamification for this report.
| Evidence for Gamification of Radicalization
While video games have been part of the extremist repertoire for quite some time
22
, gamification has
been added to the ‘toolbox’ of extremist organizations and subcultures fairly recently. Public attention
has only turned towards gamified elements of radicalization and recruitment efforts in the last two years.
Therefore, the evidence available must be regarded as limited, incomplete, and anecdotal. The evidence
that has been uncovered so far may be grouped in two broad categories, namely top-down and bottom-
up gamification. Top-down gamification refers to the strategic use of gamified elements by extremist
organizations to facilitate engagement with their content, whereas bottom-up gamification emerges
organically in (online) communities or small groups of individuals radicalizing together.
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Top-down gamification
Bottom-up gamification
Who
Extremist groups, recruiters,
strategists
Individuals, small groups of
friends, online communities
What
Strategic use of rankings,
badges, points, leaderboards
Livestreaming, gamified
language, virtual scoreboards,
personal ‘quests’
Why
Facilitate engagement with
content and peers, visibility of
commitment, motivate users to
participate, appeal to young
audience
Appeal to online
community/subcultural milieu,
look cool, make sense of reality
via gaming content
Examples
Rankings, badges etc in forums;
apps such as Patriot Peer
Attacks in Christchurch and
Halle; small-group WhatsApp
radicalization; discussions on
social media e.g. desire to “beat
his score”24
21
Ebner (2020) “Dark ops: Isis, the far-right and the gamification of terror”
22
Lakomy (2019) “Let’s play a video game”; Dauber et al (201 9) “Call of Duty: Jihad”
23
For a full discussion see Schlegel (2020) “Jumanji extrem ism?”
24
Evans (2019) “The El Paso shooting and the gamification of ter ror”
5
Top-down gamification
The beginnings of top-down gamification can be traced to the forums hosted on extremist websites
since the early 2000s. Many forums included visible measures of commitment, such as different ranks
or levels users could obtain for posting comments, reputation meters awarding recognition to those
posting ‘interesting’ content and answering peer questions, and virtual badges for reaching certain
milestones of engagement such as a certain number of comments or years as an active member.
Members were also rewarded for their continuous commitment by earning the right to personalize their
avatars and signatures or by being invited into certain ‘secret’ groups only a selected elite demonstrating
outstanding commitment to the forum could access. One forum even included a ‘radicalization meter’
as a visualization of one’s progress toward extremism.
25
While the importance of forums may have
decreased with the rise of extremist activity on social media, gaming elements such as ranks have been
transferred into other virtual settings. Ebner reports, for instance, that the far-right Reconquista
Germanica group on
Discord
implemented a military-style ranking and badge system, creating a clear
hierarchy and a way to overtly display status differences between users.
26
In the section on “Mechanisms
of Influence” (p. 7), the motivational drivers of such status elements are explored in more detail.
As mainstream social media platforms became increasingly hostile environments to extremist groups
due to account removals, content take-down and other repressive measures, some are migrating to
fringe platforms such as
Gab
or develop their own communication and networking tools. Potentially the
most prominent example of such top-down gamification in alternative settings is the app
Patriot Peer
,
which was planned by the Identitarian Movement (Identitäre Bewegung; IB). Ultimately, the app was
never launched, but it nevertheless provides a useful case study illustrating that extremist organizations
are aware of the potential of gamified elements and make strategic use of gamification in the
development of new ‘tools’.
Patriot Peer
was envisioned not a fully-fledged game, but a communication
and networking tool with gamified elements featuring prominently for its users, which would “turn
resistance into a game”.
27
The plan was that users would collect points by acquiring virtual connections
to other ‘patriotic individuals’ near them – to be found with a
Pokémon-Go
-like “Patriot Radar”
28
- ,
visiting designated cultural places and uploading pictures for their network to see, taking part in protests
or visiting IB events and then compare themselves to others on a virtual leaderboard.
29
Bottom-up gamification
Incidences of bottom-up gamification may be grouped into three broad categories: gamification driven
by perpetrators of attacks, gamification within online communities, and gamification in radicalization
processes of individuals and small groups.
25
Hsu (2011) “Terrorists use online games to recruit future jihadi s”
26
Ebner (2019) Radikalisierungsmaschinen
27
Brust (2018) “ Rechtsextreme Scheinspielereien“
28
Prinz (2017) “‘Patriot Peer‘ als Mischung zwischen Tinder und Pokemon Go“
29
Schlegel (2020) “Jumanji extremism?”
6
The gamification initiated by perpetrators of attacks is the most well-known aspect of bottom-up
gamification. Norwegian right-wing perpetrator Anders Breivik was the first who allegedly gamified his
attack. He reported that he trained for his attack with
Call of Duty
and imagined himself as his avatar,
effectively gamifying the experience for himself.
30
Gamification also became evident in his manifesto.
He ‘played’ the leader of a secret underground organization, the Knights Templar, and pretended to be
part of an alternative reality.
31
In 2012, a year after Breivik’s attack, the next step in the gamification
of attacks was taken by an extremist perpetrator in Toulouse, who videotaped his killings with a GoPro
camera strapped to his chest and posted the footage online.
32
His viewers and supporters had a ‘front
row’ seat in the violence by watching the video, gamifying not only his experience but the experience
of his viewers. The video’s setup mimicked the visual style of Let’s Play videos of popular first-person
shooter games. Let’s Play videos, which allow users to observe someone else playing a video game, are
extremely popular in the gaming community: In April 2018, users spend 128 million hours on
Twitch
watching others play the popular game
Fortnite
.
33
However, the viewers of the Toulouse video were
watching and engaging with the content only in retrospect, long after the events shown had taken
place. The current generation of gamifying perpetrators, from Christchurch to El Paso and Halle, is
especially well-known for livestreaming their attacks, although not every perpetrator will necessarily
attempt the livestreaming.
34
It does not get more ‘front row’ than watching a livestream of an attack
mirroring the style of first-person shooter games and commenting on the perpetrator’s actions in real
time, much like a livestreamed Let’s Play video. Livestreams, therefore, gamify both the attacker’s and
the viewers’ experience of the event.
35
The perpetrators, who livestreamed their attacks, were often embedded in far-right online subcultures.
Bottom-up gamification has become increasingly prominent in such online communities, for instance on
Gab
or
8chan
(now 8kun). Certain parts of such digital subcultures are highly supportive of far-right
extremist violence. The Halle attacker, for instance, has been celebrated as a “saint” on far-right
Telegram
channels.
36
Various online communities keep virtual scoreboards that rank the ‘success’ of far-
right perpetrators and some users have expressed the desire to “beat his [the Christchurch attacker]
score” or rated attacker’s ‘body counts’.
37
These are the communities perpetrators livestreaming their
attacks seek to appeal to with gamified language used during their livestreams and from these
communities stems the social recognition perpetrators ‘placing high on the scoreboard’ receive. Gamified
language might seem less important than gamified action, but it sets the stage to understand reality
through a gaming lens and can encourage the gamification of behavior.
30
Pidd (2012) “Anders Breivik 'trained' for shooting attacks by playi ng Call of Duty”
31
Breivik (2011) “2083 – A European declaration of indep endence”
32
Weimann (2012) “Lone wolves in cyberspace”
33
Bowels (2018) “All We Want to Do Is Watch Each Other Play Video Games”
34
Macklin (2019) “The Christchurch attacks: Livestream terror i n the viral video age”
35
Schlegel (2020) „Jumanji extremism?”
36
Owen (2019) “White Nationalists on Telegram Are Hailing the Ger many Synagogue Shooter as a ‘Saint’”
37
Evans (2019) “The El Paso shooting and the gamification of ter ror”
7
The last category includes instances of gamification in private chats and small groups. Here the evidence
base is the most limited. Whereas livestreaming of attacks seeks the highest degree of publicity possible
and online communities on
chan
-boards or
Gab
are often at least partially accessible to researchers for
analysis, individual and small-group gamification is the most difficult to trace. Currently, it cannot be
estimated with any reasonable degree of certainty how prevalent gamification is in such private
communication channels. One of the few cases available - because evidence was preserved in a
WhatsApp
chat protocol - is the gamified radicalization of a group of young men from Rochdale (UK).
38
During the process of jihadist radicalization, they used gaming elements they had encountered in
videogames to make sense of their own reality and gamify their own experience. For instance, they
conducted ‘raids’ against Shia individuals they perceived as ‘sorcerers’. These ‘raids’ included
surveillance of the individuals in question, taking pictures as well as the theft of ‘black magic objects’,
ultimately culminating in physical harm. Raids are a popular element in video games such as
World of
Warcraft
. A group of players, often belonging to the same guild, break into a dungeon together and
defeat an adversary to collect points, increase their levels, and steal valuable assets such as new
weapons or body armor from the dungeon. The young men transferred this game element into reality,
turning their radicalization into an extension of the video games they had played and, importantly,
experienced the same social relatedness driving the action of guilds. Contrary to popular belief, the
appeal of many video games is the community and social connection to others,
39
which too carried over
into the mens’ gamified perception of reality.
| Mechanisms of Influence
Because the mechanisms by which gamification operates are often discussed either in terms of what
motivates individuals to play in general or in terms of initiating and sustaining customer engagement in
the commercial sector, not all mechanisms of influence are immediately applicable to the context of
radicalization. In addition, as already discussed, the evidence base for the gamification of radicalization
is small and may not be easily observable (e.g. in private chats and closed forums). Therefore, while
the mechanisms detailed are grounded in gamification research, they have not been analyzed empirically
in the context of extremism and represent a preliminary framework to understand the gamification of
radicalization. The following discussion of mechanisms of influence gamification might have on
radicalization processes is based on a selective and condensed application of motivational drivers
gamification is believed to facilitate.
40
Five mechanisms of influence are discussed below: Pleasure,
positive reinforcement, empowerment, competition, and social relatedness.
38
McDonald (2018) Radicalization
39
Rapp (2017) “Designing interactive systems though a ga me lens”
40
The mechanisms detailed here are derived from the follo wing theories:
Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Octalysis (Chou, 2015)
Discourses of a gameful world (Deterding, 2014)
8
Pleasure
Humans are naturally drawn to ‘play’, not only as children but way into adulthood, leading some to
speak of humans as
homo ludens
.
41
The most obvious mechanism by which gamification leads to
increased and sustained user engagement is by making engagement more fun. Writing on the influence
of music in extremism, Pieslak writes “when attempting to draw people to radical ideology, do not lead
with the ideology if you can find a more attractive garment in which to dress the message. And music
provides very fashionable clothes.”
42
Gamification too provides very fashionable clothes for the
transmission of ideology, especially for those who have grown up with video and smartphone games.
Gamified elements can lead to the perception that ‘it is just a game’, thereby normalizi ng extremist
content conveyed through these applications and linking the experience of fun with the ideological
substance transmitted. In addition, the perception that ‘it is just a game’ can limit psychological
reactance; that is, the resistance displayed when persuasion attempts are very obvious. Because gaming
elements are not perceived as belonging in the realm of persuasion tools and users are letting their
guard down when having fun, gamification can be a useful tool to influence users subconsciously and
‘by the back door’.
Positive Reinforcement
In contrast to the real world, video games often provide players with instant feedback for their actions,
e.g. by failing a level or winning points for a successful move. Many gamified applications use the power
of feedback loops to nudge users’ behavior in a certain direction.
43
For instance, fitness apps display
feedback on length and intensity of workouts as well as how the workout compares to the user’s
performance the previous week or the previous month. When behaving ‘good’, users are given positive
feedback, creating positive reinforcement and increasing the likelihood that users will continue to
engage in the desired actions. Extremists may benefit from such instant feedback and positive
reinforcement mechanisms. Rather than having to instruct each individual user, users know what is
expected of them and considered ‘good behavior’ by learning how to gain points, badges or level-up in
the context of a gamified application. They can monitor themselves and their own engagement with
and commitment to the extremist group by reviewing how many points they gained or how many ‘quests’
they fulfilled in the previous week or month. Being rewarded for continuous ‘good behavior’ is a strong
motivational incentive to continue this behavior or even increase engagement with the extremist content
displayed on the gamified application.
Empowerment
Gamification can help users feel empowered, autonomous, and competent. A key element of gaming is
choice: A game in which there is only one way to play and one strategy that will lead to victory will
become boring very fast, whereas a game that offers multiple routes to success, affords the player a
41
Huizinga (2016) Homo Ludens
42
Pieslak (2017), “A musicological perspective on jihadi anashid”, p.7 5
43
Deterding (2014) “The ambiguity of games: Histories and discourse s of a gameful world”
9
variety of choices and the chance to be creative within the gaming context, will be engaging for longer
periods of time. Similarly, gamified applications which offer this choice, for example by awarding points
for a variety of different activities and accommodating the different preferences of players, will generate
more sustained engagement as applications that do not afford such choices. Extremists could provide
users with a variety of choices for engagement, for instance by awarding points to users for posting
comments, liking pages, ‘trolling’ under an article of a mainstream news outlet, but also by visiting
designated places, taking part in a protest or designing a flyer. The perception of personal choice,
regardless of how meaningful the choices actually are, increases feelings of autonomy and
empowerment as well as affording users the possibility for creative navigation of the digital world.
Feeling competent, in control and self-confident in the meaningfulness of one’s actions have been
discussed as facilitators of need-driven radicalization processes.
44
Gamification may afford users such
experiences. Users may feel empowered not only by choice but by the perception that their own
competency increases. When overcoming a challenge, successfully mastering a task and being rewarded
for it by points, level-ups or badges, dopamine is released in the brain leading users to feel good about
themselves and their skills.
45
Completing a gamified task increases self-confidence and often leads to
seeking another dopamine rush, i.e. continuing to engage with the gamified application to collect more
points and feel accomplished. Because users feel good about themselves, engagement with the
application and therefore with the extremist content displayed, increases. Ultimately, this feeling of
competency may spill over to the real world. Individuals in the process of radicalization need to possess
a certain degree of self-efficacy; that is, the believe that they are capable to be successful within an
extremist context and that
they
(as opposed to someone else) have an important role to play.
46
Leading
the scoreboard and being successful in the digital world may increase perceptions of self-efficacy
regarding one’s ‘calling’ as an extremist actor and could accelerate radicalization processes.
Competition
Users of gamified applications differ in the degree of competitiveness they exhibit. Individuals scoring
high on competitiveness enjoy collecting points, increasing their ranking, and comparing themselves to
others on a virtual leaderboard. They are motivated to improve their position relative to others and ‘win’
against their peers. For these users, publicly visible badges, a high number of points collected, and a
prominent position on the scoreboard provide a sense of accomplishment. Psychological well-being is
increased, because users feel competent and are proud not only of mastering the challenges the
gamified application presenting themselves with but of their
relative
accomplishments in comparison to
their peers. Gamified elements such as points, badges, rankings and leaderboards provide visible,
quantifiable and clear goals to users; i.e. they know exactly what they need to do and how many points
they need to collect in order to improve their position on the scoreboard. In other words, gamification
44
Möller et al (2016). "Die kann ich nicht ab!"
45
Zicherman, G. (2014) “The Future of Creativity and Innovatio n is Gamification”
46
Schlegel (2019) “Yes I can”
10
provides visible measures of engagement and ‘success’. Users may begin to collect coins by harmless,
low threshold actions such as connecting to other users or liking a Facebook page, but as a competitive
motivation sets in, users may be willing to take more meaningful action to collect more points, which
may draw them deeper into an extremist group. Competition may lead certain users to engage more
thoroughly with extremist content on gamified applications and to take ‘desired actions’ when asked to
do so in an effort to ‘win’ against other users.
An additional mechanism by which gamification can increase a user’s engagement with extremist
content and groups is by affording a route to increase one’s social status within the group. Leading or
placing high on the scoreboard may provide prestige within the group and affords status-seeking
individuals
47
the opportunity to gain recognition. Virtual points may not mean anything in the real world,
but other users of the gamified application are well aware how much effort and commitment needs to
be displayed to collect a large amount of points. Gamification elements such as scoreboards provide
visible and quantifiable indicators of commitment and, therefore, of social status. Competitive users may
rise in the informal hierarchy of the group and increase their relative social position by intense
commitment to the gamified application and its contents.
Social Relatedness
In contrast to highly competitive users, there are users who are not driven by seeking friendly rivalry
but by the wish for cooperation, shared goals, and social connectedness. Research has shown that social
interaction and cooperation are key drivers of successful games with a large and loyal user base such
as
World of Warcraft
, where guilds are more than instrumental tools to defeat enemies, often presenting
spaces of constant interaction about life in general and create lasting friendships.
48
Gamified applications
may include elements that facilitate social interactions - such as awarding points or badges for making
connections, liking and commenting on other people’s achievements or participating in a forum – and
include goals that users can only reach by working together. Aside from strengthening the network
among users, it can keep socially-oriented players engaged and facilitate the emergence of a social
community, which is often crucial for radicalization processes on the group level. Similar to competitive
users benefitting from the visible display of other users’ commitment to ‘work hard’ and ‘win’, gamified
elements also provides socially-oriented users with easy measurements of their peers’ commitment.
Rather than being motivated to ‘beat’ them, users scoring high on social relatedness may take high
rankings of others as evidence of high commitment being the group norm and may be inspired to live
up to the social expectations, thereby increasing their engagement with the gamified content.
Social relatedness is also a key part of what Chou calls “Epic Meaning & Calling”.
49
One of the key
motivational drivers for gaming is the feeling of being engaged in something bigger and more
meaningful than oneself. This often builds on social connections and the feeling of belonging to an
47
Venhaus (2010) “Why youth join Al-Qaeda”
48
Rapp (2017) “Designing interactive systems“
49
Chou (2015) Actionable Gamification, p.65
11
important group. Many games start with an introductory narrative detailing that the world is in danger
and only the player can save the world; a narrative often mirrored in extremist propaganda and by
those on a ‘quest for significance’ seeking to ‘be a hero’.
50
While gamification only incorporates some
elements of video games, providing a larger narrative is often part of the gamification ‘toolbox’ in order
to motivate users to work hard and ‘save the world’. Because humans are storytellers, narratives are
powerful forces to create meaning, inspire action, and help us make sense of the world. The gamification
of extremist narratives through ‘play’ can provide a low threshold entry point into broader ideological
discussions and make use of a potential longing for significance in users by providing a first step to be
part of something meaningful. Seen in this light, providing users with a prologue detailing an epic
narrative and then guiding them to ‘desired actions’ via gamified elements such as points and badges,
could afford the possibility to gamify the entry into radicalization processes.
| The Potential of Gamification in P/CVE
Countering the gamification of radicalization directly is extremely difficult for a variety of reasons. Firstly,
gamification utilizes human psychological drives to increase user motivation. It is a technique that can
be and is used in a variety of contexts unrelated to extremism or politics more generally. Therefore,
while it is likely to be beneficial to educate people on the psychological mechanisms by which
gamification operates to support digital media literacy, users will encounter gamification regardless of
the online communities they belong to and the websites they visit. A prevention of gamification or of
exposure to gamification is unfeasible. Secondly, gamification may take place in semi-private online
spheres such as groups on servers or forums. Attempting to police such spaces short of de-platforming
the groups is impossible. Thirdly, gamification is not dangerous in itself. The video gaming community
has been heavily criticized for the alleged role of video games in school shootings and violent behavior
more generally without conclusive evidence of a causal link between playing a game and acting violently.
P/CVE stakeholders should be cautious not to repeat such destructive discourses with the gaming
community by approaching gamification as ‘a problem to be solved’. Lastly, as noted previously, the
‘ludic century’ and the proliferation of gaming elements throughout our lives has only just begun. Trying
to counter such a change in cultural practice in a variety of contexts is likely to be unfruitful. Gamification
is here to stay and should be navigated rather than fought.
While directly countering the gamification of radicalization is difficult, practitioners may benefit from the
possibilities gamification has to offer for P/CVE measures. As indicated in the introduction, the following
section should be read as an invitation to reflect upon and discuss the potential gamification may or
may not hold for P/CVE or deradicalization measures, not as conclusive suggestions.
50
Kruglanski et al (2019) The Three Pillars of Radicalization; Jasko et al (2016) “Quest for Significance and Violent Extremism”
12
Generating attention
Gamification may be utilized with various goals in mind, but on social media and in digital communication
more generally, it may be especially conductive to generating attention. It is widely known that the
online sphere is an attention economy. There is not just abundance but an oversupply of both
information and entertainment content. While everyone can say something online, not everyone is heard
through all the noise. The first task for digital P/CVE is therefore to generate attention, because only
after users become aware of and click on the content provided can any form of meaningful engagement
take place.
Using gamified elements may be one way to cut through the noise online and generate attention. Before
building sophisticated technological applications that track points and badges for every user or
programming mini games to draw users to channels with P/CVE content, gamification is likely to take a
more rudimentary form. In the initial stages of experimenting with gaming elements to generate
attention for P/CVE content, a lower degree of technical sophistication may suffice. For instance, one
possibility could be to run a caption contest on a platform such as Instagram. Users could comment
with suggested captions and the one with the most likes wins (competition, points, social relation), then
the best 3-5 could be published in a separate post (leaderboard) and the winner could receive a symbolic
reward, such as picking the theme for the next image to be posted, suggesting the music for the next
video in a story or something similar. Activities such as these are a basic option to test gamification
elements and do not require a high degree of programming or design skills. However, activities should
be tailored to the platform they are supposed to be used on. A caption contest may make sense on
Instagram, it may not be suitable for other types of social media platforms.
Learning from video games
To the knowledge of the author, no resources exist detailing how to apply gamified elements in P/CVE
contexts. A useful starting point is, therefore, existing work on the application of games more generally.
Games have been used, for instance, to support conflict resolution and peace education measures or to
facilitate the maintenance of remembrance culture.
51
Games are part of entertainment education
interventions more generally as having fun is believed to decrease resistance to the persuasive content
delivered through entertaining media such as games or TV series.
52
Because games involve perspective
taking and the engagement with conflicting positions of various social groups, participants can be
motivated to reflect upon and ultimately change group-based stereotypes.
53
Game environments offer
the possibility to explore a different reality and ‘what could be’ without asking participants to compromise
in the real world. While in reality conflicts may be protracted, the gameful setting and knowledge that
‘it is just play and not real’ may encourage the development of inter-group empathy prevented by
51
Stiftung Digitale Spielekultur (2020) “Wie können digitale Spiele zu r Erinnerungskultur beitragen?“; Banerjee (2018) “The next frontier: Ga mification of peace
education“
52
Grady et al (2019) “Influencing the means but not the ends”; Moy er-Gusé (2008) “Toward a Theory of Entertainment Persuasion”
53
Davarsi (2016) “Empathy, perspective and complicity: how di gital games can support peace education and conflict resolution”
13
cognitive constraints in the offline realm. This has been shown, for instance, for the conflict between
Israelis and Palestinians,
54
but elements may be applicable to other inter-group conflict settings.
55
Practitioners have begun to use games in the context of P/CVE specifically. From browser games
highlighting the importance of small choices and peer pressure in creating a slippery slope of
radicalization dynamics
56
to incorporating narrative reflection and cooperative play in deradicalization
measures,
57
and even the use of virtual reality formats,
58
the P/CVE community has begun to explore
to possibilities offered by games to increase engagement and make measures more fun. This is a
promising basis as gamification necessarily requires knowledge on gaming elements in order to be
successfully utilized. It may also be useful to draw on games used in related fields, such as the fight
against disinformation.
59
For instance, in the Android game
The Adventures of Literatus
, the player
assumes the role of Prince Literatus, who is trying to save Princess Veritas from the evil Manipulus in
order to save the kingdom of Informia. Here, a fictional setting and storyline is used to help users
develop the ability to spot and fight disinformation in the real world. Similar formats may help P/CVE
actors to facilitate knowledge and skills pertaining to the prevention of radicalization.
Applying gamification elements
Many elements used in gamification may be more or less directly applicable to the P/CVE context. For
instance, Chou
60
details various gamification techniques such as the building of virtual peer mentorship
schemes or utilizing epic narratives and a search for meaning/identity to set the stage for the gamified
application. This may nudge users into imagining themselves as part of a meaningful group on a mission
to positively influence its surroundings (what Chou calls ‘humanity hero’), which might be immediately
transferrable to working with those at risk or in the process of deradicalization. Quests are another
element that might be easily incorporated in existing procedures, depending on the nature of the
preventive or intervention measures. For instance, suggesting quests to participants in universal
prevention settings, e.g. in schools, may be suitable to encourage participants to take theoretical
knowledge gained during the workshop or lesson into the real world and take action against polarizing
tendencies within their immediate surroundings.
61
Points, badges, trophies, progress bars and other achievement measures may be applied, for instance,
in long-term engagement with individuals. Not only might such gamified applications increase
engagement but also give participating individuals visible measures of their own progress within the
context of the intervention program. While feedback from the program coaches cannot and should not
be replaced by mere quantitative indicators of progress, some individuals may respond favorably to
54
Alhabash & Wise (2012) “PeaceMaker”; Alhabash & Wise (201 5) “Playing their game”;
55
Chudhar & Kampf (2014) “Learning about Conflict and Nego tiations through Computer Simulations”; Kampf & Choudhar (2015) “Do compu ter games enhance
learning about conflicts?”
56
http://game.extremismus.info/
57
Cooley & Cooley (2020) “Child’s play: Cooperative gaming as a tool of deradicalization”
58
Pelletier & Drozda-Senkowska (2020) “Virtual reality a s a tool for deradicalizing the terrorist mind”
59
https://innovation.dw.com/fighting-the-infodemic-one-game-at-a-time/
60
Chou (2015) Actionable Gamification
61
See Ramirez & Squire (2014) “Gamification and learning” on the use of quests and other element in educational settings
14
such gamified elements as they present an ‘objective’ measurement of how far they have come. As
discussed under “Measures of Influence”, not all players are motivated by the same gamified elements.
Similarly, which gamified elements are most useful might change throughout a user’s journey through
the application or, in the case of P/CVE, over the course of the intervention. Gamification offers
practitioners another tool to personalize intervention measures aimed at individuals or small groups
depending on what motivates them and keeps them engaged. It can therefore help to further tailor
P/CVE measures to different cognitive styles of participants while offering them engaging elements to
facilitate commitment.
If gamified elements are used in P/CVE, they should be used for the sake of the participants. However,
gamification via points, badges and other achievement measures may also benefit practitioners and
program evaluators. Evaluation of P/CVE and deradicalization interventions is a contested issue, ranging
from the question of what constitutes ‘success’ in such a setting, concerns pertaining the comparability
of cases, the impossibility of proper control groups, the privacy of participants, and sometimes even the
unwillingness to publish internal evaluations for strategic reasons. The quantifiability of engagement
and ‘progress’ gamified elements provide may aid evaluation and reporting practices of P/CVE actors as
it allows for a comparability of individual cases. For example, reporting to evaluators that out of 15
participants 13 earned more than 80% of the badges available for different activities may be a useful
way of showcasing engagement results regardless of the unique circumstances of each case.
Gamification allows for a high degree of personalization and participants may earn different types of
badges for different types of activities and engage with different (ideological) content. However,
because the overall number of achievement measures or the number of points on a progress bar may
be comparable, reporting on a large variety of individual cases may become easier.
| Conclusion
The gamification of radicalization is an emerging phenomenon that has only come to the forefront of
attention in the last few years. Therefore, the evidence base researchers and practitioners can draw
from is limited and anecdotal. From the limited evidence available and the transfer of research findings
on gamification generated in other fields, we can draw the following preliminary conclusions:
| Extremist actors seem to be aware of the benefits of gamification and seek to utilize them
for strategic purposes (top-down gamification).
| Certain individuals, groups and online communities are increasingly using gamified elements
and gaming language to make sense of their reality and to gamify their radicalization
processes or attacks (bottom-up gamification).
| A diverse range of psychological mechanisms underpins gamification and make it useful for
extremists, including an increase of pleasure, positive reinforcement, empowerment of
15
users, peer competition, and social relatedness. These and other potential benefits of
gamification deserve more attention in the context of radicalization processes to support a
holistic understanding of digitally-mediated radicalization.
| The potential benefits of using gamification in P/CVE have not been explored yet, but limited
encouraging evidence exists on the possibilities afforded by video games in this context. A
discussion on the implementation of gamification in P/CVE is urgently needed.
Gamification is here to stay, in fact it “may just become the normal way we design, implement, and
interact with the world around us”.
62
Given the increasing proliferation of gamified elements and human-
centered design in commercial, educational, and professional settings coupled with the fact that
extremists are usually early adopters of new technological affordances, it must be regarded as highly
likely that the gamification of propaganda tools, extremist online communities and, ultimately,
radicalization processes will not only continue but accelerate. More research is needed into the exact
mechanisms and the different forms of gamification employed by extremists and their supporters in
various circumstances. Practitioners too will have to engage with this issue and specifically with both
the difficulties in countering the influences of gamification on digitally-mediated radicalization processes
and the possibilities of incorporating gamified elements into new or existing P/CVE measures. If
gamification is likely to become an increasingly important element of digital extremist conduct, it is best
to start engaging with the topic now rather than playing catch-up in the future.
| Recommended Reading & Listening
Gamification and its applications
Chou, Y-K. (2015).
Actionable Gamification: Beyond Points, Badges, and Leaderboards
. Octalysis Media:
Milipitas, CA
Chou, Y-K. (2014). Ted Talk “Gamification to Improve our World”. Available at:
https://www.tedxlausanne.com/talks/yu-kai-chou/
McGonigal, J. (2010). Ted Talk “Gaming Can Make a Better World”. Available at:
https://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world
Zichermann, G. (2014). Ted Talk “The Future of Creativity and Innovation is Gamification”. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZvRw71Slew&list=WL&index=4&t=0s
Gamification of radicalization
Lakomy, M. (2019). Let's Play a Video Game:
Jihadi
Propaganda in the World of Electronic
Entertainment.
Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Vol. 42
(4), pp. 383-406
Schlegel, L. (2020). Jumanji Extremism? How games and gamification could facilitate radicalization
processes.
Journal for Deradicalization. Vol. 23
. Available at:
https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/359/223
62
Chou (2014) Actionable Gamification, p. 20
16
Tech against Terrorism (May 13, 2020): Podcast Episode “How are terrorists and violent extremists
using gamification?”. Available at: https://www.techagainstterrorism.fm/how-are-terrorists-
and-violent-extremists-using-gamification/
Games in P/CVE
Cooley, A. and Cooley, S. (2020). Child’s Play: Cooperative Gaming as a Tool of Deradicalization.
Journal
for Deradicalization Vol. 23
. Available at:
https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/363/227
Davarsi, P. (2016). Empathy, Perspective and Complicity: How digital games can support peace
education and conflict resolution. Available at:
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000259928
Pelletier, P. and Drozda-Senkowska, E. (2020). Virtual reality as a tool for deradicalizing the terrorist
mind: Conceptual and methodological insights from intergroup conflict resolution and
perspective-taking research.
Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology.
https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000442
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