Tectonic Inversion and Geomorphic Evolution of the Algerian Margin Since Messinian Times: Insights From New Onshore/Offshore Analog Modeling Experiments

Abstract

Tectonic inversion of passive margins is a common but poorly documented process preceding subduction inception. We perform here a comprehensive land‐sea experimental modeling of this key process by reproducing the morphotectonic and sedimentary evolution of the central Algerian margin over the last 6 Myr. Our approach is based on scaled analog models integrating interactions between crustal shortening and surface processes, including erosion, water transport, sedimentation, gravitational instabilities, and base‐level changes. A challenge was to simulate the effects of the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC) through a major sea‐level oscillation and halite deposition. By using realistic boundary conditions, adapted analog material, and robust, first‐order parameters for physiography setups, we successfully reproduce the morphotectonic domains and the time‐dependent geometrical relationships between fluvio‐deltaic sedimentary systems, erosional surfaces, and thrust faults as observed since Messinian times. Our results highlight (1) the key role played by the MSC sea‐level oscillation on an ultra‐fast building, destruction and re‐sedimentation of fans and deltas from the upper slope to the abyssal plain; (2) the development of a large popup structure subparallel to the coastline, with progressive strain migration from the backthrust on land toward a frontal thrust of opposite vergence at mid‐slope and the margin toe; and (3) the importance of lateral changes in initial wedge shape and strain distribution for determining the non‐cylindrical geometry of the margin and progradation of piggy‐back basins during tectonic inversion. Our results support that the central Algerian margin is witnessing the early building of an accretionary wedge combining thin‐skinned and thick‐skinned tectonic styles.

Full text

1. Introduction
Tectonic inversion refers to geological processes involving the reactivation of extensional basin structures in
response to crustal shortening or the reactivation of reverse faults during crustal extension (e.g., M. P. Cow-
ard,1996; M. P. Coward etal.,1991; Dewey,1989; Turner & Williams,2004; Williams et al.,1989; Ziegler
etal.,1995). This comprehensive definition includes studies focused on the inversion at different scales,
ranging from a single fault system up to basins and margins. Studied examples of passive margin inversion
are numerous. Most of the time, these objects are represented by advanced stages of inversion nowadays
incorporated in the heart of mountain ranges (e.g., Beltrando etal.,2014; Carmignani etal.,2004; Shail &
Leveridge,2009; Vanbrabant etal., 2002). If several field examples are documenting early stages of fossil
margin inversion, the ongoing inversion of passive margins witnessing a process of subduction initiation is
seldom found because it represents a short, transient phase before the onset of stable subduction (Kim etal.,
2018; Stern & Gerya,2018). The central Algerian margin (Western Mediterranean Sea, Figure1) represents,
then, one of the rare and best examples of present-day inversion of a passive margin in the early stages.
The Algerian margin is made of basement blocks (mainly, the greater and lesser Kabylies) that migrated
from the European margin and docked against the African plate in the Early Miocene, in response to the
southward rollback of the Maghrebian Tethyan slab (van Hinsbergen etal.,2014; R. Leprêtre etal.,2018,
and references therein). The area has received special attention over the last 20years, especially after the
occurrence of the Boumerdès earthquake (Mw=6.9, 2003; Ayadi etal., 2003). Geophysical studies since
then have evidenced that the Algerian margin is experiencing crustal shortening and a generalized tectonic
inversion possibly leading to subduction inception (Hamai etal.,2015, 2018; Strzerzynski etal.,2010; Yelles
Abstract Tectonic inversion of passive margins is a common but poorly documented process
preceding subduction inception. We perform here a comprehensive land-sea experimental modeling of
this key process by reproducing the morphotectonic and sedimentary evolution of the central Algerian
margin over the last 6Myr. Our approach is based on scaled analog models integrating interactions
between crustal shortening and surface processes, including erosion, water transport, sedimentation,
gravitational instabilities, and base-level changes. A challenge was to simulate the effects of the Messinian
Salinity Crisis (MSC) through a major sea-level oscillation and halite deposition. By using realistic
boundary conditions, adapted analog material, and robust, first-order parameters for physiography
setups, we successfully reproduce the morphotectonic domains and the time-dependent geometrical
relationships between fluvio-deltaic sedimentary systems, erosional surfaces, and thrust faults as observed
since Messinian times. Our results highlight (1) the key role played by the MSC sea-level oscillation on an
ultra-fast building, destruction and re-sedimentation of fans and deltas from the upper slope to the abyssal
plain; (2) the development of a large popup structure subparallel to the coastline, with progressive strain
migration from the backthrust on land toward a frontal thrust of opposite vergence at mid-slope and the
margin toe; and (3) the importance of lateral changes in initial wedge shape and strain distribution for
determining the non-cylindrical geometry of the margin and progradation of piggy-back basins during
tectonic inversion. Our results support that the central Algerian margin is witnessing the early building of
an accretionary wedge combining thin-skinned and thick-skinned tectonic styles.
STRZERZYNSKI ET AL.
© 2021. American Geophysical Union.
All Rights Reserved.
Tectonic Inversion and Geomorphic Evolution of the
Algerian Margin Since Messinian Times: Insights From
New Onshore/Offshore Analog Modeling Experiments
Pierre Strzerzynski1 , Stéphane Dominguez2 , Azzedine Boudiaf2, and Jacques Déverchère3
1Laboratoire de Planétologie et de Géodynamique, CNRS, Le Mans Université, Le Mans, France, 2Géosciences
Montpellier, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France, 3Géosciences Océan, Université de Brest, CNRS,
Plouzané, France
Key Points:
• We examine the tectonic inversion of
the Algerian margin through analog
models featuring onshore and
offshore erosion and deposition
• A large sea-level oscillation during
the MSC successfully explains the
main depositional and erosional
events found across the margin
• Post-MSC shortening gives birth
to a large popup structure and
oceanward thrust propagation,
building a proto-wedge
Correspondence to:
P. Strzerzynski,
pierre.strzerzynski@univ-lemans.fr
Citation:
Strzerzynski, P., Dominguez, S.,
Boudiaf, A., & Déverchère, J. (2021).
Tectonic inversion and geomorphic
evolution of the Algerian margin
since Messinian times: Insights
from new onshore/offshore analog
modeling experiments. Tectonics,
40, e2020TC006369. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2020TC006369
Received 16 JUN 2020
Accepted 14 JAN 2021
10.1029/2020TC006369
RESEARCH ARTICLE
1 of 25

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etal.,2009). In Lesser Kabylia, a first cooling episode between 17 and 15 Ma was followed by a kilome-
ter-scale exhumation between 9 and 7Ma, interpreted as a consequence of slab breakoff and the forma-
tion of imbricated thrust sheets in the upper margin, respectively (Recanati etal., 2019). Recent geodetic
results in Algeria demonstrate that the offshore fault system, running along the toe of the central Algerian
margin, possibly accommodates 1.5mm/year of shortening, in contrast with the coastal domain of the Tell
and Kabylies where strain rates are very low (Bougrine etal.,2019). Thermo-dynamical modeling suggests
that the relatively high geothermal gradient and the deep inherited structures of the stretched continental
margin contribute to weaken the margin and to focus compressional deformation at the margin toe (Hamai
etal.,2018).
However, the way the tectonic deformation developed and migrated through times across the whole passive
margin is not fully understood, and the role played by structures inherited from the Tethyan slab rollback
since the collision of the Kabylian blocks remains unclear. Furthermore, the Algerian margin, like all mar-
gins of the Mediterranean Sea, has recorded the strong imprint of the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC), giv-
ing birth to specific seismic markers, sedimentary units and structures related to a giant sea-level oscillation
and the occurrence of post-MSC deep salt tectonics (Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011; Dal
Cin etal.,2016, and references therein). An impact of the MSC event on the vertical evolution of the margin
due to isostasy effects has been also evoked in several studies (e.g., Govers etal.,2009; Norman and Chase,
1986; Rabineau etal., 2014). This brief and dramatic event thus offers the opportunity to highlight the rela-
tionships between tectonic reactivation and sea-level related sedimentary dynamics at a passive margin toe.
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Figure 1. Simplified tectonic map of North Algeria and the Algerian margin showing instrumental seismicity from CMT USGS-Harvard and EMSC earthquake
catalogs. Digital earth model after SRTM Nasa topographic mission, bathymetric data after GEBCO Bathymetric compilation project, mean Africa-Eurasia
relative motion from GPS data (Bougrine etal.,2019), major faults after Yelles etal.(2006) and Rabaute and Chamot-Rooke(2014). Inset locates the area shown
in Figure2.

Tectonics
In this paper, three main questions are addressed: (1) What is the tectonic, sedimentary, and morphologic
evolution of the Algerian margin since Late Tortonian times, which is assumed to date the onset of the mar-
gin inversion on land (Recanati etal.,2019)? (2) How is the geometry and style of the thrust system evolv-
ing through time and how much does it look like an accretionary wedge? And (3) can we quantify the role
played by the MSC, and more specifically by the large sea-level drop assumed to have occurred at ca. 5.6Ma?
To address these points, we complement the geological and geophysical observations by using a novel ex-
perimental approach, integrating jointly onshore and offshore tectonic and surface processes simulation.
Objectives of the present study are: (1) to briefly review available geological and geophysical data constrain-
ing the geodynamical and morphostructural evolution of the Algerian margin and introduce the hypoth-
esis and models that have been proposed. Then, after selecting the most probable scenario and associated
boundary conditions, (2) These constraint the initial conditions and the scenario of the analog model; (2)
to investigate experimentally the morpho-tectonic evolution of the Algerian margin since the Messinian
(<−6Myr) in order to highlight the processes controlling the timing and spatial distribution of the most
recent tectonic phases of deformation (margin inversion), and finally (3) to better constrain the overall style
of the tectonic inversion of a passive margin.
2. Cenozoic Geodynamic Evolution of Northern Algeria
The geology of northern Algeria is marked by a succession of geodynamic events occurring within the
framework of the Africa-Eurasia plate convergence, that is, slab subduction and rollback, collision, and
finally slab tearing. At Late Oligocene time, the decrease of the northward absolute motion of Africa is
assumed to have triggered the rollback of the African (Tethyan) lithosphere, resulting in the southward
migration of the internal (“ALKAPECA”) zones and the opening of a back-arc extensional domain (Dew-
ey etal., 1989; Gueguen etal., 1998; Jolivet & Faccenna,2000; Roca etal., 2004; Rosenbaum etal., 2004;
Schettino & Turco,2006). Slab breakoff of the Tethyan oceanic lithosphere occurred at ca. 17Ma, shortly
after the end of the Algerian back-arc basin spreading and the continental collision of the Kabylian blocks
with Africa. It induces initial isostatic uplift, the exhumation of high-pressure metamorphic rocks, and
thermal erosion of the continental mantle during Burdigalian times and is followed by lateral slab tearing
during Langhian-Serravalian times (Abbassene etal.,2016; Caby etal.,2001; Carminati etal.,1998; Chazot
etal.,2017; Maury etal.,2000; van Hinsbergen etal.,2020). Further south, in the external zones, the Afri-
ca-Eurasia convergence has caused the inversion and orogenesis of the Atlas System during Eocene–Oligo-
cene and Late Miocene–Pliocene, and the Tell shortening in the intervening period (Bouillin,1986; Bracène
& Frizon de Lamotte,2002; Frizon de Lamotte etal., 2000, 2009; Roure etal.,2012). To summarize, we may
consider that the main mechanisms driving tectonic activity along the North Algerian margin since 30Ma
are (1) the pull linked to the Maghrebian slab retreat until the collision of ALKAPECA with Africa, (2) the
delamination of the African subcontinental mantle in response to slab breakoff and tearing since then, and
(3) the tectonic inversion resulting in a Tortonian exhumation of the upper margin (Recanati etal.,2019)
and a widespread post-Messinian emersion of the Algerian Tell (R. Leprêtre etal.,2018; Roure etal.,2012).
The end of the Miocene period is characterized by a giant Mediterranean sea-level drop (generally assumed
to reach –1,500m), called the MSC. This tectono-climatic event is responsible for the emersion and the
deep erosion of the continental slopes surrounding the Mediterranean basins and the deposition of com-
plex detritic bodies at the outlet of valleys. In the deep basin, the MSC is recorded by the deposition of
a giant salt unit (Hsü etal., 1977; CIESM, 2008; Clauzon etal.,1996; Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi,
Sage, etal.,2011; Ryan & Cita,1978). The opening of the Strait of Gibraltar led to the flooding of the Med-
iterranean Sea that marked the end of the MSC (CIESM,2008; Garcia-Castellanos etal.,2009). In upper
margins, the post-Messinian sedimentary sequence corresponds to high-stand stacked prograding systems
tracts emplaced after reflooding and resting upon a major erosional surface (MES for Margin Erosional
Surface). They display an architecture similar to that of Gilbert-type deltas resulting either from fluvial
or from wave-action dynamics (Clauzon etal., 1996; Duvail et al., 2005; Rubino et al.,2005). Although
a final stratigraphic scenario is still not fully established and important controversial points remain, a
chrono-stratigraphic model with three main evolutionary stages of the MSC in a time span covering approx-
imately 600Kyr (CIESM,2008; Clauzon etal.,2015; Roveri etal.,2019) is widely used and promoted in the
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international community and matches the available geological and geophysical data. Therefore, although
we acknowledge that other hypotheses may exist and could be explored, we have adopted the following
simple steps and timing to build the MSC scenario of our experiment: 1 [6.0–5.6Ma]: formation of marginal
basins with minor sea-level fall; 2 [5.6–5.5Ma]: significant subaerial erosion and sea-level drawdown; and 3
[5.5–5.4Ma]: sea-level rise and fast reflooding.
3. Geomorphology, Coastal Uplift, and Strain Rates
Offshore, the Algerian margin exhibits an unusual morphology compared to the surrounding Mediterra-
nean margins. In central Algeria, the continental slope is characterized by steep scarps of several hun-
dred meters high alternating with perched basins (Dan etal.,2009, 2010; Déverchère etal.,2005; Domzig
et al., 2006; Strzerzynski et al., 2010; Figure2). The continental shelf is very narrow except for a large
bathymetric high, called the Khayr al Din Bank or KAD (Figure3; Domzig etal.,2006; Yelles etal.,2009).
Swath bathymetry and seismic profiles acquired after the 2003 Bourmerdès earthquake revealed blind re-
verse faulting at the base of the margin affecting Plio-Quaternary units and propagating towards the abyssal
plain (e.g., Dan-Unterseh etal.,2011; Déverchère etal.,2005; Domzig etal.,2006; Kherroubi etal.,2017;
Strzerzynski etal.,2010; Figures2 and 4).
Onshore, the morphology is characterized by a low but contrasted relief region (maximum altitude of 600m)
extending from the seashore up to 25km to the south (Figure1). To the east of Algiers, the coastal domain
consists of several hills incised by Isser and Sebaou rivers, while to the west, a flat area called the Mitidja
valley is filled by Miocene, Pliocene, and Quaternary deposits (Figures2 and 3). Further south, relief in-
creases and forms the Greater Kabylia and the Blida Atlas reliefs (maximum altitude>1,200m; Figure3). At
the coastline, several uplifted Pliocene/Pleistocene/Holocene marine terraces and rasas have been reported
(Authemayou etal., 2017; Heddar etal.,2013; Raymond,1976). Datings and topographic measurements
led the authors to estimate coastal uplift rates well below 0.5mm.yr-1 over the last 400Kyr (Authemayou
etal.,2017). Mapping of Pliocene marine deposits highlights the occurrence of perched (>300m) Messini-
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Figure 2. Structural scheme of central-northern Algeria (location in Figure1). Regional geological map onshore modified after Raymond(1976), and
Wildi(1983). Onshore geology: 1: Uplifted beaches, 2: Quaternary deposits, 3: Late Miocene deposits, 4: Early Miocene deposits, 5: Numidian flyschs, 6: Jurassic
cover of Kabylia, 7: Kabylian basement, Tellian units (8: lower 9: middle 10: upper) (after Wildi,1983), 11: Autochthonous units, 12: active faults after Aïte and
Gélard(1997), Babonneau etal.(2017), Domzig etal.(2006), and Yelles etal.(2006, 2009), and 13: Miocene faults. P.B., perched Basin. Classified bathymetry
offshore modified after Strzerzynski etal.(2010). Shaded DEM after SRTM onshore and MARADJA cruise (http://dx.doi.org/10.17600/5020080) offshore.

Tectonics
an rias (Figure2). Even if uplift rates are low when compared to other regions, it has significantly impacted
the drainage evolution as evidenced, for example, by the eastward migration of the Isser river bed as a direct
consequence of anticline growth on land (Boudiaf etal.,1998) and by a deviation to the west of the Sebaou
river (Djemai, 1985).
Finally, recent kinematic studies help us to provide an upper bound of the total amount of margin short-
ening since Messinian time, a value needed to understand the margin evolution, and to set up our mode-
ling approach. Finite and instantaneous rates between Europe and Africa (Nubia) plates are derived from
high-resolution kinematic reconstructions (de Mets etal., 2015) and geodetic measurements (Bougrine
etal.,2019; Serpelloni etal.,2007) respectively. Within uncertainties, de Mets etal.(2015) have shown that
Nubia-Eurasia motion has been relatively steady during the past ∼13 Myr, without significant change in
motion before or during the MSC, and with a constant N135° direction of Africa-Eurasia convergence since
∼7Ma. At the Algiers longitude, the Africa-Eurasia convergence rates encompassing the whole maghrebian
belt, and the margin, range between 4.6 and 6.4mmyear−1. These values overestimate the shortening rates
accommodated across the Algerian margin and the coastal domains. On the contrary, the present-day short-
ening rate found in the offshore part between Algiers and Alicante (1.5±0.5mmyear−1, Figure1; Bougrine
etal.,2019; Serpelloni etal.,2007) does not take into account shortening in the coastal domains and under-
estimates the shortening rates on the studied area. Therefore, we propose a 2.2±0.5mmyear−1 shortening
rate for the Algerian margin and the coastal domains at the Algiers longitude. As strain migrates progres-
sively through time from the Maghrebian belt toward the Algerian margin (Recanati etal.,2019), the initial
shortening rate of the margin should be lower than present-day estimates. Taking into account all these
results, we propose that no more than half of the total Nubia-Eurasia convergence has been accommodated
in the studied area (Figure1), representing possibly 11±3km of cumulated crustal shortening since the
Pliocene.
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Figure 3. Three-dimensional shaded view toward the East of the central Algerian margin and topographic profiles. See location on Figure2.

Tectonics
4. Geological Evidence for a Tectonic Inversion
We summarize here several facts and results supporting a significant Plio-Quaternary shortening of the
Algerian margin accommodated both on land (Internal units-Tell-Atlas belt) and at sea (Figures2 and 3;
Benaouali-Mebarek etal.,2006; Déverchère etal.,2005; Domzig etal.,2006; Kherroubi etal.,2009; R. Lep-
rêtre etal.,2018; Mauffret,2007; Strzerzynski etal.,2010; Yelles etal.,2009).
4.1. Deep Structures and Rheology
The Mw 6.9 May 21, 2003 Boumerdès-Zemmouri event has evidenced a ∼55km long active reverse fault
(strike N70°, dip 40°S, rake 95°, depth range 2–11km; Delouis etal.,2004) striking parallel to the coast-
line (Bounif etal.,2004; Kherroubi etal., 2017). Aftershocks, local tomography, and geodetic measure-
ments show that the earthquake occurred on a south-dipping thrust located at 6–10km depth below
the shoreline with ramp–flat–ramp systems upward and strong afterslip toward the surface, near the
margin toe (Kherroubi etal.,2017; Mahsas etal.,2008) (Figures1 and 4). From recent wide-angle seismic
data, the Moho is found at 20–25km depth beneath the continental domain, evidencing a relatively thin
continental crust over ∼60km across strike, while toward the Algerian basin, the Moho rises to a depth
of about 10km and the crust is of oceanic type (Aïdi etal.,2018; Bouyahiaoui etal., 2015; A. Leprêtre
etal.,2013). Recent 2D thermo-mechanical models suggest that in the central Algerian margin, both the
thinned continental crust and the high geothermal gradient favor strain localization and underthrusting
of the oceanic lithosphere at the margin toe (Hamai etal.,2018). Therefore, the rheology of the Algerian
margin is likely weak owing to the propagation of the Tethyan slab tear and the Miocene (17–11Ma)
plutonic and volcanic activity emplaced in the Kabylies posterior to the collision (Chazot etal.,2017, and
references therein).
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Figure 4. (a) Synthetic cross-section of the Algerian margin at the longitude of Greater Kabylia (see Figure3 for location) realized after (b) line drawing
of Maradja seismic line offshore (Strzerzynski etal.,2010), (c) geologic cross-section on land (Raymond, 1976), and (d) a velocity cross-section based on
wide-angle seismic data (Aïdi etal.,2018), with the approximate position of the 2003 Boumerdès- Zemmouri hypocenter and focal solution after Kherroubi
etal.(2017).

Tectonics
4.2. Fold-and-Thrust Geometry of the Central Algerian Margin
Offshore, the Pliocene to present-day deformation is expressed by kilometer-scale wavelength folds located
at the foot of the continental slope and in the deep basin (Figures2 and 3), but also in the upper margin
where many slides, active canyons, and gullies mask the cumulated scarps (Dan etal.,2009, 2010; Dan-Un-
terseh etal.,2011). The area affected by deformations is characterized by a significant seismic activity (Fig-
ure1). The fold asymmetry is compatible with the motion of blind reverse thrust faults dipping toward the
continental domain (Figures2 and 4). Folds interact closely with salt diapirism, hemipelagic sedimenta-
tion, and mass-transport deposits, forming complex structures (Dan-Unterseh etal.,2011). The number of
reverse faults changes from one place to another along the studied area: only one is present at the foot of
the continental slope of the KAD bank, whereas four are identified on the Boumerdès transect where they
bound perched (piggy-back) basins (Dan-Unterseh etal.,2011; Déverchère etal.,2005; Domzig etal.,2006).
The sedimentary record suggests that the earliest faults are located close to the coastline and then defor-
mation propagated northwards into the deep basin (A. Leprêtre etal.,2013; Strzerzynki etal.,2010). This
chronology is in agreement with a tectonic wedge starting to form mostly during Pliocene-Quaternary times
(Déverchère etal.,2005; Strzerzynski etal., 2010) and that is still active today (Kherroubi et al., 2017).
A décollement level is suggested to develop at the base or in the lower part of the Cenozoic cover (Aïdi
etal.,2018; Strzerzynki etal.,2010; Figure4), while to the south, deformation is rooting in the basement of
the Greater Kabylia block (Aïdi etal.,2018; Déverchère etal.,2005; Kherroubi etal.,2017; Figure4). Also,
asymmetric folds compatible with north-dipping reverse faults are found in the upper margin, for instance
on the KAD bank (Domzig etal.,2006; A. Leprêtre etal.,2013; Strzerzynski etal.,2010; Yelles etal.,2009;
Figures2 and 3).
Onshore, recent and active reverse faults have been evidenced by the deformation of Quaternary sedimen-
tary units (Authemayou etal.,2017; Boudiaf,1996; Boudiaf etal.,1999) and earthquake data (Ousadou &
Bezzeghoud,2019). Two main north-dipping reverse faults are identified in the coastal domain. The most
spectacular one can be followed from the cities of Algiers up to Tipaza where it forms a ∼250m topographic
high called the Sahel of Algiers (Authemayou etal.,2017; Heddar etal.,2013; Meghraoui,1991; Figure2).
The fold asymmetry supports a north-dipping reverse fault (or backthrust) located on the southern flank of
the fold. Further east, the northern boundary of the Tizzi Ouzou - Sebaou basin (Aïte et Gélard,1997) is also
controlled by a north-dipping thrust (Boudiaf etal.,1998; Figure2). Uplift of the Algiers massif occurred
before the MSC (Authemayou etal.,2017), thus suggesting a possible onset of margin inversion during Tor-
tonian, as proposed by Recanati etal.(2019). However, at least two-thirds of the uplift of this coastal massif
occurred since the early Pliocene.
Considering these overall fold-and-thrust geometry and time constraints, we propose that the Central Al-
gerian margin inversion can be modeled as a tectonic wedge characterized by a décollement layer plunging
below Africa, with an initial relief decreasing toward the Mediterranean domain and with shortening start-
ing after the MSC. During the experiment, the emerged-submerged device records strong sea-level changes
during MSC immediately followed by a slow shortening inversion. The cumulated horizontal shortening
does not exceed 11±3km since the Pliocene and the shortening rate is probably increasing through time
as the deformation progressively migrates from the onshore to the offshore domains. According to our pres-
ent-day knowledge of strain history, this tectonic scenario is able to describe reasonably well the sedimenta-
ry, erosional, and tectonic evolution of the Algerian margin, at least in its central part.
5. Experimental Approach
5.1. Methodology
The study of continental margins faces several limiting factors related mainly to the difficulties to image
their internal structures, to pass through the seawater barrier which strongly limits direct seafloor obser-
vations and rock sampling. The correlation of geophysical and geological measurements acquired on land
and at sea with different methods remain also challenging. To overcome part of these limitations, and test
the evolutionary scenario that emerged from these data, we modified an experimental approach initially de-
veloped to study the interactions between tectonics-erosion-sedimentation (Graveleau & Dominguez,2008;
Graveleau etal., 2011, 2012, 2015; Guerit etal.,2016; Strak etal.,2011; Villaplana etal., 2015). Previous ex-
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perimental works have already investigated basin tectonic inversion (e.g., Cerca etal.,2010; Mc Clay,1989)
but without integrating realistic surface processes (erosion, water transport, and sedimentation) as does our
approach. This pioneering work represents, then, the first attempt to model experimentally the inversion of
a passive continental margin by including on land and offshore domains together with realistic terrestrial
and submarine geomorphogenetic processes.
5.2. Setup and Boundary Conditions
The experimental set-up used in this study is constituted by a mechanical apparatus to deform the analog
model, a rainfall system to erode its surface, and a digital monitoring device used to quantify model evolu-
tion during the experiment (Figure5). The deformation device is made of a 1.5m×2.2m aluminum struc-
ture supporting a 2cm thick PVC plate bounded by three glass/PVC walls and a rigid backstop. The PVC
plate is bent toward the backstop up to a dip of 10°. A Mylar/carbon sheet, lying on the PVC plate, is pulled
beneath the backstop using a computerized stepping motor to impose model shortening. The rainfall sys-
tem uses up to 8 sprinklers to diffuse water micro-droplets over the model surface at a rate of 25–30mm/h
(Figure5). Water runoff enhances erosion of the emerged part of the model (coastal domain) triggering
several natural processes shaping the topography such as; channel incision in the drainage network, slope
diffusion, and gravity-controlled landslides. In the submarine part of the model, sedimentation processes
dominate but gravity-driven instabilities also contribute to shaping the submarine morphology. The digital
monitoring device is constituted by a laser interferometer coupled to CCD cameras to measure deformation
kinematics and model topography during the experiment. The digital elevation models have typical spatial
resolution and precision of 3–5 and 1–2mm, respectively. The subpixel spectral correlation technique is
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Figure 5. Top left: Experimental setup consisting of a deformation device, a rainfall system, and CCD cameras coupled to a laser interferometer. the MATIV
analog material simulates the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary units. The Silica powder simulates the more resistant Paleozoic basement and magmatic intrusions
constituting the core of the Algerian margin. Center left: Physical properties of the analog material. Bottom left: Shortening and sea-level evolution displayed
on the timeline of the experiment. Top right: View of the model surface displaying a submerged domain to the left and an emerged domain to the right. Bottom
right: Example of aerial and submarine model morphologies.

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used to quantify fault kinematics with a submillimeter precision (Graveleau etal., 2011; Strak etal.,2011).
At the end of each experiment, model cross-sections are performed to study its internal structure.
5.3. Analog Materials
To model jointly onshore and offshore fluvio-deltaic sedimentary systems, we used the analog material
developed by Graveleau and Dominguez(2008), Graveleau etal. (2011), and modified by Strak etal.(2011).
This material was initially designed to study tectonic-erosion interactions in active mountain forelands and
along normal fault scarps (Figure5). Analog material composition was only slightly modified mainly to
adapt its cohesion to model scaling requirements (see Section 5.4). The analog material used in this study
is composed of 40% of glass microbeads, 35% of silica powder, 23% of plastic (PVC) powder, and 2% of
graphite powder (Figure5). We use a PVC powder and glass microbeads with smaller grain sizes compare
to Graveleau's experiments to decrease the bulk granulometry of the mixture and increase the transport
distances of the eroded particles. The analog material mechanical properties were measured using a direct
shear test apparatus for average water saturation of 20±1%. Internal friction and cohesion are respectively:
φ=35±2°, Co=600±100Pa. During the experiment, water run-off induces water oversaturation on the
first millimeters of the model which drastically decreases the cohesion (Co<a few tens of Pa) favoring,
then, model surface erosion. Density and median grain size of the analog material are d=1.6±0.1g/cm3,
D50=80±5μm. Erodability properties of the analog material are close to those of the mixture used by
Graveleau and Dominguez (2011) and were measured using the same methodology. The innermost part
of the model was made using a wedge-shape rigid foam covered by a high cohesive material to simulate
the more resistant Algerian margin crystalline basement (Greater Kabylia and related basement blocks).
This proto-backstop was also designed to smooth the sharp mechanical transition between the deforma-
ble analog material and the rigid vertical backstop which limits the rear part of the experimental device
(Figure5).
5.4. Analog Model Scaling
As demonstrated by several authors (Cobbold & Jackson,1992; Davy and Cobbold,1991; Hubbert, 1937,
1991; Richard,1991; Schellart & Strak,2016; Shemenda, 1983), analog model scaling can be achieved using
several proportionality ratios between model and nature physical and mechanical parameters. Specifically,
an analog model is properly scaled if geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity criteria are fulfilled.
Inertial forces can be neglected in nature at the geological time scale as well as in our experiments, slow
deformation rates are imposed on the model (10−4 to 10−5s−1). Considering that upper crustal rocks and
granular analog materials deform according to the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, the similarity criteria
to be considered are:
/ for the geometric criterionL Lm Ln
(1)
SCodgL

.. forthe dynamic criterion
(2)
L*, S*, Co*, d*, and g* are model to nature ratios for length, stress, cohesion, density, and gravity, respectively.
Lm and Ln are characteristic lengths in models and nature, respectively.
To study a characteristic portion of the Algerian margin evolution, we considered that it was necessary to
model a >50km wide portion of the margin. Considering the maximum achievable model size using the
experimental device, we imposed a spatial scaling of 1cm=500m, close to the values used by Graveleau
etal. (2011) and Strak et al.(2011). For natural sedimentary rocks, internal friction and cohesion values
typically range between 20 and 40° and 10–60MPa, respectively (Byerlee,1978; Hoek & Brown,2019; Lama
and Vutukuri, 1978). According to the scaling theory, the internal friction coefficient of the analog mate-
rial should be equivalent to those of natural rock. Considering the mean density of the analog material
mixture (1,600kg/m3), a mean natural sediment density of ∼2,500kg/m3, a mean natural rock cohesion
of ∼30–40MPa, a mean length ratio of L*=2.5×10−5 and using Equations1 and 2, we calculate that the
analog material should have a mean cohesion of about 500–600Pa. We, then, adapted the composition of
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the analog material, by changing the proportion of microbeads versus silica powder, to approach the re-
quired values (φ=35±2°, Co=600±100Pa). Note that, at the short time-scale, and as discussed in Paola
etal.(2009), a rigorous scaling of the dynamic criterion is not possible; for instance, the water used to erode
the model has a too high kinematic viscosity to be compatible with the Reynolds dimensionless variable.
However, the Froude number is less affected by this discrepancy and appears to be similar in Nature and
our analog models (from 0.2 to 0.6 and from 0.01 to 1, respectively) indicating that the long-term dynamics
behavior of natural rivers is properly simulated.
Evaluating time scaling is a difficult task because the morpho-tectonic processes (e.g., fault slip, fluvial inci-
sion, sediment transport, and hillslope processes) that shape natural and modeled topographies occur over
several orders of velocities. Achievable time scaling requires also to neglect inertial forces, which would not
be possible if we aimed at reproducing the short-term behavior of natural material and fluid flows. In our
experiments, fluid flows can locally produce small accelerations but their impact on model morphology
remains negligible. Therefore, we considered that accelerations are small enough to neglect inertial forces.
Based on these considerations, we propose a simplified solution where time scaling can be reasonably es-
timated by comparing long-term erosion rates in the models and Nature. To achieve this goal, we use two
similarity criteria that include time and velocity (e.g., Hubbert, 1937):
/ for the kinematic criterionT Tm Tn
(3)
  
 
  / / / / / for the similarity of velocitiesV Vm Vn Lm Tm Ln Tn L T
(4)
T* and V* are model to nature ratios for time and velocity, respectively. Tm and Tn are characteristic times
in models and nature, respectively. Vm and Vn are velocities in models and nature, respectively.
In our experiments, we measure the catchment-averaged denudation rate ranging from 1 to 5mm/h. In
nature, catchment-averaged denudation rates typically range between 0.5 to a few mm/year in active tec-
tonic contexts (e.g., Stock etal.,2009; Tucker etal., 2011). Using these values and Equation4, it results that
1s of model evolution can be compared to about 100–300years in Nature. Based on these considerations,
to simulate 6Myr of model evolution, the experiment should last about 6–10h, and the MSC stage, about
1hour (Figure5).
For such complex models, time scaling cannot be achieved rigorously and should be nonetheless used as a
first-order estimation considering the limits of the scaling theory and the uncertainties on natural rocks and
analog material physical parameters.
6. Experimental Results
6.1. Initial Conditions
At the initial stage, the geometry of the analog model should match the morphology of the Algerian mar-
gin just before the MSC at −6Myr. At that time, the margin is assumed to correspond to a “classic” young
passive margin not yet affected by tectonic inversion (see e.g., R. Leprêtre etal.,2018 and Sections 2–4).
Its internal structure is inherited from the rifting associated with the back-arc extension induced by the
Tethyan slab rollback during Miocene (van Hinsbergen etal., 2020, and references therein). Because no
other reliable information is available, the initial geometry of the model is defined as a simple wedge dip-
ping seaward at a slow angle (Figure5). Close to the backstop, the model is 25cm thick, then, its thickness
decreases progressively, following the 10° dipping PVC basal plate to reach 2cm at 75cm on the right side
of the model and 100cm on the left side. The slight lateral variation of the margin slope angle (5°–7°) was
designed to take into account the non-cylindrical shape of the present Algerian margin morphology (Fig-
ure1). Seaward, the mylar sheet is covered by 2–3cm of analog material to represent the Neogene (>Lang-
hian) marine sediments deposited in the Algerian basin. The water level is maintained constant during the
experiment at 4–5cm over the seabed so, at the initial stage, about 4/5 of the model surface is submerged
and corresponds to the marine domain and 1/5 is emerged and corresponds to the continental (coastal)
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domain. To accelerate drainage network initiation, long-wavelength (>20cm) and low amplitude (<2cm)
reliefs are randomly manually shaped on the emerged part of the model.
During the first hour of the experiment, the sea-level is maintained stable, the rainfall system is turned on
to let the model topography slightly evolve and reach a static equilibrium SUP MAT. VIDEO/TIMELAPSE
1). The model morphology evolved to a point where the water run-off cannot generate basal shear stress
strong enough to erode the model surface. Rivers neither incise nor aggrade, and the topography remains
stable over the long-term.
During this period, a small amount of erosion is observed on the emerged domain and sediment deposits
start to form at the river mouth (Figure6-1). The geometry of these seaward prograding deposits is charac-
terized by the association of two distinct slopes forming a wedge-shaped unit: near the shoreline, sediment
deposits, and river mouth slopes are subhorizontal. About onecentimeter seaward, the slope abruptly in-
creases to a higher angle around 25–30° high. The internal structure of the deposits is dominated by layering
dipping seaward and parallel to the steepest slope and compatible with downlap in nature. Within these
deposits, the four components of the material IV appear sorted: from the top to the base of the wedge, sili-
cate powder, glass microbeads, PVC powder, and graphite powder. These characteristics are comparable to
those of deltaic bodies in nature.
6.2. Sea-Level Fall - Low Stand and Rise
To simulate erosion, transport, and deposition of detritic materials during the MSC, we impose to the model
a fast and huge sea-level fall (12 mn and 3.5cm, respectively) followed by a longer (60 mn) low stand period.
The sea-level fall leads to the progressive exposure of the uppermost margin cover and coastal deposits (Fig-
ures6-2, 7, and 8-1). Subjected to rainfall, most of these materials are rapidly eroded, through debris flows
like processes, and deposited few centimeters downslope as they reach the new seashore position. Such a
process occurs continuously as the sea-level continues to fall. At the end of the sea-level fall, most of the
upper margin cover has been eroded and a network of channels and submarine fans has formed. Incision
processes are not yet very marked on the exposed margin and the continental domain. At this time, we add
manually a thin layer (1cm) of microbeads on the whole abyssal plain surface to simulate the deposition of
the deep evaporite layer (MU for Mobile Unit, see Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011). This
induces an increase of the base level without an increase in subsidence.
During the low stand period, low amplitude (<1cm) sea-level oscillations are simulated to reproduce the
inferred intermittent sea-water supply that could be, at least partly, at the origin of the huge evaporite unit
and investigate their impact on the sedimentation processes. The fluctuation of the river mouth base level
favors the progradation into the basin of well-stratified alluvial fans deposits, interacting with the previ-
ous large chaotic debris flows, over the evaporite layer (Figures6-3, 7, and 8-2). At the same time, on the
emerged part of the margin, the drainage network gets denser and some canyons are growing. Regressive
erosion propagates upslope into the continental domain, widening and re-incising rivers, and pre-existing
valleys (Figure7).
The end of the low stand sea-level and the flooding are here considered as instantaneous, therefore during
this stage, the rainfall system is switched off to “freeze” the model morphologic evolution and to mimic the
end of the MSC.
6.3. Initial Inversion of the Margin
After the flooding, the rainfall system is turned on and surface processes resume in absence of tectonics.
During that stage, due to the rise of the channel/river base level, incision on the emerged domain is in-
hibited. The river mouths of the valleys, incised during the low stand sea level, are progressively filled by
deposits that compare to gilbert-type deltas. Erosion on the submerged domain is at this time relatively
limited (Figures7-4 and 8). After 30 mn, the model surface stops evolving significantly, meaning that it has
reached an equilibrium. Indeed, in the absence of tectonics and sea-level changes, the model morphology
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doesn’t evolve anymore. Sediment transports in the channels are strongly reduced and hill-slope erosional
processes almost ceased.
Compressive deformation is then applied to the model, starting with a shortening rate of 3cmh−1, increas-
ing up to 6cmh−1 90 mn later and finally to 12cmh−1 30min before the end of the experiment to simulate
a progressive transfer of the tectonic plate convergence to the margins and coastal domain. After 45 mn
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Figure 6. Upper views of the model surface (left) and interpretations during the main steps of the experiments. 1:
initial stage; 2: end of the sea-level drawdown; 3: end of the sea-level low stand and deposition of the deep salt layer;
4, 5, 6, and 7: first margin inversion step; 8: final stage—second margin inversion step (see text for explanations+SUP
MAT. VIDEO/TIMELAPSE 1).

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and 2.25cm of shortening, a first submarine reverses fault (F1), dipping landward at a low angle, initiates
at mid-slope in the right part of the model. It propagates towards the left, reaching the base of the margin.
At this stage, the fault system F1 appears segmented but it rapidly evolves to form a unique major thrust
fault extending along the entire width of the model (Figure6-4 and 6-5, Video: since 00:01:33). At depth, it
follows the top of the bent PVC plate and finally roots at depth below the rigid foam backstop, representing
the northern extension of the Kabylian block. The fault F1 accommodates most of the convergence during
15 mn before the birth, on land, of a new reverse fault (backthrust F2) dipping seaward and running parallel
to the shoreline, about 15–30cm centimeters landward (Figure6-5 and 6-6). As for the fault F1, the F2 fault
trace initiates in the right part of the model and rapidly propagates toward the left, cutting almost orthog-
onally all the rivers connected with the shoreline. Such a propagation directivity is mostly due to changes
along the strike of the initial margin wedge geometry and surface slope (see Section 6.1). Landward of F2
fault trace and up to the rigid backstop, the continental domain appears stable and undeformed. In this
region, the compressive stress remains probably high enough to consider that the deformation could have
propagated landward if the rear part of the model (continental domain) was longer. The activity of fault
systems F1 and F2 last 165 mn during which the emersion of the coastal region accelerates. Meanwhile, the
thrust system F1 continues accommodating about 2/3 of the crustal shortening (Supplementary Material:
Video since 00:01:43).
The onset of compression triggers a new erosional phase and fluvial incision all along the uplifted portion
of the upper margin. Once the activity of the coastal faults ends with the birth of the F3 fault, regressive
erosion of rivers is no longer compensated by thrusting, inducing reorganization of the river network near
the onshore fault (Figure6-6 and 6-7). The river network is strongly perturbed and forced to re-organize
through river captures and deviation processes. The formation of wind gaps is also commonly observed. In
response to coastal uplift and folding, the shoreline continuously migrates seaward (Figure6-5, 6-6, and
6-7; video: since 00:02:27). The former deltaic deposits are quickly eroded and the wedge progrades under
forced regressive conditions (Figure6-6, 6-7). On the right part of the model, progradation leads the delta
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Figure 7. Example of morphologic markers associated with the Low Stand Sea-level stage (LSSL), corresponding to Stage 2 of the MSC (5.6–5.5Ma) on the
upper part of the margin (left) and at its base (right). See the text for details.

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wedge to reach and cover the F1 fault scarp (Figure6-6) inducing a simplified underwater slope with only a
limited low angle near the shoreline located at the top of a 4cm high scarp dipping downslope (Figure6-7).
6.4. Propagation of the Shortening Into the Deep Basin
About 180 mn after the onset of shortening, the conjugated activity of the submarine thrust system F1 and
the on-land backthrust F2 led to a significant shortening of the margin and a strong steepening of the sub-
marine slope, up to 50% and 30°, respectively (Figures6, 4 and 7). The margin slope reaches a critical taper
and triggers submarine landslides to cover fault scarps. Then, the deformation starts to propagate into the
abyssal plain. A new submarine thrust system (F3) initiates seaward of F1, straddling the low stand deposits
and the deep part of the basin (Figures7-8 and 8-3) and forming a piggy-back basin. From this stage, the ac-
commodation of the shortening is mainly accommodated by F1 and F3 thrust fault systems. The migration
of the shoreline shows that the margin is still uplifting but at a much slower rate. On land, the decrease of
F2 activity and associated coastal uplift induce a last and brief reorganization of the drainage network, trig-
gering some river captures at the footwall of F2 (Figure6-8). Then, the tectonic activity in the coastal region
almost ceases, the shoreline stabilizes and the erosion rate drastically decreases (Supplementary Material:
Video: since 00:02:46).
Offshore, the area limited by F1 and F3 thrust fault systems uplift and evolve as a perched basin up to the
end of the experiment (Figures7-8 and 8-3). Along the F1 fault scarp, growing deltaic wedges interacting
with active submarine landslides are still observed.
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Figure 8. Perspective views of the model surface (left) and interpretations (right) during (1) beginning of the sea-level
drawdown (eq. picture 2 on Figure6), (2) end of the sea-level low stand (eq. picture 3 on Figure6), and (3) final stage
(eq. picture 8 on Figure6). For each picture, water is removed, however, the shoreline is shown on the interpretation.

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7. Discussion
7.1. Match of the Model to Marine and Coastal Post-Messinian Evolution
Up to now, most geomorphic analog modeling focused on the interplay between tectonic and surface pro-
cesses in continental settings (Graveleau & Dominguez,2008; Graveleau & Dominguez, 2011; Graveleau
etal., 2011; Malavieille,2010; Schellart & Strak,2016; Strak etal.,2011). Our study explores for the first time
the joint modeling of emerged and submarine domains, paving the way to the study of sea-land tectonic
and morphogenetic interactions. In this study, we have identified and analyzed in detail three main types
of coupling: the transport processes and material flow between both domains (source to sink), the impact
of sea-level variations, and the mechanical tectonic couplings between offshore and onshore domains. We
briefly discuss our main findings for each process.
7.1.1. Sediment Transport and Flow
In the submerged domain, deposition processes dominate upon erosion processes. As the river flow is
stopped down in the marine domain, transported detritic material is deposited near the shoreline at the
river mouth (Figures7–9). Eroded mat IV is here sorted such as silica powder particles are deposited first,
followed by glass microbead and then PVC and graphite powders. Note that the smaller particles (<10 mi-
crons) are transported at greater distances through hyperpycnal flow processes and deposit by gravity far
from the river mouth. Interestingly, the organization of the main deposits on the slope is characterized by
two successive systems of seaward dipping foresets or chaotic units forming several fan-like units (Figures8
and 10) that are very similar to the two main fluvio-deltaic sedimentary systems emplaced at the margin
toe and on the slope during and after the MSC, namely, the chaotic and bedded units (chaotic Unit CU and
Bedded Unit BU, almost synchronous to the deposition of salt layer MU and related to Messinian fluvial
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Figure 9. Picture (top) and interpretation (bottom) of a cross-section (right) performed at the end of the experiment through the main drainage displaying the
complex association of thrusts at depth, erosion left to the shoreline, and deposition of foresets below sea level.

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systems; Figure4) and the Plio-Quaternary unit, respectively (Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage,
etal.,2011; Strzerzynski etal.,2010). Furthermore, the imposed low sea-level fluctuations during the low
stand period perfectly manage to reproduce the internal structure of the deep Upper Unit UU (Lofi, Sage,
etal.,2011), thus providing a convincing succession of depositional events. The widest fan with a low angle
foreset and the best internal organization has been obtained during high sea-level (Figure9).
7.1.2. Sea-Level Fluctuations
Along the coastal region, the sea domain defines the base level of the river network. In the context of a
sea-level drop or tectonic uplift, rivers record strong regressive erosion (Figure6-4). The upstream migra-
tion of knickpoints has been observed during the MSC low stand sea-level (Supplementary Material: Video:
00:00:09 to 00:00:40 and). It takes several minutes in the experiment until the knickpoints, generated by the
sea-level drop, reach the boundaries of the drainage basin. Later, as sea-level increases, the lower part of
valleys becomes invaded by the marine domain forming analogs of natural rias such as the Mitidja valley
(Rubino & Clauzon,2008; Rubino etal.,2005). As a consequence, river incision capacity is then strongly
reduced (Figure7-4). As in the case of land rivers, the evolution of deltas is closely related to the relative sea
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Figure 10. Picture (top) and interpretation (middle) of a cross-section performed at the end of the analog experiment through MSC deposits, in the lower
margin and deep basin. 1: basement; 2: chaotic bodies (CU for Chaotic Unit) deposited during sea-level drawdown during Stage 2 of the MSC and related to
Messinian fluvial systems (Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011); 3: microbeads manually deposited at the end of the sea-level drawdown, aiming at reproducing the halite
deposition (MU) at the beginning of Stage 2 of the MSC; 4: well-sorted deltaic formation deposited during the sea-level low-stand, at the end of the MSC (Stage
3), featuring the last part of CU and at least part of the high-amplitude Upper Unit UU identified in the deep offshore of the Western Mediterranean Sea (Lofi,
Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011). Stages refer to the time periods of the MSC proposed by Roveri etal.(2019) by onshore–offshore correlation of
sedimentary successions. Bottom: for comparison, time seismic section interpreted off the central Algerian margin (location on Figure2), modified from Lofi,
Sage, etal.(2011), showing that the angular relationships between sedimentary units are similar to the model, although the salt layer MU underwent significant
diapirism and the late tectonic inversion has induced post-deposition folding and faulting.

Tectonics
level. During sea-level decrease or tectonic uplift, deltas are migrating seaward, the foreset angle becomes
higher, and the internal organization of the fan, more chaotic (Figures8 and 9). Higher foreset angle and
more chaotic internal structures are the results of the quick migration of the marine deposits downslope,
erosion of the emerged part of the deltas, and landsliding on the delta's slope. This results in a new mixing
(reworking) of the previously sorted materials (Figures8 and 9). At the end of the sea-level low stand stage,
instantaneous sea-level rise induced an instantaneous migration of the fan upslope.
All these observations of fan migration relative to sea-level change and/or tectonic uplift are at first order in
good agreement with the principles of sequential stratigraphy and transport processes from an emerged to
submerged domains (e.g., Vail etal., 1977) and with the succession or syn- and post-MSC depositional his-
tory in the Western Mediterranean Sea (Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011). Furthermore,
sorting of material and preservation of layering is directly coupled with sea-level stability and deposition
environment: fans related to fast sea-level drawdown are more chaotic than fans growing during a slow
vertical motion related to tectonic uplift.
7.1.3. Interactions Between Submarine and Inland Tectonics
Soon after the initiation of model shortening, a long-wavelength diffuse deformation affecting both the
margin and the continental domains is observed. The model experiences a generalized buckling inducing
compressional stress at its front and subsurface dilatancy along a central axial region. Accordingly, the
coastal domain starts to uplift at a slow rate and the frontal margin slope to slightly tilt seaward (video: since
00:01:20). This transitional phase of deformation is related to compaction of the model and ends with the
initiation of thrust F1, soon followed by the development of a back-thrust F2 (Figure11).
The two conjugated fault systems F1 and F2 form the boundaries of a large popup structure straddling the
shoreline. Because the initial margin shape evolves from one side of the model to the other, the popup is
wider to the left and the uplifted region includes a large part of the underwater margin whereas it affects
more the upper part of the margin and continental domain to the right. There is a good agreement between
the size of the popups in the model (40–60cm) and nature (30–50km) suggesting that faults root at a depth
similar to 20–30cm in nature. The competition between F1 and F2 activity appears to control the general
kinematics of the uplifted region and, more specifically, the uplift rate of the coastal domain.
The generalized erosion affecting the coastal domain initiates sediment flow toward the sea which intensity
is controlled by the interaction between the uplift and erosion rates imposed by active fault kinematics and
the rainfall system, respectively. It can be noted that the removal of material on the hanging-wall of back-
thrust F2 locally decreases the normal stress, contributing, then, to slightly extending its activity through
time.
The seaward propagation of the deformation into the deep sea basin, illustrated by the initiation of thrust
F3 (and thrust F1’ in a first stage), sign a major re-organization of crustal shortening accommodation across
the margin. Thrust F1 slip rate decreases by 50 percent while F2 back thrust activity rapidly decreases
toward zero. After a few tens of minutes, thrust F3 accommodates alone close to 70 percent of model short-
ening. This transfer of the deformation to the more external part of the model indicates that the growing
accretionary wedge has reached a dynamic state of equilibrium. Consequently, tectonic activity in the upper
part of the margin and coastal domain strongly decreased and depicts very slow strain rates today, in good
agreement with observations of Quaternary faulting (Authemayou etal.,2017; Heddar etal.,2013) and GPS
measurements (Bougrine etal.,2019). Only residual uplift and shortening are reported, probably related to
deep underthrusting processes, and the shoreline position tends to stabilize.
7.2. Modeling the Effects of the MSC
For the experiment, we have imposed a 3.5cm high and 12 mn long water drawdown to simulate a 1,500m
high sea-level fall which is assumed to have lasted about 150Kyr in Nature. Although these values may
change according to the scenarios chosen, they are, to first order, in agreement with drawdown amplitude
and duration generally assumed for the MSC and represent here upper bounds (CIESM,2008; Clauzon
etal.,1996, 2015; Gautier etal., 1994; Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011; Roveri etal.,2019;
Ryan,2011).
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Offshore, the first evidence of the sea-level drawdown is associated with the migration of detritic deposits
without any well-developed internal layering down to the foot of the continental slope. Similar complex
units (CU) have been observed in an equivalent position all along the Mediterranean margin and inter-
preted as deep (and coarse?) detrital fans at the foot of the continental slope during the MSC (e.g., Lofi
etal.,2005; Lofi, Déverchère, etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011; Sage etal., 2005; Figure4). This event
has also produced in the upper margins a generalized erosional surface (MES) that is also well devel-
oped in the model as channel incision in the drainage network, slope diffusion, and regressive erosion
(Figure6). It is also well recognized that at the MSC onset and during the first stage of sea-level drop
(marginal basin stage 1, 6.0–5.6Ma), gravity slidings and flows are resulting from the early sea-level drop
(Lofi etal., 2005) but maybe also to margin steepening due to the weight of brines in the basin (Govers
etal.,2009; Ryan,2011), which is also what is observed in our experiment as soon as the sea-level drop is
triggered.
During the sea-level low stand, detritic bodies with a better organization are deposited over the previous
fans and the analog of the halite layer MU. This observation suggests that detritic bodies formed during
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Figure 11. Top: Kinematics of fault systems F1, F2, F3, and F1’ as illustrated by the proportion of shortening
accommodated through time. Bottom: Fault map showing the main thrust fault systems. The dotted line shows the
location of the fault kinematic analysis.

Tectonics
and after the sea-level drawdown have a different shape and internal organization. Two different Messinian
complexes units have indeed been distinguished in the Algiers area at the margin toe (Lofi, Déverchère,
etal.,2011; Lofi, Sage, etal.,2011), the oldest one being coeval with the deposition of salt and the youngest
one with the MSC Upper Unit. The timing and the position of detritic deposits found in nature and our
modeling thus agrees with a scenario of drawdown ending after the precipitation of the thick halite layer
and characterized by two erosion surfaces of different origins, the first one (stage 1) occurring at the end of
the primary evaporites deposition in marginal settings, and the second one (stage 2) during a major sea-lev-
el fall (Clauzon etal.,1996; Ryan,2011). Glacio-eustatic changes during these stages (Hodell etal., 2001)
could have favored sea-water supply, salt thickening and progradation or layering of deep units CU1 and
CU2 (Figure10). Note that since deep basin subsidence is not simulated in the analog model, some related
sedimentary processes are not reproduced.
On land, the model highlights the propagation of a wave of regressive erosion upslope, re-incising pre-ex-
isting rivers and valleys. On the Algerian shore, similar Messinian paleo-valleys are identified (from west to
east, the Cheliff, Algiers, and Soumman incised canyons): the Messinian valleys are transformed into rias
infilled by large Pliocene deltas which are nowadays found on land owing to the progressive coastal uplift
(Authemayou etal.,2017; Rubino & Clauzon,2008; Rubino etal.,2005; Figure3).
7.3. A Two-Step Algerian Margin Inversion
7.3.1. Early Fault Pattern, Popup Structure, and Coastal Uplift
7.3.1.1. Faulting
The first shortening phase of the model is characterized by the formation of conjugate reverse faults locat-
ed both onshore and offshore. Offshore, faults are located in the middle of the slope and at the foot of the
margin and are dipping landward below the northern extension of the Kabylian block, as testified by marine
studies (Aïdi etal.,2018; Déverchère etal.,2005; A. Leprêtre et al.,2013; Strzerzynki etal., 2010; Yelles
etal., 2009). Onshore, deformation occurs only along one main north-dipping thrust located close to the
Messinian shoreline (a few tens of centimeters at the end of the experiment (i.e., ca. 10–20km on the field),
in agreement with similar active reverse faults reported in Greater Kabylia (Aïte and Gélard.,1997; Boud-
iaf etal.,1998; Figures2 and 4) and in the Sahel of Algiers (Authemayou etal.,2017; Heddar etal.,2013;
Meghraoui,1991; Figure2). These faults form the boundaries of a popup structure located on both sides of
the shoreline/coastal domain. In our study area, a very similar popup structure is observed (Figures1 and
2), especially in the area of the KAD bank where a unique thrust is observed offshore, at the foot of the con-
tinental slope, and where a low-rate present-day tectonic activity is reported in the coastal domain (Sahel
Fault: Authemayou etal.,2017; Heddar etal.,2013; Yelles etal.,2009).
7.3.1.2. Surface Processes
As a consequence of the popup growth, both model and nature provide evidence for a coastal uplift, seaward
migration of the shoreline, and emersion of a part of the margin. Offshore, model evolution (Figure8), and
cross-sections of the final stage (Figure10) highlight the strong mobility of detritic deposits: newly depos-
ited materials upslope are quickly emerged and later on eroded, transported, and resedimented downslope.
Consequently, only foresets are built and indeed preserved in nature (Déverchère etal.,2010; Strzerzynski
etal.,2010; Yelles etal., 2009) and the model (Figure10), confirming the lack of available space for the
deposition of aggradational beds on the shelf. Onshore, the > 10km wavelength uplift is associated with
the model with the progressive emersion of the top of the margin. Strong erosion processes quickly destroy
all previous deposits and later affect the basement (Supplementary Material: Video: from the beginning to
00:00:10). River incision increases and favors the formation of abandoned terraces in the model, which is
indeed reported in the coastal domain of central Algeria, especially in areas located between the coastline
and the coastal faults (west: Sahel fault, Heddar etal., 2013; Authemayou etal., 2017; east: the northern
boundary of the Tizzi Ouzou - Sebaou basin; Boudiaf,1996). Uplifted beaches are here preserved from ero-
sion (Figure2).
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7.3.2. Submarine Tectonic Wedge Growth and Drainage Evolution
A major second step of the inversion in the model is characterized by the birth of a new fault (F3) propa-
gating into the deep basin, while the backthrust F2 becomes inactive and Thrust F3 strongly decreases its
activity (Figure11). The F3 fault forms the seaward boundary of a perched (piggyback) basin. Similar fault
pattern and perched basins have been reported especially off the Boumerdès and Dellys areas (Figure2–4
and Figure12; Déverchère etal.,2005; Domzig etal.,2006; Strzerzynski etal.,2010). During this late stage
(Quaternary), the uplift of the margin continues, at a much slower rate, both in the model and in nature,
implying that crustal material is incorporated at the base of the wedge by underthrusting (Figures8 and 9).
The eastern part of the Algiers area is the only place where river changes related to tectonic processes have
been evidenced (Boudiaf etal.,1998; Djemai, 1985; Figure4). Similarly, this is also the only place where
deformation propagates into the deep basin and reaches the surface (Dan-Unterseh etal., 2011; Domzig
etal.,2006, Strzerzynski etal.,2010; Figures2 and 3). This suggests that river changes in this area may have
been the direct consequence of the propagation of the deformation and the initiation of a tectonic wedge
in the deep basin, while strain rates on the coastal faults or within Greater Kabylia become very low, as
supported by continuous GPS measurements (Bougrine etal.,2019).
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Figure 12. Comparison of the tectonic and morphological features between the final stage of the model (bottom) and central Algerian margin (top). The
similar structures are labeled from offshore to onshore (north to south): (1) landward dipping thrust faults bounding perched (piggy-back) basins formed during
the margin inversion stage 2; (2, 3, 4, 5, 6) landward dipping thrust faults and blind thrust faults (5) bounding perched basins on the continental slope (stage 1);
(7) emerged part of the uplifted margin; (8) backthrust; (9) uplifted alluvial surface. Pink surfaces are the main zones of sedimentation in perched basins on the
slope and deep basin.

Tectonics
7.3.3. Thin-Skinned or Thick-Skinned Tectonics?
Our wedge model is based on the assumption of the occurrence of a décollement layer located beneath the
margin and dipping below the margin. Although such a structure has been only indirectly suggested as
crustal flat-ramp systems by seismic studies (Aïdi etal.,2018; Déverchère etal.,2005; Roure etal.,2012), the
existence of a crustal decoupling layer in the lower crust of the stretched continental margin is supported
by the Mw 6.9 2003 Boumerdès-Zemmouri earthquake source location and aftershock sequence (Kherroubi
etal.,2017). Many fold-and-thrust belts worldwide depict a similar style of thick-skinned tectonics (Pfiff-
ner,2017). Whether the decoupling layer in the lower crust propagates outward as a décollement layer at the
top of the basement (Figure4) is not demonstrated. Whatever the case, the overall geometry of the thrust
system in our case study is similar to the outward propagation modeled in numerical experiments where
successive thick-skinned thrusts emerging from the crust drive thin-skinned detachment of the sedimenta-
ry pile (Erdös etal.,2014; Pfiffner,2017).
8. Concluding Remarks
Analog modeling coupling sedimentation, erosion, and tectonic inversion of a passive continental margin
have provided numerous similarities with the Algerian margin regarding the structural and sedimentary
pattern and the surface processes (Figure12).
First, our simulation of sea-level oscillations during the MSC leads to destruction and re-sedimentation of
deposits from the upper slope to the abyssal plain. In the lower margin, the sedimentary succession com-
prises first, chaotic bodies as the sea-level drawdown and second, well-sorted (deltaic) deposits during the
sea-level low stand, whereas in the upper margin, a large erosional surface with a dense drainage network
are ultimately covered by large deltas and hemipelagic deposits. A sea-level fall and rise of ca. 1,500 m
appears to match both in space and time the succession of the main depositional and erosional events, the
latter being underlined by the upstream migration of knickpoints within rivers.
Second, our experiments highlight a two-stage inversion of the margin in agreement with the tectono-sed-
imentary evolution of the central Algerian margin, characterized by the birth and growth of (1) a large
popup structure subparallel to the coastline onshore and (2) piggy-back basins offshore. Our results provide
the frame to interpret the south-dipping Boumerdès-Zemmouri earthquake rupture plane as an in-sequence
thrust (F1 in the model), the coastal fault system as an out-of-sequence thrust (F2), and the Pliocene to
present-day tectonic structures as prograding in-sequence thrusts (F3). These results support the early de-
velopment of a thick-skinned/thin-skinned tectonic style within less than 5 Myr preceding a process of
subduction inception. Although the onset of margin inversion may have started during Tortonian times,
the main stages of the sedimentary, erosional, and morphological evolution of the central Algerian margin
can be explained by a significant Post-Messinian tectonic shortening at rates less than 2mm/year and ex-
humation (uplift) at rates less than 0.5mm/year. The a posteriori comparison of the overall geometry and
finite deformation between nature and our preferred model (Figure12) supports the hypothesis that in the
inversion process, the pre-Messinian deformation is a smaller order of magnitude compared to post-Messin-
ian deformation.
Finally, our modeling shows that the growth of a large popup structure (F1 and F2 faults), and later of the
F3 fault outward, which takes over F1 and F2 in a late-stage, strongly influences drainage and depositional
patterns. For instance, the comparison of our modeling and the study area (Figure12) evidences the de-
velopment of hinterland and foreland catchments, the abandonment or persistence of antecedent rivers,
deflected drainages, laterally propagating structures, and aggradation in piggyback basins, which are all typ-
ical features formed where growing folds interact with coeval depositional systems (Burbank etal.,1996).
Beyond the scope of the Algerian margin, such kind of inversion model may be applied to other inverted
margins, for example, the Palomares margin in southern Spain (Giaconia etal.,2015) or the north-Sicilian
margin in the south Tyrrhenian sea (Billi etal.,2007).
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Data Availability Statement
Readers can access to the full movie record of the presented experiment at the following address: https://
doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3896784
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Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the French
National Research Agency (ANR,
Agence Nationale de la Recherche)
under the Project ANR-06-CATT-005
DANACOR Déformations Actives
au Nord de l’Afrique, des Chaînes à
l’Océan: Vers une évaluation des Risques
géologiques associés. Christian Romano
is greatly acknowledged for his efficient
technical support in performing the
analog experiments. We are grateful
to the Editor Laurent Jolivet and to
three reviewers for their constructive
comments.

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