Water Scarcity in Kenya: Current Status, Challenges and Future Solutions

Abstract

Growing water demand and water scarcity have turned into a prominent challenge to livelihood in several parts worldwide. Global warming, water pollution, population growth, urbanization, and poor management of water resources have aggravated the issue of the water crisis. Water scarcity is ex-pected to affect socio-economic activities, food security, education, health, and intensity climate change, hereby has caught the attention of the public. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, Clean water and sanitation, sets various targets to make water sustainable for use by the year 2030. However, water scarcity assessment remains a challenge. Kenya, which has a growing population, is known as a water-scarce country due to its low supply of renewable freshwater (<1000 m3/capita/year). Different initiatives are put in place to help in the mitigation and management of water resources. They include water policies to ensure the protection of water catchment areas, reduction of pollution as well as enhancing access to clean water and sanitation. This paper reviewed some of the water scarcity challenges in Kenya and potential future solutions.

Full text

Open Access Library Journal
2021, Volume 8, e7096
ISSN Online: 2333-9721
ISSN Print: 2333-9705
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 Jan. 20, 2021 1 Open Access Library
Journal
Water Scarcity in Kenya: Current Status,
Challenges and Future Solutions
Faith Mulwa1,2, Zhuo Li2,3*, Fangnon Firmin Fangninou1,2
1UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development, College of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Tongji University, Shanghai, China
2State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science & Engineering,
Tongji University, Shanghai, China
3Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
Abstract
Growing water demand and water scarcity have turned into a prominent
challenge to livelihood in several parts worldwide. Global warming, water
pollution, population growth, urbanization, and poor management of water
resources have aggravated the issue of the water crisis. Water scarcity is ex-
pected to affect socio-
economic activities, food security, education, health,
and intensity climate change, hereby has caught the attention of the public.
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6
, Clean water and
sanitation, sets various targets to make water sustainable for use by the year
2030. However, water scarcity assessment remains a challenge. Kenya, which
has a growing population, is known as a water-
scarce country due to its low
supply of renewable freshwater (<1000 m3
/capita/year). Different initiatives
are put in place to help in the mitigation and management of water resources.
They include water policies to ensure the protection of water catchment
areas, reduction of pollution as well
as enhancing access to clean water and
sanitation. This paper reviewed some of the water scarcity challenges in
Kenya and potential future solutions.
Subject Areas
Hydrology
Keywords
Water Scarcity, Kenya, Water Resources, Indicators, Policy
1. Introduction
Water is an indispensable resource not only for sustaining all life but also for
How to cite this paper:
Mulwa, F., Li
, Z.
and
Fangninou, F.F. (2021)
Water Scarcity
in Kenya: Current Status, Challenges and
Future Solutions
.
Open Access Library
Journal
,
8
: e7096.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107096
Received:
December 18, 2020
Accepted:
January 17, 2021
Published:
January 20, 2021
Copyright
© 2021 by author(s) and Open
Access Library Inc
.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY
4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 2
Open Access Library Journal
human socio-economic development. Global water demand is likely to surpass
supply by more than 40% by 2030 and by more than 50% in the developing
countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa [1]. Consequently, over four billion
people are facing severe water scarcity at least one month annually, while half a
billion people experience severe water scarcity throughout the year [2]. Fur-
thermore, estimates show that by 2050, 90% of the 3 billion people are expected
to be added to the population of those who will be from developing countries
and areas facing challenges of clean water and sanitation [3]. Population increase
will eventually result in reduced per capita availability of water [4].
The water scarcity situation has worsened in most developing countries due to
rapid population growth, economic development and urbanization which has
made it so difficult to address the issue as well as providing adequate sanitation
services [5]. A country is defined as water-stressed if the per capita water availa-
bility is below 1700 m3 per year. Kenya is among the water-scarce countries
across the world with per capita availability below 1000 m3 annually [6]. The
struggle for accessing clean and safe water is a problem experienced by more
than 18 million people today. Previous studies indicate that only about 56% of
the population has the access to a clean water supply [7]. Citizens mainly those
in rural areas are forced to travel long distances of up to 8 miles to reach water
that is highly polluted and even unsafe for human consumption [7].
The growth of Kenya’s urban population and rapid urbanization of the rural
areas is on the rise hence increasing domestic water demand, industrial and
agricultural uses. However, challenges faced in the water sector, such as popula-
tion pressure, water scarcity, climate change and water quality cannot be unde-
restimated. To achieve the 2030 Agenda, water scarcity is a priority issue to be
addressed [8]. The increasing rate of wastewater production with inadequate
wastewater treatment resources and systems that are insufficient has led to ef-
fluent discharge into river systems. This not only leads to the degradation of
downstream ecosystems but also causes health problems to humans [9]. There is
a dire need for developing countries to shift from current water management
practices to sustainable ways such as water reuse [10] as well as embarking on
massive water development projects [11]. Population growth has caused an im-
balance between water demand and supply in the country. This has led to a state
of water crisis to the people hence incapable of meeting their water needs. How-
ever, policy frameworks are enacted to enhance management of the resources.
This paper reviews the status of management of water resources, some of the
challenges of water scarcity in Kenya. We hypothesize that a better understand-
ing of water scarcity is important because it affects both the users and policy-
makers regarding the urgency to address the water crisis as well as their views on
the most effective policies to address the crisis. Therefore, we further examine
future solutions in water management that will help in the improvement of the
water sector, the policies and regulations set to ensure that water laws are ad-
hered to.

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 3 Open Access
Library Journal
2. Water Resources in Kenya
Kenya’s natural renewable water resources mainly rely on little and fragile cat-
chments covered by the montane forests in the country’s highland areas with a
humid climate. The main five water towers in the country include Mt. Elgon,
Cherangani Hills, Mau Forest Complex, Aberdare Ranges and Mt. Kenya. How-
ever, they are the main sources of many rivers in Kenya, feeding into major
lakes, including Lake Victoria, Lake Nakuru, Lake Naivasha, Lake Baringo, Lake
Natron, and Lake Turkana [12]. Kenya’s water resources are considered to be
unevenly distributed, both across and within as shown in Figure 1 [13]. The
catchments contribute to over 75% of the nation’s surface water resources. Table
1 shows the condition of the main catchments. Currently, the government has a
challenge in agricultural development sector and growth of the country’s eco-
nomic status [14].
Figure 1. Kenya’s water towers [13].

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 4
Open Access Library Journal
Table 1. Status of the main water catchment areas in Kenya [18].
Watershed name Catchment
area (ha)
Max. altitude (m)
Gazetted forest
area (ha) Main river
Mt. Kenya 1,253,959 5199 203,145
(4% cropland) Tana, Athi
Aberdare 1,097,895 4001 104,078
(11% cropland) Ewaso Ngiro, Athi
Mau Forest Complex 874,746 3098 404,706
(25% cropland) Mara, Nyando, Yala
Cherangani Hills 212,267 3365 120,841
(19% cropland) Nzoia, Turkwell
Mt. Elgon 2 49,996 4320 72,547
(15% cropland) Nzoia, Turkwell
Figure 2 depicts that overall Kenya’s renewable resources per capita [15]. Ke-
nyans are consuming about 33 billion m3, of which their total renewable water
resources only amount to 30.7 billion m3, this results in a difference of 2.7 m3
[16]. Additionally, some studies show that Kenya has 15% of its available water
resources developed. This water is not easily accessible due to the increase in
costs of water access or even technical challenges [17].
3. Rundown of Typical Water Scarcity Indicators
Since the late 1980s, when water scarcity was recognized to be a concern, many
indicators have been developed to help in assessing water scarcity status adapta-
ble to any area of the world [19]. Moreover, a comprehensive assessment of wa-
ter quality and quantity status is important for global, regional, national, and lo-
cal policy-relevant.
3.1. The Falkenmark Indicator
The Falkenmark Indicator requires the number of people living in a given spatial
domain and the volume of water available in that domain [20]. The water vo-
lume available per person is then calculated in m3/cap/year. The indicator relies
on population hence leading to the Water Crowding Index (WCI), which meas-
ures the number of people per unit of available water. A value of 1700
m3/cap/year of renewable freshwater was suggested to be the threshold for water
scarcity below which social stress and high competition for water emerge [21]. If
water availability falls below 1000 m3/cap/year then the area experiences high
water scarcity while below 500 m3/cap/year is absolute scarcity. This indicator
disregards temporal variability and some important drivers of demand which are
related to economic growth, lifestyle as well as technological developments [22].
Management practices and infrastructure are not contemplated by the index,
therefore, the simple threshold does not reflect the true spatial distribution of
demand within the domains over which the index is normally calculated.

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 5 Open Access
Library Journal
Figure 2. Total renewable resources per capita in Kenya [15].
In Kenya, population growth has been used as the main determinant of water
scarcity. However, this is quite deceptive since population growth is not only the
aspect that influences water use. Such a scenario is menacing and may lead to
skewed policy formulation.
3.2. Water Use to Availability Ratio
The relationship between water use and water availability (criticality ratio) eva-
luates the amount of water used and relates it to the available renewable water
resources [23]. This model is used spatially explicitly on a global scale with a
high-level spatial resolution [24]. Water use refers to either water consumption
or water withdrawals. Water consumption quantifies the amount that is re-
moved from rivers, lakes, or groundwater sources and evaporated into the at-
mosphere while for the case of water withdrawal, it quantifies the amount of
water that is withdrawn from these sources, where some part eventually returns
to the system by either leakage or return flow. Previous studies have used the ex-
isting water scarcity withdrawal to indicate water use [25]. According to [26],
water consumption is much smaller compared to withdrawal, the ratio of con-
sumption to average available renewable water resources usually specifies an
unrealistic low level of water scarcity. Therefore, as per this model, a high level
of water stress occurs given that water withdrawal exceeds 40% of the available
water resources [23]. However, parts of water withdrawal return to the water
bodies, and the actual proportion of the return flow vary across regions. It ob-
vious this depends on the natural, social-economic, and various technical condi-
tions. Therefore, using 40% as a water scarcity threshold, may not be consistent
in specifying the status of water scarcity across different regions.
3.3. Physical and Economic Water Scarcity
The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) used this indicator for

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 6
Open Access Library Journal
evaluating water scarcity by combining both physical and economic water scar-
city [27]. IWMI considers the amount of water supply from renewable freshwa-
ter resources for human consumption while accounting for the existing water
infrastructure such as desalinization plants and water stored in reservoirs. This
index considers an individual country’s potential to develop water infrastructure
as well as improving irrigation water use efficiency. Their analysis yielded
five-country groupings. Country groupings were used to define whether coun-
tries are either economic or physical water stress [28]. Physical scarcity happens
where countries are not able to meet the estimated water demand in 2025, even
after accounting for the national adaptive capacity while economic scarcity oc-
curs when countries have sufficient renewable water resources but in order to
make the resources available for consumption by 2025, they are expected to have
investments mostly in water infrastructure. The limitation of the IWMI model is
it’s considered to be more complex and time-consuming in computation. How-
ever, the interpretation is said to be less intuitive hence less attractive for pres-
entation to public or policy audience [28].
3.4. Water Poverty Index
The Water Poverty Index (WPI) examines the link in the physical extent of wa-
ter availability, ease of abstraction and the level of community well-being [29]. It
features five key components such as water quantity, quality and variability; wa-
ter access for human consumption; water use for different purposes; peoples’
ability to water management; and environmental components. The WPI eva-
luates the situation facing poor water endowments along with poor adaptive ca-
pacity. The WPI is calculated with the weighted average components, each of
which is first standardized so that it falls in the range 0 to 100; thus the resulting
WPI value is also in the range of 0 and 100, representing the lowest and the
highest level of water poverty [30]. The indicator has the benefit of comprehen-
siveness. Its implementation is hampered by its complexity and lack of adequate
information for some components required for establishing the indicator on
large scale [28].
4. Spatial Distribution of Water Scarcity
Uneven distribution of water may be linked to precipitation, the geographical
landscapes, availability, population distribution as well as socio-economic fac-
tors. However, variation in the water supply occurs when the supply during dry
seasons does not meet the demand, and this could be with the total quantity and
quality supplied and the reliability of supply [31] [32]. From previous studies
done in 2014, 31.6% of Kenya’s population use unimproved drinking-water
sources, involving 7.3% of the population use unprotected dug wells, 4.4% un-
protected springs, 1.5% tanker trucks or carts with drum, and 18.4% surface wa-
ter [33]. The higher number (85.7%) of the urban population have access to im-
proved drinking-water sources, whilst about half (41.5%) of the rural population

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 7 Open Access
Library Journal
use unimproved drinking-water sources [33]. Unimproved water sources such as
unprotected dug wells and surface water (that includes untreated water from
rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes) have been illustrated as shown in Figure 3
[33]. However, areas of Western and Central Kenya have a higher unprotected
dug wells occupancy and surface water is sparsely distributed in Eastern Kenya
[33].
5. Challenges and Impacts of Water Scarcity in Kenya
Water management is a major challenge in Kenya across the decades. However,
water scarcity has led to poor sanitation and poor hygiene collectively posing
substantial health risks, particularly in low-income regions and eventually con-
tributing to the emergence of some diseases. Water shortage in Kenya is largely
pronounced in rural areas and largely in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs)
which has led to the strain on women and children having the task of searching
for water especially for domestic use. Water shortage has caused children to be
more vulnerable by affecting their education life whereby in some regions,
children miss out from attending school in search of water. Children living in
low-income areas and especially in informal settlements are vulnerable; hence
resulting to morbidity and mortality in children due to diarrhea and consump-
tion of unsafe water. Reports done by the Disease Control Priority Project shows
that 90% of the deaths can be avoided through improved sanitation, hygiene and
water supply.
Figure 3. Distribution of unprotected dug wells and surface
water points in various regions across Kenya [33].

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 8
Open Access Library Journal
5.1. Population Growth and Urbanization
Kenya’s population has been rising since 1948 to date (Figure 4) [34]. The
population growth rate estimate is at least 2.6% per annum. Therefore, this
implies that the population is predicted to grow to about 53 million by the
end of the plan period in 2022 as per the projections of the Kenya National
Bureau of Statistics. Kenya highly depends on natural resources and in par-
ticular agriculture, the growing population will face considerable pressure on
water resources including encroachment of marginal lands to cater for human
settlement. It is projected that 70% of the world’s population may live in ur-
ban areas by 2050 [35]. Population growth continues to increase the water
demand in the agricultural sector, industrial and domestic uses (Figure 5)
[36]. Lack of access to clean water is one of the major challenges among the
urban population in Kenya. Rapid urbanization has caused many people
across the country unable to cope with the high demand for a clean and suffi-
cient water supply.
Figure 4. Population growth trends in Kenya [34].
Figure 5. Population growth in relation to total water demand for all sectors in Kenya
[36].
5.4
10.9
23.7
28.7
38.6
46.6
53
1948
1969
1989
1999
2009
2017
2022
POPULALATION GROWTH (MILLION)
YEAR

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 9 Open Access
Library Journal
Figure 6. Institutional setup for water management and provision in Kenya under Water Act 2002 (Adapted from
[43] [44]).
5.2. Water Pollution
Water pollution has affected water quality due to various pollutants such as
chemical, microbiological, thermal pollutants among others [37]. Chemical con-
tamination may result from the presence of excess nutrients, heavy metal con-
tents, salinity, acidification, and changes in sediment loads. However, microbio-
logical contamination can result from the presence of either bacteria, viruses or
protozoa present in water. Studies indicate that 32.5% of industries and 14% of
agriculture are key contributors to the economic development of a population
[38]. In contrast, 80% of water pollution and contamination come from these
two sectors. Growth and development of agricultural sector in Kenya have led to
an increase in the use of fertilizers. Agrochemicals eventually enter into water
bodies causing pollution. Furthermore, some industrial and the country gov-
ernment’s sewage plants may release partially treated or completely untreated ef-
fluents into the surface water sources containing high levels of toxic substances.
As a result, this affects most people living in the urban informal settlements due
to lack of access to clean water hence causing disease outbreaks affecting their
health and livelihoods.
5.3. Encroachment of Water Catchment
Kenya’s forest cover is currently at 6.99% of its land area which is below the Ke-
nyan constitutional requirement of 10% [39]. Kenya’s forests support five major
catchment areas namely: Mount Kenya, Aberdare Range, Cherangani Hills, Mt.
Elgon and Mau Forest Complex.
These water sources are “Kenya’s water towers” as they form the upper cat-
chment of all except one main river in Kenya. These water catchment areas with
a coverage of only 2% of the total land area provide important services to the

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 10
Open Access Library Journal
economy of Kenya as well as supporting transboundary water bodies, underlying
their regional and international importance [40]. Some activities like poor
farming practices and deforestation lead to the degradation of these water cat-
chment areas. The catchment degradation has led to increased surface runoff,
flash floods, reduction in infiltration, erosion and siltation among others. Pro-
tection of the catchment environment is vital for the security and sustainability
of urban water supply and the minimization of water scarcity. These water tow-
ers have been damaged severely due to human encroachment, agricultural activ-
ities, rapid human population growth, illegal logging, charcoal burning, water
pollution and other illegal abstractions by some industries and urban settle-
ments. Land cover changes may cause negative impacts both within the forest
and downstream in the form of water shortages, health problems, and desertifi-
cation as well.
6. Solutions to Water Scarcity: Sustainable and Integrated
Approaches
Future prospects are important for the type of solutions that would be appropri-
ate in solving water scarcity issues in Kenya. Different techniques have been
used to solve the issue of water scarcity. Water recycling and reuse are some of
the reliable techniques which have been recognized as adaptive solutions to wa-
ter scarcity, considering water reuse has the concept of a circular economy.
However, the adoption of advanced technological solutions and practices that
improve water use efficiency by users should be a primary goal for water man-
agement to reduce water loss, support the sustainability of water resources, and
increase the economic profitability of water.
6.1. Water Scarcity and SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Clean water and sanitation remain vital for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable De-
velopment, yet Kenya has achieved less when it comes to ensuring the availabili-
ty and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all [41]. The Sus-
tainable Development Goal 6, target 6.4 relates to water use and scarcity, where
it illustrates that: “By 2030, substantially increasing water-use efficiency across
all sectors and ensuring the sustainable withdrawals and supply of fresh water in
order to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people
affected by water scarcity.” [42]. The SDG guidance notes that a “high level of
water stress can have negative impact on the economic development, increased
competition and have potential conflict among different users, which calls for
the effective supply and demand management policies as well as an increase in
water-use efficiency. The key point for water managers and policymakers is that
the portion of overall water that can effectively be used to meet demand at the
right place can be enhanced by implementing appropriate policies or interven-
tions, such as reducing the direct surface runoff through catchment restoration,
water transport, and water storage technologies.

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 11 Open Access
Library Journal
6.2. Water Policy and Implications
Water Act was enacted in Kenya to mainly provide the management, conserva-
tion, use and the control of water resources and for the regulation of rights to
water usage; provision of regulations and management of water supply and se-
werage services; to repeal the Water Act (Cap. 372) and provisions of Local
Government Act; and other related purposes. The Act aims at improving the
living standards among different people by ensuring proper access to water ser-
vices. However, it provides management and development of water resources
supply and sewerage development, intending to conserve, protect available water
resources and allocate suitably and economically as well as supplying water in
sufficient quantities to meet the various water needs while ensuring safe disposal
of water. This Act therefore clearly outlines methods and ways of ensuring that
water is availed to all and its provision is ensured and managed adequately and
sustainably.
Kenya has enacted policies at the national and regional levels to guide the
conservation and management of its water resources. Crucial reforms have been
set up in the water sector that culminates in the enactment of the Water Act of
2002 and the consequent formation of various Water Resource Users Associa-
tions (WRUAs) by the Water Resource Management Authority. The National
Policy on Water Resources Management and Development through the Water
Act 2002 guides the water resources management and the provision of water
services in the country (Figure 6) [43] [44]. The Water Sector Trust Fund
(WSTF) was established under the Water Act and restructured from the Water
Services Trust Fund to Water Sector Trust Fund (WSTF). The mandate of
WSTF is financing water and sanitation services in the country. The establish-
ment of these institutions aims to organize the water sector in the country and
by ensuring that the anticipated universal access to water is achieved.
The Water Act 2016 establishes a Water Resources Authority which is a regu-
latory authority mandated to perform the following functions: 1) Formulation
and the enforcement standards, procedures and regulations for the management
and use of water resources and flood mitigation; 2) Regulation of water re-
sources use and management; 3) Receiving water permit applications for water
abstraction, water use and recharge and decision making, issue, vary water per-
mits; and enforce the conditions of those permits.
6.3. Integrated Approaches to Water Scarcity
Based on the present water demand and the future national development plans,
Kenya would face a huge gap between water demand and the available water
supply in the years to come. Sustainable development and management of water
resources is therefore critical and should effectively be addressed by respective
government institutions, various development partners, civil society groups and
the private sectors. Kenya can boost its water productivity in a short-term period
by harmonizing and strengthening the existing and established multi-level water

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 12
Open Access Library Journal
management bodies such as the Catchment Area Advisory Committees, Water
Users Associations and Water Resource Management Authority. In order to im-
prove the availability of a sustainable water supply, conservation and the restora-
tion of national water catchment areas, as well as a strategic investment in the
additional dams, is key. In addition, the construction of efficient water treatment
plants should be a priority for urban water and sewerage companies in order to
facilitate water treatment and re-use. Green or nature-based solutions can help
in the improvement of water supply and shortage, thus increasing water availa-
bility [45]. This is important particularly in the current world considering ex-
pectations that water shortage would worsen in Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of
climate change drought risk causing the decline of water levels of dams and
freshwater supply sources [46] [47]. Water scarcity and security issues will be
exacerbated by recent trends of climate variability and the consequent rise in
droughts. Thus, climate-resilient water resource management will require an in-
tegrated strategy to ensure resilience for water-related policy making to address
both short- and long-term impacts of climate change by balancing robustness
with flexibility. With future uncertainties and the likelihood of other potential
infectious disease outbreaks, there is a need for robust adaptation options that
have the primary objective of supporting sustainable water resource use.
7. Conclusion
Access to clean and safe drinking water is a problem faced by almost half of
Kenya’s population. The demand for adequate and clean water supply is rising
due to the increasing population, and in the response to global aim in the
achievement to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To address the
water scarcity issues, a strategic plan has been put in place through the construc-
tion of large and medium dams to store water as well as investing in groundwa-
ter storage through managed aquifer recharge by making use of stormwater gen-
erated during the rainy seasons. Some challenges such as forest fragmentation,
poor water management and contamination of water sources are possibly solva-
ble, the frequency and droughts and floods occurrence are an indicator of cli-
matic change which is likely to become more unpredictable in the future.
Acknowledgements
The first author would wish to thank the third author for the invaluable support
in the compilation of this paper.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.
References
[1] Chellaney, B. (2013) Water, Peace, and War: Confronting the Global Water Crisis.

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 13 Open Access
Library Journal
Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham.
https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442221390/Water-Peace-and-War-Confronting-the
-Global-Water-Crisis
[2] Bakker, K. (2012) Water Security: Research Challenges and Opportunities.
Science
,
337, 914-915. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1226337
[3] World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations) and UN-Water. (2009)
Water in a Changing World. Earthscan, London.
[4] Showers, K.B. (2002) Water Scarcity and Urban Africa: An Overview of Ur-
ban-Rural Water Linkages.
World Development
, 30, 621-648.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00132-2
[5] Engel, K., Jokiel, D., Kraljevic, A., Geiger, M. and Smith, K. (2011) Big Cities, Big
Water, Big Challenges: Water in an Urbanizing World. World Wildlife Fund, Kobe-
rich.
https://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/default/files/iwp2/Big_Cities_Big_Water_Bi
g_Challenges_2011.pdf
[6] Jones, J.A.A. (2014) Water Sustainability: A Global Perspective. Routledge, Abing-
don-on-Thames.
[7] Ondigo, D.A., Kavoo, A.M. and Kebwaro, J. (2018) Water Resources and Manage-
ment under Increasing Urban Demography: A Kenyan Perspective—A Review.
Journal of Water Resource and Protection
, 10, 919-938.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2018.109054
[8] Kibuika, F.M. and Wanyoike, D (2012) Assessment of Factors Affecting Sustaina-
bility of Rural Water Supply Schemes in Nyandarua County, Kenya: A Case of
Kangui Water Scheme.
International Journal of Science and Research
(
IJSR
), 3,
578-584.
[9] Wakhungu, M.J. (2019) An Ethnography of Policy: Water Reuse Policy in Kenya.
Water Policy
, 21, 436-448. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.160
[10] Jiménez, B. and Asano, T. (2008) Water Reuse: An International Survey of Current
Practice, Issues and Needs. IWA, London. https://doi.org/10.2166/9781780401881
[11] Seckler, D., Barker, R. and Amarasinghe, U. (1999) Water Scarcity in the Twen-
ty-First Century.
International Journal of Water Resources Development
, 15, 29-42.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629948916
[12] Crafford, J., Strohmaier,
R., Muñoz, P. and Oliveira, T. (2012) The Role and Con-
tribution of Montane Forests and Related Ecosystem Services to the Kenyan Econ-
omy. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi.
[13] Africa Defense Forum (2019) Kenya’s Environmental Warriors. Last Accessed: De-
cembre 23, 2020.
https://adf-magazine.com/2019/10/kenyas-environmental-warriors/
[14] Habitat, U. (2013) State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013: Prosperity of Cities. Rout-
ledge, London, 2013.
[15] Knoema (2020) Kenya—Total Renewable Water Resources per Capita. Last Ac-
cessed: December 30, 2020. https://knoema.com/atlas/Kenya/topics/Water
[16] Mugera, W.N. (2015) Factors Influencing Crop Production in Irrigation Schemes in
the Arid and Semi Arid Lands of Kenya: The Case of Hola Irrigation Scheme, Tana
River County, Kenya. University of Nairobi, Nairobi.
[17] Herrero, M.T.,
et al
. (2010) Climate Variability and Climate Change and Their Im-
pacts on Kenya’s Agricultural Sector. ILRI, Nairobi.
[18] Chepyegon, C. and Kamiya, D. (2018) Challenges Faced by the Kenya Water Sector

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 14
Open Access Library Journal
Management in Improving Water Supply Coverage.
Journal of Water Resource and
Protection
, 10, 85-105. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2018.101006
[19] Liu, J., Yang, H., Gosling, S.N., Kummu, M., Flörke, M., Pfister,
S.,
et al.
(2017) Water
Scarcity Assessments in the Past, Present and Future.
Earths Future
, 5, 545-559.
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016EF000518
[20] Falkenmark, M., Lundqvist, J. and Widstrand, C. (1989) Macro-Scale Water Scarcity
Requires Micro-Scale Approaches: Aspects of Vulnerability in Semi-Arid Development.
Natural Resources Forum
, 13, 258-267.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.1989.tb00348.x
[21] Falkenmark, M., Rockstrom, J. and Rockström, J. (2004) Balancing Water for Hu-
mans and Nature: The New Approach in Ecohydrology. Earthscan.
[22] Savenije, H. (2000) Water Scarcity Indicators; the Deception of the Numbers.
Phys-
ics and Chemistry of the Earth
,
Part B
:
Hydrology
,
Oceans and Atmosphere
, 25,
199-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-1909(00)00004-6
[23] Alcamo, J. and Henrichs, T. (2002) Critical Regions: A Model-Based Estimation of
World Water Resources Sensitive to Global Changes.
Aquatic Sciences
, 64, 352-362.
https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00012591
[24] Wada, Y., Wisser, D. and Bierkens, M. (2014) Global Modelling of Withdrawal, Al-
location and Consumptive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources.
Earth
System Dynamics
, 5, 15-40. https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-5-15-2014
[25] Oki, T. and Kanae, S. (2006) Global Hydrological Cycles and World Water Resources.
Science
, 313, 1068-1072. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128845
[26] Munia, H., Guillaume, J., Mirumachi, N., Porkka, M., Wada, Y. and Kummu, M.
(2016) Water Stress in Global Transboundary River Basins: Significance of Upstream
Water Use on Downstream Stress.
Environmental Research Letters
, 11, 014002.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014002
[27] Seckler, D., Amarasinghe, U., Molden, D., de Silva, R. and Barker, R. (1998) World
Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues.
International Water
Management Institute
, 19, p. 50.
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/PUB019/R
EPORT19.PDF
[28] Rijsberman, F.R. (2006) Water Scarcity: Fact or Fiction?
Agricultural Water Man-
agement
, 80, 5-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.001
[29] Sullivan, C.,
et al.
(2000) The Development of a Water Poverty Index: A Feasibility
Study.
[30] Sullivan, C.A., Meigh, J.R. and Giacomello, A.M. (2003) The Water Poverty Index:
Development and Application at the Community Scale.
Natural Resources Forum
,
27, 189-199. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.00054
[31] Fremlin, K.M.,
et al
. (2020) Trophic Magnification of Legacy Persistent Organic
Pollutants in an Urban Terrestrial Food Web.
Science of the Total Environment
,
714, e136746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136746
[32] Eni, D.I., Digha, O.N. and Moses, A. (2015) Spatio-Temporal Variability in Domestic
Water Demand and Supply in Calabar Metropolis.
International Journal of Research
in Environmental Science
, 1, 20-29.
[33] Yu, W., Wardrop, N.A., Bain, R.E.S., Alegana, V., Graham, L.J. and Wright, J.A.
(2019) Mapping Access to Domestic Water Supplies from Incomplete Data in De-
veloping Countries: An Illustrative Assessment for Kenya.
PLoS ONE
, 14, e0216923.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216923

F. Mulwa et al.
DOI:
10.4236/oalib.1107096 15 Open Access
Library Journal
[34] KNBS (2019) 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census, Volume II: Distribution
of Population by Administrative Units. KNBS, Nairobi.
[35] Larsen, T.A., Hoffmann, S., Lüthi, C., Truffer, B. and Maurer, M. (2016) Emerging
Solutions to the Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World.
Science
, 352, 928-933.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8641
[36] Ministry of Water and Sanitation (2018) Strategic Plan 2018-2022. Ministry of Wa-
ter and Sanitation, Nairobi, 85 p.
[37] Carr, G.M. and Neary, J.P. (2008) Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health.
UNEP/Earthprint.
[38] World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations) (2003). Water for People,
Water for Life: The United Nations World Water Development Report: Executive
Summary.
[39] Ng’ang’a, L.M. (2014) Exploring Population Density and Forest Cover Linkages:
Evidence from Kenya. University of Nairobi, Nairobi.
[40] Mogaka, H., Gichere, S., Davis, R. and Hirji, R. (2005) Climate Variability and Wa-
ter Resources Degradation in Kenya: Improving Water Resources Development and
Management. The World Bank, London.
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-6517-5
[41] Nhamo, G., Nhemachena, C. and Nhamo, S. (2019) Is 2030 Too Soon for Africa to
Achieve the Water and Sanitation Sustainable Development Goal?
Science of The
Total Environment
, 669, 129-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.109
[42] UN (United Nations) (2019). The Sustainable Development Goals Report, p. 64
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Repo
rt-2019.pdf
[43] Rampa, F. (2011) Analysing Governance in the Water Sector in Kenya. Discussion
Paper 124, Maastricht: European Centre for Development Policy (Discussion Paper
No. 124).
https://ecdpm.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/DP-124-Analysing-Governance-W
ater-Sector-Kenya-2011.pdf
[44] Chakava, Y., Franceys, R. and Parker, A. (2014) Private Boreholes for Nairobi’s Ur-
ban Poor: The Stop-Gap or the Solution?
Habitat International
, 43, 108-116.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.01.012
[45] Naik, P.K. (2016) Water Crisis in Africa: Myth or Reality?
International Journal of
Water Resources Development
, 33, 326-339.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1188266
[46] Mora, C., Frazier, A.G., Longman, R.J., Dacks, R.S., Walton, M.M., Tong, E.J.,
et al.
(2013) The Projected Timing of Climate Departure from Recent Variability.
Nature
,
502, 183-187. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12540
[47] Naik, P.K. (2017) Water Crisis in Africa: Myth or Reality?
International Journal of
Water Resources Development
, 33, 326-339.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1188266