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Sleep Characteristics and Mood of Professional Esports Athletes: A Multi-National Study
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH)
Abstract
Esports is becoming increasingly professionalized, yet research on performance management is remarkably lacking. The present study aimed to investigate the sleep and mood of professional esports athletes. Participants were 17 professional esports athletes from South Korea (N = 8), Australia (N = 4), and the United States (N = 5) who played first person shooter games (mean age 20 ± 3.5 years, 100% male). All participants wore a wrist-activity monitor for 7–14 days and completed subjective sleep and mood questionnaires. Participants had a median total sleep time of 6.8 h and a sleep efficiency of 86.4% per night. All participants had significantly delayed sleep patterns (median sleep onset 3:43 a.m. and wake time 11:24 a.m.). Participants had a median sleep onset latency of 20.4 min and prolonged wake after sleep onset of 47.9 min. Korean players had significantly higher depression scores compared to the other groups (p < 0.01) and trained longer per day than the Australian or United States teams (13.4 vs. 4.8 vs. 6.1 h, respectively). Depression scores were strongly correlated with number of awakenings, wake after sleep onset, and daily training time (p < 0.05). As the first pilot sleep study in the esports field, this study indicates that esports athletes show delayed sleep patterns and have prolonged wake after sleep onset. These sleep patterns may be associated with mood (depression) and training time. Sleep interventions designed specifically for esports athletes appear warranted.
... Además, la literatura sugiere cada vez más que el gaming puede tener efectos adversos sobre la salud física (Kendal et al., 2022). En este sentido, hay publicaciones que han analizado el alcance sobre los impactos físicos, sociales y psicológicos de los esports (Lee et al., 2021;Bonnar et al., 2022). Uno de los temas de interés científico ha sido identificar posibles predictores de resultados adversos de los juegos en línea, especialmente aquellos asociados con poblaciones vulnerables. ...
... Los valores del IMC tienden a estar en rangos limítrofes al sobrepeso (Trotter et al., 2020;Pereira et al., 2021;Kendal et al., 2022;Arslan et al., 2024) lo cual se podría explicar por los periodos prolongados de inactividad física, aunque se mantuvieran dentro de rangos sanos (Bayrakdar et al., 2020). En la revisión, se da cuenta un IMC inferior en muestras de jugadores son de procedencia asiática (Lee et al., 2021;Zhang et al., 2023) y un IMC mayor, aunque ligeramente dentro del límite, en países Occidentales y más concretamente europeos (Kocak, 2022;Nicholson et al., 2024b). Así como también no se reportaron diferencias entre jugadores estadounidenses, surcoreanos y turcos (Ekefjärd et al., 2024), lo cual podría ser debido a que no existe una concordancia con los métodos y protocolos usados a la hora de evaluar a estas muestras, suponiendo esto una limitación (Kocak, 2022). ...
... Hábitos que podrían en una mayor prevalencia del SAN es esta población. El estudio de esto se recoge en la literatura (Lee et al., 2021;Bonnar et al., 2022), el consumo elevado de cafeína y una larga exposición a la luz de las pantallas por parte de esta población podría acarrear problemas de salud. En la misma línea de lo informado en otro trabajo en jugadores de esports, cuyos resultados informaron alteración en el sueño, periodos prolongados de vigilia después del inicio y descanso inferior a 7 horas, siendo la calidad del sueño baja o muy baja (Lee et al., 2021). ...
El crecimiento de los esports ha generado preocupación sobre la salud física de sus jugadores. Esta revisión sistemática tiene como objetivo sintetizar la evidencia sobre la composición corporal y los parámetros de salud de jugadores de esports, un grupo potencialmente en riesgo debido a su estilo de vida sedentario. Se siguieron las directrices PRISMA-P, se consideraron las bases: PubMed, SCOPUS y Web of Science. La calidad de los estudios incluidos se evaluó utilizando la Lista de Verificación de Evaluación Crítica de JBI. De los 711 estudios inicialmente identificados, 32 estudios cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión. Estos estudios mostraron resultados de salud variados entre los jugadores de esports, con problemas comunes como un alto porcentaje de grasa corporal y patrones de sueño irregulares. Sin embargo, algunos jugadores demostraron niveles de aptitud física comparables a los controles no esports, sugiriendo un perfil de salud complejo. Los resultados sugieren la necesidad de intervenciones de salud específicas en los jugadores esports, enfatizando la importancia de abordar los hábitos nutricionales y los niveles de actividad física. A pesar de que algunos jugadores mantienen una buena salud, la tendencia general sugiere la necesidad de mejorar las elecciones de estilo de vida dentro de esta población. Esta revisión nos ofrece un panorama sobre la salud de los jugadores de esports, caracterizado por riesgos para la salud y oportunidades de intervención. Futuras investigaciones deberían explorar los impactos de salud a largo plazo y la efectividad de estrategias específicas de promoción de la salud para los atletas de esports.
... The unique demands of esports create suboptimal working conditions for both professional athletes and underage trainees, often characterized by prolonged sitting and insufficient sleep as a consequence. Lee and colleagues examined sleep patterns in professional esports athletes specializing in first-person shooter games from South Korea, Australia, and the United States (2). Their findings revealed that professional South Korean esports athletes trained for an average of 13.4 h per day, with many exhibiting depressive symptoms. ...
... Limited research has examined the sleep patterns of esports athletes, primarily using research-grade devices (2). However, advancements in consumer wearable technology now enable accurate, cost-effective monitoring of daily physical activity and sleep patterns. ...
... A key criterion distinguishing professional esports athletes from amateur players is the duration of daily practice. For example, RSG athletes dedicate 13 h per day to training, which aligns with the practice routines of South Korean professional esports athletes, who typically train 13.4 h daily (2). In contrast, non-professional players train significantly fewer hours (22,23). ...
Purpose
Esports is increasingly recognized as both a legitimate sport and profession. However, evidence on the health behaviors of esports athletes remains limited. Due to the nature of their activity, these athletes face occupational health risks associated with prolonged sedentary behavior, sleep deprivation, and excessive energy drink consumption. This study aimed to document the health behaviors of professional esports athletes.
Methods
This case study sampled athletes from Zhejiang Regans Gaming, who are full-time professionals competing at the elite level. Data were collected over three training days, with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sleep patterns monitored using the Apple Watch Series 9.
Results
Athletes trained for an average of 13 h daily in a seated position, engaging in only 35.6 ± 0.9 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. The extended training hours led to delayed sleep schedules, with a typical bedtime of 3:05 a.m. Sleep quality was poor, with athletes averaging 45.2 ± 13.0 min awake in bed, 392.8 ± 13.9 min of total sleep, and a sleep efficiency of 89.7 ± 3.0%. Likely due to sleep deprivation, athletes consumed an average of 2 cups of coffee and 2.5 ± 0.4 bottles of energy drinks daily.
Conclusion
This study offers firsthand evidence of the concerning health behaviors among Chinese elite professional esports athletes. Physical activity levels and sleep quality are notably poor, while energy drink consumption is prevalent. Team managers should monitor sleep quality and energy drink consumption, while governing bodies must recognize the long-term risks of excessive sedentary behavior in esports.
... Other concerns for players are associated with poor dietary habits, including the consumption of junk food and energy drinks [27]. Also, health concerns such as sleep disturbances, are prevalent among frequent gamers [28]. ...
This case study investigated how collegiate eSports players navigate the physical, mental, social, and academic challenges associated with competitive gaming, with a focus on its implications for adult education. Through in-depth interviews, the study explored players' diverse gaming routines, perceptions of excessive gaming, and strategies for balancing competing demands. While eSports participation fosters cognitive skills, social bonding, and career opportunities, it also presents risks such as physical inactivity, poor dietary habits, stress, and exposure to toxic gaming behaviors. A key finding is that the eleven students independently developed strategies to address these challenges, emphasizing the importance of integrating comprehensive support systems-such as physical activity initiatives, mental health resources, and academic support-within collegiate eSports programs. These insights are particularly relevant for adult education, as they highlight the need for targeted interventions that promote a balanced lifestyle, enhance well-being, and leverage eSports as a dynamic platform for skill development and lifelong learning.
... 12,13 Habitually, on average, professional esport athletes obtain a similar amount of sleep to others in their demographic (mid-late teenagers/young adults, mostly male). 8,10,14,15 However, esport athletes are characterized by incredibly late sleep onset (01:30-05:00) and wake (09:00-12:00) times on average, though large cultural/regional group level differences have been noted. 10 Sleep efficiency has also been cited as a concern, with a large longitudinal study of 1243 nights of habitual esport player sleep data reporting a mean sleep efficiency of only 67.7%. ...
Purpose
It is presumed by many that acute sleep loss results in degraded in-game esports (competitive, organized video game play) performance. However, this has not been experimentally investigated to date. The objective of the current experiment was to elucidate whether ~29hrs of total sleep deprivation impacts in-game performance for the popular esport Rocket League.
Patients and Methods
Twenty skill-matched pairs (N = 40 total) were recruited. Within each pair, one participant was assigned to an intervention group (TSD), while the other was assigned to a control group (CON). Two test sessions occurred; one while both participants were rested (baseline), and the other while the CON participant was rested but the TSD participant was sleep deprived (experimental).
Results
Following total sleep deprivation, TSD participants reported higher Karolinska Sleepiness Scale-measured subjective sleepiness and lower subjective alertness and motivation, as well as worsened PVT response speed and ~5 times greater PVT lapse incidence, and worsened response speed on a two-choice categorization task. However, overall in-game Rocket League performance did not worsen due to total sleep deprivation. Exploratory analyses of performance indicators suggest a potential shift toward a simpler and safer strategy following sleep deprivation.
Conclusion
Following a bout of ~29hrs total sleep deprivation, overall in-game Rocket League performance remained unaffected. This presents as a promising finding given the high potential for acute pre-competition sleep disturbance in esports, though habitual sleep remains a concern for esport athletes.
... 4 Furthermore, there is evidence that the video game industry achieved revenue of US$1.2 billion in 2019 5 so it is not surprising that seeking a career as a professional esports player has become an attractive vocational opportunity among younger adults. 6 7 Consequently, esports has garnered scientific attention which includes but is not limited to studies investigating the training routines of esports players [8][9][10] showing that esports training typically consists of practising video gaming for several hours a day (eg, up to 13 hours) while remaining in a sitting position. 2 8-10 Given that prolonged sitting in a relatively static posture during the esports training sessions can contribute to the numerous health issues reported by esports players (eg, musculoskeletal injuries and ocular problems), [10][11][12][13][14][15] it is recommended to integrate breaks with acute physical exercise defined as single bout(s) of planned and structured forms of physical activity 16 17 into esports training. ...
In recent years, organised and competitive video gaming, esports, has gained enormous popularity in many parts of the world, contributing to the growing professionalisation of this sports branch. To become or remain a professional esports player, individuals practice video gaming for several hours a day while remaining in a sitting posture which may not only lead to a decrease in training quality in the short term (eg, due to cognitive fatigue) but also put them at a higher risk for negative health events in the long-term (eg, overuse injuries). Thus, interrupting periods of prolonged video gaming in a sitting posture with acute physical exercise is strongly recommended for esports players even though the optimal dosage of acute physical exercise breaks remains unclear. To address this gap, we propose in this viewpoint that traditional concepts of exercise prescription and dosage determination using the variables frequency, intensity, time (also referred to as duration) and type of physical exercise (ie, abbreviated with the acronym FITT) should be complemented by the variable density which characterises the timing of consecutive bouts of acute physical exercise during an esports session.
Background : The recent exponential rise in esports participation has stimulated growing interest in the performance, participation, and well-being of esports players. This research has culminated in several systematic reviews that provide an initial biopsychosocial perspective of esports players. The aim of our umbrella review was to synthesize and quality appraise these systematic reviews to provide a coherent understanding of the biopsychosocial factors affecting esports players’ performance and well-being. Methods : An umbrella review was conducted on literature published from 2010 onward from six online databases to identify and examine systematic reviews within esports literature related to mental health and performance. A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews-2 was used to critically appraise systematic reviews. Results : Fourteen systematic reviews were identified examining player performance ( n = 5), player mental health ( n = 4), and a combination of both factors ( n = 5). Four key themes were identified on esports player lifestyle, cognition, physical health, and gender-based concerns. Twelve of the 14 systematic reviews were rated low or critically low quality. Discussion : The results highlight the biopsychosocial factors related to esports participation showing a positive impact on cognitive functioning, a mixed-to-negative impact on sleep outcomes and physical activity, and discrimination toward female players. The low-quality reviews show a need for more rigorous methodology in esports research.
Background: This research explores the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in personal and professional success. EI, a
multifaceted construct encompassing self-awareness, emotion management, self-motivation, empathy, and social
skills, has significantly impacted academic performance, social interactions, and overall well-being. While extensively
researched, the influence of cultural and athletic backgrounds on EI still needs to be explored, particularly in nonWestern settings. Objectives: This research at P P Savani University at Surat Gujarat focuses on African and Indian
students. It aims to assess and contrast emotional intelligence (EI) levels, particularly among athletes and nonathletes.
The study investigates the impact of sports participation, cultural aspects, and social support structures and provides
suggestions for improving EI and emotional wellness in this specific cultural setting. Methods: A cross-sectional study
was conducted with 422 students, equally divided among Indian and African athletes and nonathletes. The study
assessed EI using validated questionnaires measuring self-awareness, emotion management, self-motivation, empathy,
and social skills. Statistical analyses, including t-tests and ANOVA, were performed using SPSS software to analyze the
influence of cultural and athletic factors on EI. Results: This study reveals variations in emotional intelligence aspects
among the participants. African non-athletes demonstrated levels of self-awareness compared to athletes, with average
scores of 37.673 and 35.655, respectively. Conversely, Indian athletes displayed more self-awareness than non-athletes,
with mean scores of 37.832 and 35.282, respectively. Moreover, athletes generally exhibited skills than non-athletes,
highlighting the influence of sports involvement on emotional intelligence. Furthermore, African students scored
higher in self-motivation than their counterparts, indicating distinctions in motivational factors. These findings are
thoroughly outlined in Table 3 of the results section, which presents the ANOVA analysis supporting these conclusions
and showcasing the variance in self-awareness among these groups. Athletes generally demonstrated better social
skills than nonathletes. Additionally, African students scored higher in self-motivation than Indian students,
highlighting the significant impact of cultural and athletic backgrounds on various EI dimensions. Conclusions: The
study's findings have significant practical implications. They underscore the importance of considering cultural and
athletic contexts when developing interventions to enhance student EI. The study's results strongly support the need
for tailored programs that address different cultural and athletic groups' unique needs. These programs, informed by
the study's findings, can be instrumental in fostering emotional well-being and academic success, thereby
contributing to students' overall development.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Comparative Analysis, African Student, Athlete Engagement, Cultural Influence.
Study Objectives
Consumer sleep-tracking devices are widely used and becoming more technologically advanced, creating strong interest from researchers and clinicians for their possible use as alternatives to standard actigraphy. We therefore tested the performance of many of the latest consumer sleep-tracking devices, alongside actigraphy, versus the gold-standard sleep assessment technique, polysomnography (PSG).
Methods
In total, 34 healthy young adults (22 women; 28.1 ± 3.9 years, mean ± SD) were tested on three consecutive nights (including a disrupted sleep condition) in a sleep laboratory with PSG, along with actigraphy (Philips Respironics Actiwatch 2) and a subset of consumer sleep-tracking devices. Altogether, four wearable (Fatigue Science Readiband, Fitbit Alta HR, Garmin Fenix 5S, Garmin Vivosmart 3) and three non-wearable (EarlySense Live, ResMed S+, SleepScore Max) devices were tested. Sleep/wake summary and epoch-by-epoch agreement measures were compared with PSG.
Results
Most devices (Fatigue Science Readiband, Fitbit Alta HR, EarlySense Live, ResMed S+, SleepScore Max) performed as well as or better than actigraphy on sleep/wake performance measures, while the Garmin devices performed worse. Overall, epoch-by-epoch sensitivity was high (all ≥0.93), specificity was low-to-medium (0.18-0.54), sleep stage comparisons were mixed, and devices tended to perform worse on nights with poorer/disrupted sleep.
Conclusions
Consumer sleep-tracking devices exhibited high performance in detecting sleep, and most performed equivalent to (or better than) actigraphy in detecting wake. Device sleep stage assessments were inconsistent. Findings indicate that many newer sleep-tracking devices demonstrate promising performance for tracking sleep and wake. Devices should be tested in different populations and settings to further examine their wider validity and utility.
Competitive organized electronic video gaming, termed “esports,” has become an international industry. The physiological and cognitive health results of prolonged esport practice and competition have not been adequately studied. The current study examined physiological and cognitive changes after a session of esport gameplay for two types of games, first-person shooter and multiplayer online battle arena games. Increases in systolic blood pressure, increases in speed, and decreases in accuracy and inhibitory processes were found for esport gamers overall. For peak heart rate change, first-person shooter games elicited a larger change than did multiplayer online battle arena games. These results have implications for the management of esport player cognitive and physical health as well as for the optimization of performance in competitive esport tournaments.
This study explored stress and coping in electronic sports (esports) athletes and the influence of mental toughness (MT), as defined by two prominent conceptualizations: the 4/6Cs and Mental Toughness Index (MTI) frameworks. Participants were 316 esports athletes, ranked in the top 40% of one of five major esports: Defense of the Ancients 2, League of Legends (LoL), Counter Strike: Global Offensive, Overwatch and Rainbow Six: Siege. Participants completed the MTI, Mental Toughness Questionnaire 6 (MTQ6), Stress Appraisal Measure, and Brief COPE inventory. Results showed that MT (via both MT frameworks) was associated with perceived control, and MTQ6 subscales were associated with stress intensity. Mental toughness (both frameworks) was associated with the selection of more problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies and less avoidance coping strategies. The results indicate there is some overlap between the MT and stress-coping process in high-performing traditional sports and competitive esports athletes. These results suggest that esports athletes could benefit from sports psychology interventions designed for traditional sports athletes. Finally, the MTQ6 and MTI had low shared variance (20%), suggesting that the two questionnaires appear to measure different aspects of MT.
The number of video game and eSports players is steadily rising. Since little is known about their health behavior to date, the present study examines the demographics and health behavior of video game and eSports players. In this cross-sectional study, data on demographics, health status, physical activity, nutrition, sleep, and video game usage were assessed via a web-based survey of n = 1066 players (91.9% male; 22.9 ± 5.9 years; body mass index (BMI): 24.6 ± 4.8 kg/m 2) in Germany in 2018. The majority of respondents (95%) reported a good to excellent health status. Two thirds (66.9%) engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity for more than 2.5 h/week. The average duration of sitting and sleep time was 7.7 ± 3.6 h/day and 7.1 ± 1.3 h/day, respectively. Mean fruit and vegetable consumption was 2.7 ± 1.8 portions/day. Video games were played for 24.4 ± 15.9 h/week on average. Partial Spearman correlations revealed poor positive associations of video game play time to sedentary behavior (rho = 0.15; p < 0.01) and BMI (rho = 0.11; p < 0.01), as well as a poor negative association to self-reported health status (rho = −0.14; p < 0.01). These results indicate the good subjective health of this target group. Nevertheless, the high amount of video game play time and its poor negative association to health status indicate a need for specific health promotion strategies for this target group.
Esports is a booming global industry and has been officially included in the lead-up to the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo. Given that esports is a cognitive based activity, and sleep is well known to be critical for optimal cognitive functioning, our research group recently proposed that sleep might be an important determinant of esports performance. The focus of the current review was to expand our limited understanding regarding the role of sleep in esports by exploring risk factors for suboptimal sleep and developing an associated intervention framework. More specifically, we aimed to 1) examine how gaming culture and game genre might negatively influence sleep behaviour, 2) describe a conceptual model to explain how sub-optimal sleep occurs in esports, and 3) outline sleep intervention considerations that specifically meet the needs of esports athletes. We conclude that gaming culture and game genre could both impact the sleep behaviour of esports athletes, via cognitive and behavioural mechanisms. Furthermore, adapting Spielman’s three-factor model to esports may provide a useful and easy to understand conceptualisation for sub-optimal sleep in esports. Lastly, sleep interventions for traditional athletes can be suitably modified for esports but must be comprehensive and extend from a theoretically grounded conceptual model.
Purpose
The sleep diary is the gold standard of self-reported sleep duration, but its comparability to sleep questionnaires is uncertain. The purpose of this study was to compare self-reported sleep duration between a sleep diary and a sleep questionnaire and to test whether sleep-related disorders were associated with diary-questionnaire differences in sleep duration.
Participants and methods
We compared self-reported sleep duration from 5,432 questionnaire-sleep diary pairs in a longitudinal cohort of 1,516 adults. Participants reported sleep information in seven-day sleep diaries and in questionnaires. Research staff abstracted average sleep durations for three time periods (overall; weekday; weekend) from diaries and questionnaires. For each time period, we evaluated diary-questionnaire differences in sleep duration with Welch's two-sample t-tests. Using linear mixed effects regression, we regressed overall diary-questionnaire sleep duration difference on several participant characteristics: reporting any insomnia symptoms, having sleep apnea, sex, body mass index, smoking status, Short Form-12 Physical Health Composite Score, and Short Form-12 Mental Health Composite Score.
Results
The average diary-reported overall sleep duration (7.76 hrs) was longer than that of the questionnaire (7.07 hrs) by approximately 41 mins (0.69 hrs, 95% confidence interval: 0.62, 0.76 hrs). Results were consistent across weekday- and weekend-specific differences. Demographic-adjusted linear mixed effects models tested whether insomnia symptoms or sleep apnea were associated with diary-questionnaire differences in sleep duration. Insomnia symptoms were associated with a 17 min longer duration on the diary relative to the questionnaire (β=0.28 hrs, 95% confidence interval: 0.22, 0.33 hrs), but sleep apnea was not significantly associated with diary-questionnaire difference. Female sex was associated with greater diary-questionnaire duration differences, whereas better self-reported health was associated with lesser differences.
Conclusion
Diaries and questionnaires are somewhat disparate methods of assessing subjective sleep duration, although diaries report longer duration relative to questionnaires, and insomnia symptoms may contribute to greater perceived differences.
To examine the cognitive and physical changes associated with consuming an energy drink concurrent to video gaming, we examined a convenience sample of nine elite League of Legends (LoL) e-sport players (21 ± 2 y, BMI 25.6 ± 3.4 kg/m 2) consuming an energy drink (Reload TM) or placebo (Placebo) in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over trial. Participants completed the same test battery prior to treatment consumption and after playing each of three competitive LoL games. Primary outcomes included measures of attention (Erikson Flanker Test), reaction time (Go/No-Go test) and working memory (n-back test). Secondary outcomes examined fatigue (hand grip strength and finger tap speed). Statistical analysis was performed by repeated-measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) and reported as the mean (standard deviation [SD]) or mean change (95% confidence interval [CI]). Participants reported sleeping 8.1 (1.2) h/night, playing LoL 10.3 (2.1) h/d, playing other video games 1.8 (2.8) h/d, and exercising 4.2 (1.7) times per week. Overall, we observed no significant time, group, or group-by-time interactions for any measured performance index with the exception of a significant improvement for the n-back test, where the Reload group demonstrated a significant within-group improvement: Reload [−171 ms (95% CI, −327.91, −14.09), p < 0.004], Placebo [−92 ms (95% CI, −213.63, 29.63)]. However, no between-group differences were noted (38.50 ms, 95% CI, −141.89, 64.89, p = 0.803). Our findings suggest that elite eSport athletes do not demonstrate a mental or physical improvement in performance relative to the treatment supplement or indices measured in this study.
Background:
Development induces changes in sleep, and its duration has been reported to change as a function of aging. Additionally, sleep timing is a marker of pubertal maturation, where during adolescence, the circadian rhythm shifts later. Typically, this is manifested in a later sleep onset in the evening and later awakening in the morning. These changes across development seem to be universal around the world but are unlikely to persist into adulthood.
Methods:
This study utilized accelerometer data from 17,355 participants aged 16-30 years (56% female) measured by validated Polar wearables over a 14-day period. We compared sleep duration, chronotype (sleep midpoint) and weekend catch-up (ie, social jetlag) sleep across ages and regions over 242,948 nights.
Results:
The data indicate a decline in sleep duration as well as a dramatic shift in sleep onset times throughout adolescence. This continues well into early adulthood and stabilizes nearer age 30. Differences in sleep duration across ages were significant, and ranged from 7:53 h at age 16 to 7:29 h at age 30 in the sample. Additionally, there was a clear difference between females and males throughout adolescence and young adulthood: girls had longer sleep duration and earlier timed sleep in the current study. Differences in sleep were found between regions across the world, and across European areas.
Conclusions:
Both sleep duration and sleep timing go through a clear developmental pattern, particularly in early adulthood. Females had an earlier sleep midpoint and obtained more sleep. Regional differences in sleep occurred across the world.