Edible Crickets (Orthoptera) Around the World: Distribution, Nutritional Value, and Other Benefits-A Review

Abstract

Edible crickets are among the praised insects that are gaining recognition as human food and livestock feed with a potential of contributing to food security and reduction of malnutrition. Globally, the sustainable use of crickets as food or feed is undermined by lack of information on the number of the edible crickets, the country where they are consumed, and the developmental stages consumed. Furthermore, lack of data on their nutritional content and the potential risks to potential consumers limits their consumption or inclusion into other food sources. We reviewed published literature on edible cricket species, countries where they are consumed, and the stage at which they are consumed. We further reviewed information on their nutritional content, the safety of cricket consumption, and the sensory qualities of the edible crickets. We also looked at other benefits derived from the crickets, which include ethnomedicine, livestock feed, pest management strategies, contribution to economic development, and livelihood improvement, particularly in terms of use as food preservatives and use within music, sports, and cultural entomology. Lastly, we reviewed information on the farming of edible crickets. In this review, we report over 60 cricket species that are consumed in 49 countries globally. Nutritionally, crickets are reported to be rich in proteins, ranging from 55 to 73%, and lipids, which range from 4.30 to 33.44% of dry matter. The reported amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is 58% of the total fatty acids. Edible crickets contain an appreciable amount of macro-and micro-mineral elements such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper. Also, the crickets are rich in the required amount of vitamins such as B group vitamins and vitamins A, C, D, E, and K. Overall, the cricket species examined in this review are safe to be consumed, and they display high proximate content that can replace plant and livestock products. The crickets play valuable roles in contributing to the economies of many countries and livelihoods, and they have medicinal and social benefits. This review is expected to promote greater recognition of crickets as a source of food, feed, and other benefits in the world and encourage up-scaling by farming them for sustainable utilization.

Full text

REVIEW
published: 12 January 2021
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2020.537915
Frontiers in Nutrition | www.frontiersin.org 1January 2021 | Volume 7 | Article 537915
Edited by:
Olivia Renee Louise Wright,
The University of
Queensland, Australia
Reviewed by:
Shinji Nagata,
University of Tokyo, Japan
Chayon Goswami,
Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Bangladesh
*Correspondence:
Henlay J. O. Magara
hmagara@icipe.org;
mhenlay@gmail.com
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Nutrition and Sustainable Diets,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Nutrition
Received: 25 February 2020
Accepted: 22 October 2020
Published: 12 January 2021
Citation:
Magara HJO, Niassy S, Ayieko MA,
Mukundamago M, Egonyu JP,
Tanga CM, Kimathi EK, Ongere JO,
Fiaboe KKM, Hugel S, Orinda MA,
Roos N and Ekesi S (2021) Edible
Crickets (Orthoptera) Around the
World: Distribution, Nutritional Value,
and Other Benefits—A Review.
Front. Nutr. 7:537915.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2020.537915
Edible Crickets (Orthoptera) Around
the World: Distribution, Nutritional
Value, and Other Benefits—A Review
Henlay J. O. Magara 1,2
*, Saliou Niassy 2, Monica A. Ayieko 1, Mukundi Mukundamago 2,
James P. Egonyu 2, Chrysantus M. Tanga2, Emily K. Kimathi 2, Jackton O. Ongere 2,
Komi K. M. Fiaboe 3, Sylvain Hugel 4, Mary A. Orinda 1, Nanna Roos 5and Sunday Ekesi 2
1School of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University Science and Technology (JOOUST), Bondo,
Kenya, 2International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, Kenya, 3The International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), Yaoundé, Cameroon, 4Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, UPR 3212 CNRS-Université
de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France, 5Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen,
Frederiksberg, Denmark
Edible crickets are among the praised insects that are gaining recognition as human
food and livestock feed with a potential of contributing to food security and reduction
of malnutrition. Globally, the sustainable use of crickets as food or feed is undermined
by lack of information on the number of the edible crickets, the country where they
are consumed, and the developmental stages consumed. Furthermore, lack of data
on their nutritional content and the potential risks to potential consumers limits their
consumption or inclusion into other food sources. We reviewed published literature on
edible cricket species, countries where they are consumed, and the stage at which
they are consumed. We further reviewed information on their nutritional content, the
safety of cricket consumption, and the sensory qualities of the edible crickets. We also
looked at other benefits derived from the crickets, which include ethnomedicine, livestock
feed, pest management strategies, contribution to economic development, and livelihood
improvement, particularly in terms of use as food preservatives and use within music,
sports, and cultural entomology. Lastly, we reviewed information on the farming of edible
crickets. In this review, we report over 60 cricket species that are consumed in 49
countries globally. Nutritionally, crickets are reported to be rich in proteins, ranging from
55 to 73%, and lipids, which range from 4.30 to 33.44% of dry matter. The reported
amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is 58% of the total fatty acids. Edible
crickets contain an appreciable amount of macro- and micro-mineral elements such
as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, zinc, manganese, and
copper. Also, the crickets are rich in the required amount of vitamins such as B group
vitamins and vitamins A, C, D, E, and K. Overall, the cricket species examined in this
review are safe to be consumed, and they display high proximate content that can
replace plant and livestock products. The crickets play valuable roles in contributing to
the economies of many countries and livelihoods, and they have medicinal and social
benefits. This review is expected to promote greater recognition of crickets as a source
of food, feed, and other benefits in the world and encourage up-scaling by farming them
for sustainable utilization.
Keywords: edible crickets, food, food security, distribution, nutritional value, medicine, cultural entomology

Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
INTRODUCTION
The rapid day-to-day global population increase is predicted
to reach 9.74 billion people by the year 2050 (1). This
population growth requires an urgent intervention to increase
food production to keep it in tandem with the expanding demand
(2). As it is, food production may not meet demand because
of the increasing scarcity of the necessary arable land. This
situation is exacerbated by climate change, lack of water, and
poverty (3). This therefore calls for a shift toward alternative and
novel food production systems that are cheap, environmentally
friendly, adaptable to climate change, and sustainable. One of
the promising options is entomophagy, which is defined as the
practice of eating insects (4–8). Entomophagy is a common
practice in many parts of the world, and there are 2,100 species of
insects that are consumed as food in over 110 countries (9). Out
of this number, 500 insect species are consumed in Africa (10–
13), 324 insect species are consumed in China (14–22), 255 insect
species are consumed in India (23,24), and over 164 species
of insects are consumed in Thailand (25,26). The commonly
consumed insects include the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera, respectively (27).
Among the Orthopterans, crickets stand as the most-consumed
insects across the globe (28–30) (Figure 1). Both the nymph
and adult stages of crickets are consumed as food (27,31).
The most common species usually reported include Brachytrupes
membranaceus (Figure 2), Gryllus similis (Figure 3), Gryllus
bimaculatus (Figure 4), Gryllotalpa orientalis (Figure 5) and
Acheta domesticus (Figure 6) (29,32–36). However, this may not
be representative of the exhaustive number of crickets that are
edible globally. Moreover, a more recent discovery of a new edible
cricket Scapsipedus icipe (Figure 7) (37,38) in Africa makes us
conclude there may be other edible crickets that have not yet been
documented, and this forms a basis for our review (Figure 2).
Jongema (9) documented edible insects around the globe. The
database contains several species and covers several orders of
edible insects, including edible crickets. Such a database provides
valuable information that could further be improved upon with
additional data on the nutritional content of these edible insects,
their sensory attributes, and the potential risks to potential
consumers. Information on whether these insects can be farmed
and the overall benefits to consumers are crucial.
Crickets have been consumed as food in Asia, Latin America,
and Africa as far back as prehistoric times. In Biblical scriptures,
cricket consumption is recommended to the Israelites by God
to be fit for their consumption: “these you may eat any kind
of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper” (Leviticus 11: 22). In
China, crickets have been consumed as food for over 2,000 years
(14,39). In Africa, crickets have formed a daunted cuisine and a
valuable complement of food enrichment for many years (32,40–
43). In recent years, consumption of edible crickets has become
more appreciated in Europe, America, and Australia with the
recognition of its nutritional benefits and food security (44–47).
The high nutritional content with the presence of protein,
essential amino acids, lipids, the monounsaturated fatty acids
(MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), mineral
elements, carbohydrates, energy, and the ease of farming make
crickets promising as a sustainable food source (29,48). The
rearing of crickets as mini livestock seems to be more ecofriendly
because of their low emission of greenhouse gases, low water and
feed intake, and the small land requirement for their production
as compared to livestock (29,30,49). Crickets also show
higher feed conversion efficiency when compared to mammalian
livestock. For instance, van Huis et al. (50) reported the feed
conversion efficiency of A. domesticus to be two-fold as compared
to that of broiler chickens and pigs, four-fold compared to that
of sheep, and more than 12-fold compared to that of cattle.
Moreover, crickets may be produced on locally available food
substrates such as agro byproducts and weeds, and they thus aid
in cleaning the environment (28,29,51). In recent years, research
on using crickets as human food and feed has increased with the
recognition of cricket nutritional benefits and their potential of
ensuring food security (27,44,45). Globally, the most frequently
consumed cricket family is Gryllidae followed by the Gryllotalpa
family (9,52). House cricket Acheta domesticus Linnaeus forms
the most-consumed cricket species worldwide.
While edible crickets are found to be rich sources of proteins
and other nutrients (5,53), there remain challenges and scientific
knowledge gaps that need to be filled. One of the challenges
for promoting edible crickets for human food is the lack of
knowledge of the particular species that are edible and where
they are found in the globe. The overall goal of this review is
consequently to offer exact information concerning the number
of crickets that are edible in the world, their nutrition content,
sensory attributes, the possibility of being farmed, the safety of
consumers and other benefits one can draw from them.
THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EDIBLE
CRICKETS
Crickets are non-wood wild products found in natural resources
all around the globe apart from cooler regions at latitudes 55◦
and beyond; the greatest species abundance is found in the
tropics where temperatures are warm and suitable for their
faster development compared to cold regions (54). Crickets
occur in the various habitats that include grassland, bushes,
forests, trees, marshes, beaches, caves, underground, and in
buildings (55). The edible crickets in this review belong to the
infraorder Gryllidea that comprise the families Gryllotalpidae,
Trigonidiidae, Gryllidae, and Phalangopsidae. Although more
than 6,000 Gryllidea have been described (56), the actual number
of crickets that are edible in this group is not known. In this
review, we report 62 cricket species that are consumed as human
food or used as livestock feed in different parts of the world
(Supplementary Table 1). The consumption of the crickets
depends on their distribution and the cultural appropriateness
of cricket consumption to people in a particular country. The
distribution of these edible crickets in five continents is as
follows: Asia (41 species), Africa (26 species), America (five
species), Europe (four species), and Australia (four species)
(Supplementary Table 1). Africa tops the list with 25 countries
that consume various crickets, followed by Asia (13 countries),
America (five countries), Europe (four countries), and Australia
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
FIGURE 1 | A world map showing countries where crickets are consumed as food. USA (United State of America), Mex (Mexico), Col (Columbia), Bra (Brazil), KEN
(Kenya), ZMB (Zambia), GNB (Guinea Bissau), SLE (Sierre Leone), GIN (Guinée), LBR (Liberia), BEN (Benin), TGO (Togo), NGA (Nigeria), COD (Democratic Republic of
Congo), SDS (South Sudan), UGA (Uganda), ZWE (Zimbabwe), TZA (Tanzania), NER (Niger), AGO (Angola), COG (Congo/Congo Brazzaville), BWA (Botswana), ZAF
(South Africa), MLI (Mali), GHA (Ghana), CAF (Central African Republic), BFA (Burkina Faso), CMR (Cameroon), MDG (Madagascar), PNG (Papua New Guinea), NZL
(New Zealand), NLD (Netherlands), BEL (Belgium), CHE (Switzerland), POL (Poland), THA (Thailand), PHL (Philippines), VNM (Viet Nam), IND (India), IDN (Indonesia),
LAO (Laos People’s Democratic Republic), KOR (South Korea), KHM (Cambodia), MYS (Malaysia), JPN (Japan), PNI (Sabah), MMR (Myanmar), CHN (China).
(two countries) (Supplementary Table 1). Our review shows
that crickets are more consumed in developing countries that
are experiencing food insecurity than in developed countries.
However, the consumption of crickets as food and feed is starting
to take off in western countries despite the early stigma that has
depicted insect consumption as a poor man’s food in developing
countries. This trend is changing rapidly as legislations have
been put in place in some western countries, recognizing edible
crickets as novel resources to mitigate food insecurity and
malnutrition (44).
THE NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF EDIBLE
CRICKETS
Edible crickets are excellent sources of proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, mineral salts, and vitamins (Table 1). However,
the nutritional composition of these crickets varies across the
different species (29,66,78). The nutritional content can also
vary within the same species of cricket influenced by the stage
FIGURE 2 | Brachytrupes membranaceus. Source: Authors.
of development, habitat, climate, sex, and the food substrate fed
on by the cricket (71,79). The nutritional value may also be
influenced by the method in which the crickets are processed (i.e.,
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
FIGURE 3 | Gryllus similis male. Source: Anankware et al. [(101), p. 36].
FIGURE 4 | Gryllus bimaculatus. Source: Orinda [(29), p. 15].
drying, cooking, smoking, deep-frying, roasting, and toasting)
before consumption (50,80). Most of the edible crickets supply
adequate energy and proteins to the consumer diet, at the same
time meeting the amino acid requirements. Crickets also possess
a high value of monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA) (59,67,68). Besides, these insects are
rich in micro-nutrient elements such as calcium, potassium,
magnesium, phosphorus, Sodium, Iron, zinc, manganese, and
copper as well as vitamins like folic acid, pantothenic acid,
riboflavin, and biotin, which are the most deficient nutrients
in humans (5,29,66). This therefore implies that crickets are a
good source of various nutrients required by humans for proper
FIGURE 5 | Gryllotalpa orientalis. 15, February, 2014. Photograph by
Michael Kesil.
FIGURE 6 | Acheta domesticus. 29 August, 2010. Courtesy of Aiwok.
growth and development. The following subsections provide
details of the specific nutritional composition of edible crickets.
Protein Composition of Different Species
of Edible Crickets
Previous studies have reported protein valuea for 14 edible cricket
species, ranging from 18.6 to 71.1% in dry weight (29,57,
66,81) (Table 1). The protein content of the different cricket
species is within the range of the reported protein for other
edible insects, including other Orthopterans (5). The variation
in protein content observed in the crickets could be due to
the influence of the species, diet, habitat, and the stage of
development of the examined cricket. Compared to the protein
content of the common meat sources listed in Table 1, most of
the edible crickets have a higher protein content than that of the
roasted goat, broiler chicken, and pork. The protein digestibility
of some crickets was also investigated in a review and was 50.2%
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
for Brachytrupes sp. and 83.9% for A. domesticus (82,83). These
protein digestibility values for the crickets are slightly lower
compared to values for eggs (95%), beef (98%), and cow milk
(95%) (84). On the other hand, the protein digestibility values for
the crickets are higher than those of many plant proteins, such as
sorghum (46%), maize (73%), wheat (81%), and rice (66%) (85).
FIGURE 7 | Scapsipedus icipe. Source: Magara et al. [(28), p.2].
The amounts of nitrogenous substances in crickets may, however,
be higher than their actual protein content since some nitrogen is
also bound in the exoskeleton (29,86).
Lipids Composition of Different Species of
Edible Crickets
Edible crickets contain, on average, 4.30–33.44% of lipids in dry
matter basis (Table 1). In some cricket species, the lipids content
are higher in the nymphal stages than in adults (65,87), while
in other species they are lower in nymphs compared to the adult
stage (29,58). Gryllus bimaculatus and A. domesticus are among
those cricket species with the highest lipid content.
Edible crickets have two different forms of lipids, namely,
triglycerols and phospholipids. Triglycerols are ∼80% of lipids.
They store energy that is required for activities that require high
energy intensity in the cricket, such as longer flight and hopping.
This energy can be available for humans after feeding on crickets.
Phospholipids are the second most dominant group of lipids.
Their value in cricket lipids is usually <20%, but their variation
is dependent on the stage of development of the cricket and
cricket species (88,89). The role of phospholipids in the structure
of cell membranes has been studied (88). Crickets are richer in
TABLE 1 | The nutritional composition of different species of edible crickets and selected animal tissues.
Cricket species Stage Protein
(g/100 g dry
weight)
Lipid (g/100g
dry weight)
Fiber (g/100g
dry weight)
Ash (g/100g
dry weight)
Carbohydrates
(g/100 g dry
weight)
Energy value
(kcal/100 g dry
matter)
References
Acheta domesticus Nymph and Adult 62.41–71.09
NR
9.80–22.8
19.20–29.58
10.20
NR
5.10–9.10
NR
NR
NR
455.19
NR
(5,29,57,58)
Gryllus assimilis Adult
Nymph
56.00 ±3.10
55.60 ±1.10
65.52 ±1.39
71.04 ±0.01
56.4
21.80 ±2.65
11.90 ±0.50
7.00 ±0.12
NR
34.00
8.28
8.00
7.00
NR
NR
6.40
NR
NR
NR
4.08 ±0.43
12.46 ±0.16
8.60 ±1.49
NR
NR
NR
397.00 ±1.69
NR
NR
NR
537.50
(59–65)
Gryllus bimaculatus Adult 57.49–70.10 14.93–33.44 9.53 ±0.46 NR NR 120.00 (29,66)
Brachytrupes spp Adult 65.35 ±0.36 11.76 ±0.63 13.29 ±1.61 4.88 ±0.23 2.50 ±0.85 536.42 ±0.47 (67)
Gryllus testaceus Adult 58.30 ±0.91 10.30 ±0.31 10.40 2.96 ±0.09 NR 18.10 (51,68,69)
Tarbinskiellus
portentosus
Adult 58.00 ±0.05 23.70 ±0.05 1.16 ±1.01 7.93 ±0.04 NR 460.82 (70)
Gryllodes sigillatus Nymph 56.00 NR NR NR NR (60,61)
Teleogryllus emma Adult 55.65 ±0.28 25.14 ±0.11 10.37 ±0.19 10.37 ±0.19 NR (66)
Brachytrupes
membranaceus
Adult
Nymph
53.4 ±0.19 15.80 ±0.23 6.30 ±0.14
5.0 ±0.30
6.00 ±0.12
3.23 ±0.01
15.10 ±0.22 454.7 ±2.25 (17,71,72)
Brachytrupes
portentosus
Adult 48.69 ±0.25
NR
20.60 ±0.60
NR
11.61 ±0.20
0.5–8.3
5.40–20.50
9.36 ±0.34
NR
NR
90.06–134.0
NR
(73,74)
Gryllotalpa africana Adult 22.0 ±0.86 10.80 ±1.24 7.4 ±0.24 12.60 ±0.97 47.20 ±0.32 362.3 ±2.34 (71)
Acheta testacea Adult 18.6 6.00 NR NR NR 133.00 (75,76)
Acheta confirmata Adult NR 21.14 NR NR NR NR (61)
Animal tissue
Goat, roasted 27 3 0 NR 0 143 (77)
Broiler 24 14 0 NR 0 165 (77)
Pork 27 6.00 0 NR 1.5 242 (77)
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
lipid content when compared to goat, chicken, and pork meats
(Table 1).
Ash Composition of Different Species of
Edible Crickets
Edible crickets possess a significant amount of ash, ranging from
2.96 to 20.50 mg/100 g dry weight (Table 1). The lowest ash
content was reported by Wang et al. (68) for G. testaceus. The low
ash content of G. testaceus implies low mineral content. On the
other hand, the highest ash content was reported by McDonald
et al. (74) for B. portentosus. The higher the ash content the higher
the value of the mineral elements for human health. Crickets have
a higher content of ash when compared to goat, broiler, and pork
meat (Table 1).
Fiber Composition of Different Species of
Edible Crickets
Crickets contain a significant quantity of fiber that ranges
between 0.5 and 13.4% (Table 1). The insoluble chitin in the
exoskeleton of the edible crickets forms a major part of fiber
(50,90). In commercially farmed crickets, the chitin ranges from
2.7 to 49.8 mg per kg of fresh weight and 11.6 to 137.2 mg
per kg of dry weight (91). People from tropical countries can
digest chitin by the help of a bioactive chitinase enzyme, which
has developed in their gastric juices as a result of consuming
edible crickets in their regular diet unlike people from outside
the tropics (92). To enable people from outside the tropics to
consume crickets without any complication, the chitin must be
removed (91).
The chitin plays a significant role in protecting crickets against
some parasitic attacks and allergic states (91,93). Lee et al.
(94) also reported that chitin is antivirally active against tumor
formation. Chitin and its associated derivative chitosan have a
functional role that could improve retinol and 6.8–8.2 µg of β-
carotene per 100 g of dry weight. The chitin of the crickets has
also been shown to influence the gut microflora, which plays an
important role in the health of human beings and other animals,
such as dogs (95,96). Crickets are richer in fiber compared to the
other meat sources (Table 1).
Carbohydrate Composition of Different
Species of Edible Crickets
Carbohydrate is a major source of energy, though crickets do not
require it for their growth since they can synthesize it from amino
acids and lipids in their bodies (97). The carbohydrate content
of edible crickets reported in the previous studies ranged from
2.50–47.20 g/100 g of dry weight (Table 1). The carbohydrate
content in crickets is greatly influenced by the diet they consume
(98). Crickets store their carbohydrates in the fat body, mainly
in the form of glycogen, which can be later rapidly hydrolyzed
into a readily useable form of energy: trehalose. The utilization of
carbohydrates as a source of energy in insects is mostly relevant
during metamorphosis due to metabolic interconversions (98) as
well as during male stridulation in crickets (99,100). By feeding
on the crickets or their byproducts, we can obtain and make
use of these carbohydrates. The highest amount of carbohydrates
is reported in the mole cricket Gryllotalpa africana while the
lowest carbohydrate content is found in Brachtrupes sp. Edible
crickets are a good source of carbohydrates when compared to
goat, broiler, or pork meat (Table 1).
Energy Content of Different Species of
Edibles Crickets
Different studies have reported the caloric energy content of 12
cricket species, which ranges from 18 to 536 kilocalories (kcal)
per 100 g of dry weight (Table 1). The energy value of the crickets
is influenced by the species, lipid content, and their stage of
development. Gryllus assimilis and Brachytrupes sp. have the
highest energy content while Gryllus testaceus has the lowest.
Furthermore, the review shows that the Gryllus assimilis nymphal
stage has more energy than the adult stage (60,61) (Table 1).
On one hand, the calorific energy content for six cricket species
(61,62,67,70) is within the range of 293 and 762 kcal per 100 g
of the dry weight of the other edible insect species (83). On the
other hand, the calorific energy content of the five other crickets
(Table 1) was low (65,68) compared to the description obtained
by Ramos-Elorduy et al. (83) for the other edible insect species.
This data varied—most probably because of the variation of the
cricket species and the method of analyzing their nutritional
content. When the crickets are compared with the goat, broiler,
or pork meat, most of the crickets have a higher energy content
than these other meat sources (Table 1). This finding shows that
the crickets are an energy-rich food source for humans.
Amino Acids Composition of Different
Species of Edible Crickets
Edible crickets are rich in amino acids, which vary across the
cricket species (Table 2). Glutamic acid is the most abundant
amino acid in T. portentosus, G. assimilis, G. testaceus, A. testacea,
G. bimaculatus, and A. domesticus, while leucine is the most
abundant amino acid in G. sigillatus. The most abundant essential
amino acids in these crickets are valine, ranging from 1.07
to 11.45 g/100 g of dry matter, leucine, ranging from 3.97 to
9.75 g/100 g of dry matter, and lysine, ranging from 2.42 to
7.90 g of dry matter (Table 2). The extensive variation of the
amino acids amongst the edible crickets could be due to the
variation in the diet they consume, stage of development, species,
sex, habitat, and measuring methods (110,111). Compared to
amino acids from livestock meats in Table 2, crickets such as T.
portentosus,G. sigillatus, and G. assimilis have more valine amino
acid than pork and broiler chicken and similar content of all
other amino acids (108). On the other hand, T. portentosus,G.
sigillatus, G. testaceus, and A. domesticus have a higher content of
phenylalanine than chicken (112) but similar content to that of
pork (106).
Some crickets possess high values of lysine, tryptophan, and
threonine, which are lacking in some of the cereal proteins
that are major parts of the daily diets of many households.
For instance, in Africa, where malnutrition is rampant, the
consumption of crickets such as A. domesticus,G. bimaculatus,
and G. assimilis can help mitigate deficiencies in the required
amino acids (66,102,104). In Australia, the people of Papua
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
TABLE 2 | Amino acid composition (g/100 g protein) of different species of edible crickets and selected animal tissue (g/100g protein) and amino acid score.
Amino acid Cricket species Animal tissue Amino acid Score
Tarbinskiellus
portentosus
Gryllodes
sigillatus
nymph
Gryllus
assimilis
Gryllus
testaceus
Acheta
testacea
Gryllus
bimaculatus
Acheta
domesticus
Pork loin
muscle
Broiler Infants Children
and adult
Essential Amino acids
Valine 11.45 ±0.98 5.20 4.62 ±0.59 4.42 ±0.00 3.44 3.20 ±0.03 1.07 3.36–3.62 3.36–4.58 1.0–1.1 1.3–1.4
Isoleucine 3.03 ±0.19 3.70 2.12 ±0.73 3.09 ±0.00 2.98 2.16 ±0.04 4.45 ±0.21 3.69–4.80 3.09–4.23 0.85–0.89 1.4–1.5
Leucine ND 6.90 7.74 ±0.64 5.521 ±
0.13
6.09 3.97 ±0.05 9.75 ±0.35 6.50–7.36 5.12–6.88 0.84–0.92 1.2–1.3
Lysine 6.10 ±0.07 5.30 7.90 ±0.64 4.79 ±0.10 4.61 2.42 ±0.01 5.40 ±0.00 7.80–8.78 5.81–7.77 0.78–1.0 1.0–1.2
Threonine 3.81 ±0.21 3.50 3.55 ±0.63 2.75 ±0.12 2.90 2.00 ±0.04 3.60 ±0.00 3.37–5.11 2.78–3.66 0.90–0.98 1.3–1.4
Phenylalanine 2.59 ±0.13 3.10 0.72 ±0.20 2.86 ±0.06 NR 1.83 ±0.01 3.00 ±0.28 2.83–3.98 2.33–2.49 NR NR
Methionine 2.42 ±0.09 1.60 0.63 ±0.20 1.93 ±0.06 NR 0.27 ±0.01 1.40 ±0.14 2.36–2.86 1.40–2.08 NR NR
Histidine ND 2.20 1.32 ±0.37 1.94 ±0.01 1.54 2.50 ±0.08 2.25 ±0.07 3.46–3.63 2.47–4.44 1.1–1.2 1.2–1.3
Trypatophan 1.35 ±0.23 0.90 0.95 ±0.20 NR 2.44 NR 0.55 ±0.07 0.82–1.33 1.05–1.11 0.40–0.57 0.8–1.1
Methionine and
Cystine
NR NR NR NR 3.09 NR NR 3.35–4.00 2.22–3.36 0.70–0.84 0.86–1.0
Phenylalanine
and Tyrosine
NR NR NR NR 6.24 NR NR 4.63–5.89 4.28–6.01 0.90–1.1 1.6–2.0
Non-essential amino acids
Tyrosine 4.73 ±0.13 4.20 5.44 ±0.66 3.94 ±0.02 NR 2.73 ±0.02 1.00 1.80–1.91 1.95–3.52 NR NR
Arginine 0.32 ±0.31 5.70 3.02 ±1.36 3.68 ±0.12 4.51 3.60 ±0.04 6.10 ±0.00 4.60–6.62 3.76–7.08 NR NR
Aspartic acid 6.99 ±0.97 7NR 8.64 ±0.63 3.72 ±0.07 6.92 3.60 ±0.04 7.75 ±0.92 7.26–8.09 5.96–7.89 NR NR
Glutamic acid 19.24 ±1.32 NR 2.41 ±0.14 9.07 ±0.31 9.68 6.39 ±0.07 10.45 ±
0.07
12.9–13.3 9.35–11.03 NR NR
Serine 3.17 ±0.69 NR 0.61 ±0.20 3.72 ±0.07 3.59 2.73 ±0.01 1.02 3.11–3.30 2.58–3.06 NR NR
Aspargine 3.27 ±0.52 NR NR 6.290 ±0.2 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Glycine NR NR 0.36 ±0.73 3.62 ±0.11 4.72 3.32 ±0.01 1.04 2.99–3,14 3.44–3.75 NR NR
Alanine 0.14 ±0.02 NR 4.02 ±0.63 5.55 ±0.09 7.80 5.64 ±0.01 8.85 ±0.07 3.93–4.21 3.79–4.91 NR NR
Cysteine NR 0.90 0.74 ±0.14 1.01 ±0.02 NR 5.10 ±0.00 0.8 ±0.00 0.99–1.14 0.82–1.28 NR NR
Proline 1.44 ±0.39 NR 1.26 ±0.73 4.50 ±0.08 4.52 1.99 ±0.01 1.15 2.99–3.14 1.94–1.98 NR NR
Taurine 1.25 ±0.43 NR NR NR NR NR 141.00 NR NR NR NR
Ornithine 3.10 ±2.96 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
EAA 35.48 NR NR 32.25 NR 21.08 NR NR NR NR NR
NEAA 66.16 NR NR 36.42 NR 32.75 NR NR NR NR NR
EAA/NEAA 0.54 NR NR 0.89 NR 0.64 NR NR NR NR NR
Total amino
acids
101.64 43.20 56.49 68.67 NR 53.83 NR NR NR NR NR
References (70) (60,61) (102) (68,103) (76) (66) (104,105) (106,107) (107,108) (107,109) (107,109)
NR, not reported; nd, not detected; EAA, Essential Amino Acids; NEAA, Non Essential Amino Acids.
New Guinea consume tubers as food, which contain low
values of the lysine and leucine. The resulting nutritional
deficiency can, therefore, be solved through consuming nymphs
and adults of the mole cricket Gryllotalpa species and A.
domesticus and G. bimaculatus as food (66,104,113) with
high quantities of lysine. On the other hand, tubers contain
a high proportion of tryptophan and aromatic amino acids,
which are available in small quantities in the nymphs and
adult crickets. It is therefore advisable to consume a mixed
diet of tubers and crickets to have a balance in the required
amino acid (50,114). When the protein of about 100 edible
insect species was analyzed, the content of essential amino
acids was found to be ranging between 46 and 96 g/100 g dry
matter of the total amount of amino acids (87). This implies
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
that the crickets in this review are rich sources of amino acid
for humans.
Fatty Acids Composition of Different
Species of Edible Crickets
The edible crickets in this review possess higher contents of oleic,
linoleic, linolenic, stearic (C18 fatty acids), and palmitic acid (C16
fatty acid) as compared to other fatty acids (66,68,73,115),
(Table 3). Linoleic acid, ranging from 4.15 to 41.39 g/100 g of
dry matter, is the most abundant fatty acid in T. portentosus, G.
testaceus, G. assimilis, A. domesticus, G. bimaculatus, T. emma,
and A. confirmata. On the other hand, oleic (38.27 g/100 g of
dry matter) and arachidonic acid (50.43 g/100 g of dry matter)
are the most abundant fatty acids in Brachytrupes sp. and B.
portentosus, respectively (Table 3). The second and third most
abundant fatty acid in various crickets is as follows: in T.
portentosus, we have pentadecanoic and myristic acid; in G.
testaceus we have oleic and palmitic acid, in G. assimilis we have
palmitic and oleic acid, in A. domesticus we have palmitic and
oleic acid, in G. bimaculatus we have oleic and palmitic acid,
in T. emma we have oleic and palmitic acid, in A. confirmata
we have oleic and myristic acid, in Brachytrupes sp. we have
linoleic and palmitic acid, and in B. portentosus we have stearic
and Eicosatrienoic acid. The variation in fatty acid values in
the crickets can be attributed to the difference in species, stage
of development, diet, and environmental conditions in different
localities (29,58,114).
This review demonstrates that the different cricket lipids are
highly unsaturated, with either linoleic and oleic or linoleic
and pentadecanoic acid or arachidonic and eicosatrienoic acid
being the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids and palmitic,
myristic, and stearic acids being the most abundant saturated
fatty acids. Linoleic, oleic, myristic, Pentadecanoic, stearic, and
palmitic acid are also predominant in other edible insects,
including other Orthopterans (5,107). These fatty acids are also
the most abundant in livestock meat, including chicken and
pork (106,107,112). Tarbinskiellus portentosus, G. testaceus,
G. assimilis, A. domesticus, A. confirmata, Brachytrupes sp., and
B. portentosus have higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) compared to pork and broiler chicken meat (Table 3).
Gryllus bimaculatus and T. emma, on the other hand, have
lower content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) compared
to pork and broiler chicken meat. Most of the crickets in our
review, except for G. bimaculatus and T. emma, have more
essential fatty acids than the pork and broiler chicken. Crickets
generally have more unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) compared
to saturated fatty acids (SFA) (59,61). A notable exception
occurs in T. portentosus, which has more SFA compared to
UFA (70). This difference could be a result of unreported
oleic acid, which has been reported in other crickets. The
majority of the non-communicable diseases, such as type 2
Diabetes Mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular disease (thrombosis,
atherosclerosis, and high blood pressure), and some cancers
affecting human beings, are due to the consuming of SFA
(22). Consumption a high PUFA and MUFA in crickets is
therefore capable of reducing the detrimental effects of high-SFA
diets (22).
Mineral Composition of Different Species
of Edible Crickets
Edible crickets are a good source of mineral elements such
as phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
and zinc. Based on dry matter, edible crickets have phosphorus
ranging from 0.80 to 1169.60 mg/100 g; potassium ranging from
28.28 to 1079.90 mg/100 g, and sodium ranging from 0.99 to
452.99 mg/100 g as the most abundant mineral macro mineral
elements. The differences in the macro-mineral elements could
be due to the diet the crickets feed on in different parts of the
globe. The differences could also be due to the age of the cricket,
species, contaminants, especially heavy metal during the time
of processing the crickets, and the measuring methods. In this
review, the majority of the crickets have higher macro-mineral
elements than those found in beef, pork, and broiler chicken,
although some have similar content, and a few crickets exhibit a
low content of macro-mineral elements (Table 4). Edible crickets
lack a mineralized skeleton and hence have very little calcium,
ranging from 4.98 to 240.17 mg/100 g dry weight; however, when
we compare the calcium content of the edible crickets in this
review, it is higher than that of beef, chicken, and pork (66,118).
This is because the bones that have calcium reserves do not form
part of the muscle tissue that is subjected to analysis. Edible
cricket species in this study possess calcium that ranges between
4.98 and 240.22 mg/100 g dry weight. Gryllus bimaculatus cricket
contains the highest amount while Brachytrupes sp. contains the
least amount of calcium (Table 4). This finding contradicts the
finding by (122) that showed that crickets contain calcium of
33–341 mg/100 g dry matter. The sodium level in edible crickets
is higher compared to the one recorded in other Orthopterans
and other edible insects (5,66,107). The micro-mineral elements
such as zinc, manganese, iron, copper, cobalt and aluminum in
edible crickets are higher in content compared to micro-mineral
elements in beef, chicken, and pork (123,124) (Table 4). Most of
the edible crickets have higher iron content than livestock meats,
although we currently have scant information concerning the
iron bioavailability of crickets (125,126). A rare study of iron
bioavailability found that consuming the G. bimaculatus cricket
can enable you to meet a high percentage of your recommended
daily iron intake (127). In this case, a child must consume
120.08 mg of the G. bimaculatus to acquire the 11.60 mg/100 g
recommended daily iron intake. An adult human is supposed to
consume 283.64 mg of cricket to meet the recommended daily
intake of iron (27.40 mg/100 g).
Vitamins Composition of Different Species
of Edible Crickets
Edible crickets are an excellent source of a wide range of water-
soluble vitamins and lipophilic vitamins, including thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B12 (62,105) (Table 5). House
cricket, A. domesticus, contains 0.4 mg of thiamine per 100 g of
dry weight, which is within the range of 0.1 to 4 mg per 100 g of
dry matter thiamine content reported in other edible insects (72).
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
TABLE 3 | Fatty acid composition (g/100 g DM) of different species of edible crickets.
Fatty acid Cricket species Animal tissue
Tarbinskiellus
portentosus
Gryllus
testaceus
Gryllus
assimilis
Acheta
domesticus
Gryllus
bimaculatus
Teleogryllus
emma
Brachytrupes
sp.
Brachytrupes
portentosus
Acheta
testacea
Acheta
confirmata
Pork loin Broiler
Lauric acid
(C12:0)
1.16 ±0.16 0.54 ±0.04 0.12 ±0.00 0.10 ±0.00 0.04 0.02 NR NR NR NR 0.21 NR
Tridecanoic
acid (C13:0)
NR NR 0.02 ±0.01 NR 0 0 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Myristic acid
(C14:0)
6.74 ±0.47 0.39 ±0.02 1.28 ±0.01 0.44 ±0.00 0.05 0.18 0.96 ±0.01 Nd NR 26.10 1.3–1.4 0.45–0.69
Pentadecanoic
acid (C15:0)
16.74 ±1.33 NR 0.37 ±0.01 0.11 ±0.00 0.01 0.02 NR Nd NR NR 4.1–4.7 NR
Palmitic acid
(C16:0)
NR 10.18 ±0.20 25.85 ±0.06 22.65 ±0.37 2.16 3.06 21.31 ±0.49 1.61 ±0.05 NR 5.50 23.2–27.3 23.8–24.9
Heptadecanoic
acid (C17:0)
NR NR 0.57 ±0.01 0.12 ±0.00 0.03 0.04 NR 0.13 ±0.02 NR NR 0.2–0.3 NR
Stearic acid
(C18:0)
NR 2.63 ±0.09 14.07 ±0.03 8.54 ±0.00 0.76 0.07 12.24 ±0.24 35.79 ±0.02 NR 1.20 12.2–16.1 5.7–5.9
Arachidic acid
(C20:0)
NR NR 0.56 ±0.01 0.12 0.09 0.49 ±0.01 Nd NR NR NR NR
Heneicosanoic
acid (C21:0)
NR NR 0.03 ±0.00 0.24 ±0.00 0.04 0.04 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Behenic acid
(C22:0)
2.34 ±0.27 NR 0.57 ±0.00 0.03 0.01 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Tricosanoic acid
(C23:0)
NR NR 0.22 ±0.01 0.02 ±0.04 0 0.07 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Lignoceric acid
(C24:0)
NR NR 0.01 0.01 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Myristoleic acid
(C14:1)
NR NR 0.06 ±0.01 0.44 ±0.00 0 0.02 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Palmitoleic acid
(C16:1)
NR 3.11 ±0.10 1.92 ±0.01 0.34 ±0.00 0.17 0.91 0.96 ±0.00 0.71 ±0.03 NR 2.40 2.1–2.8 7.1–7.4
Heptadecenoic
acid (C17:1)
NR NR 0.19 ±0.00 0.24 ±0.00 0.01 0.03 NR NR NR NR NR NR
cis Oleic acid
(C18:1n-9)
NR 29.58 ±0.20 25.03 ±0.11 20.18 ±0.02 2.91 6.98 38.27 ±0.67 3.4 ±0.03 NR 31.10 32.8–43.7 40.3–40.9
Eicosenoic acid
(C20:1)
NR NR 0.24 ±0.00 NR 0.03 0.04 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Erucic acid
(C22:1n-9)
NR NR 0.05 ±0.01 0.52 ±0.01 0.01 0.04 NR NR NR NR NR NR
(Continued)
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
TABLE 3 | Continued
Fatty acid Cricket species Animal tissue
Tarbinskiellus
portentosus
Gryllus
testaceus
Gryllus
assimilis
Acheta
domesticus
Gryllus
bimaculatus
Teleogryllus
emma
Brachytrupes
sp.
Brachytrupes
portentosus
Acheta
testacea
Acheta
confirmata
Pork loin Broiler
cis Linoleic acid
(C18:2n-6)
18.94 ±0.02 37.82 ±0.20 26.13 ±0.18 41.39 ±0.29 4.15 9.61 22.14 ±0.59 NR NR 32.20 10.7–14.2 16.2–17.5
Eicosadienoic
acid (C20:2)
NR NR 1.60 ±0.01 0.00 0.04 0.02 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Eicosatrienoic
(C20:3n-3)
NR NR 0.01 ±0.00 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Eicosatetraenoic
(C20:4n-3)
NR NR 0.21 ±0.02 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Docosadienoic
acid (C22:2n-6)
NR NR 0.03 ±0.02 0.11 ±0.01 0.02 0.01 NR NR NR NR NR NR
Linolenic acid
(C18:3n-6)
NR 10.12 ±0.10 NR 1.11 ±0.00 0.01 0 2.55 ±0.18 NR NR NR NR NR
Alpha-linolenic
acid (C18:3n-3)
NR NR NR NR 0.08 0.22 NR Nd NR 1.70 1.0–1.1 0.77–0.85
Eicosatrienoic
acid (C20:3n-6)
NR NR NR 0.01 ±0.02 0.02 0.01 NR 7.94 ±0.04 NR NR NR NR
Arachidonic
acid (C20:4n-6)
0.55 ±0.28 NR NR 0.01 ±0.02 0.01 0.27 NR 50.43 ±0.55 NR NR 0.1–0.2 0.76-0.97
Eicosapentaenoic
(C20:5n-3)
NR NR NR 0.01 ±0.02 0 0.01 NR Nd NR NR 0.2-0.4 0.05–0.07
SFA 50.58 13.74 43.72 32.22 3.25 3.61 34.99 ±0.24 37.54 ±0.08 36.5 32.80 40.7 30.9–32.2
MUFA 28.98 32.69 27.49 21.72 3.13 8.02 39.23 ±0.66 4.11 ±0.06 30.1 33.50 47.2 48.0–49.1
PUFA 20.32 47.94 28.80 42.64 4.33 10.15 24.68 ±0.77 58.37 ±0.59 31.1 33.90 11.7 19.1–20.4
TUFA 49.30 80.63 56.29 64.36 7.46 18.17 63.91 62.48 61.20 67.40 58.90 67.10–69.50
PUFA/SFA ratio 0.40 3.49 0.66 1.32 1.33 2.81 0.71 1.55 0.86 1.03 0.6 0.61–0.66
n-3 NR NR 1.99 0.01 0.08 0.23 NR NR NR NR 1.2–1.5 0.82–0.93
n-6 19.49 47.94 26.81 42.63 4.25 9.92 24.69 58.37 NR NR 10.8–14.4 17.8–19.1
EFA 18.94 ±0.02 37.82 ±0.20 26.13 ±0.18 41.39 ±0.29 4.23 9.83 22.14 ±0.59 NR NR 33.90 11.70–15.30 16.20–18.35
References (70) (68) (59) (115) (66) (66) (67) (73) (76) (61) (106) (112)
NR, not reported; nd, not detected; SFA, saturated fatty acid; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; UFA, unsaturated fatty acids; EFA, essential fatty acids.
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
TABLE 4 | Mineral-Nutrient elements composition (mg/100 g DM) of different species of edible crickets and selected animal tissues (mg/100 g DM).
Cricket species Mineral element
Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Zinc Manganese Iron Copper Cobolt Aluminum References
Gryllus bimaculatus 1169.60 1079.90 452.99 240.17 143.65 22.43 10.36 9.66 4.55 NR NR (66)
Teleogryllus ema 1085.4 895.50 278.23 193.54 152.48 18.47 5.86 10.75 2.19 NR NR (66)
Acheta domesticus 832.9 126.62 435.06 171.07 94.71 20.22 3.35 8.75 1.43 NR NR (105)
Tarbinskiellus
portentosus
506.1 ±2.33 1240.89 ±1.05 370.81 ±0.82 26.00 ±0.02 10.50 ±0.06 7.0 ±0.00 NR 122.5 ±0.00 4.50 ±0.01 NR NR (70)
Brachytrupes
membranaceus
126.9 NR NR 9.21 0.13 NR NR 0.68 NR NR NR (116)
Brachytrupes spp 38.50 ±1.91 877.26 ±41.39 150.22 ±28.23 4.98 ±0.58 NR 23.02 ±0.06 NR 33.60 ±3.26 NR NR NR (66,67)
Gymnogryllus
lucens
NR 28.28 ±17.88 15.63 ±5.30 NR 153.88 ±27.47 25.66±28.70 NR 51.90 ±44.5 6.91 ±0.70 0.21 ±0.70 NR (117)
Gryllus assimilis 0.80 NR 0.99 45.30 ±4.45 2.19 ±3.46 5.22 ±0.27 1.42 ±0.09 2.78 ±0.28 0.68 ±0.01 NR 4.21 ±2.51 (63,118)
Animal tissue
Beef NR NR NR 5.43 49.33 5.53 0.04 3.31 0.45 NR NR (76)
Broiler chicken 407.00 248.00 46.00 5.80 29.00 0.70–1.30 NR 0.40–0.70 0.04–0.10 NR NR (107)
Pork 223.00–320.00 370.00–400.00 45.00–87.00 4.30–6.00 21.00–26.10 2.40–6.90 NR 1.40–21.00 0.10–2.70 NR NR (107)
Recommended nutrient intake (mg/day)
Children 100.00 300.00 26.00 2.80 0.003 11.60 (77,119–121)
Adults 700.00 2000.00 500.00 1300.00 260.00 7.20 2.30 27.40 1.50 (77,119–121)
NR, Not Reported.
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
Riboflavin in edible crickets ranges from 0.23 to 3.41 mg/100 g.
Gryllus assimilis cricket is richer in vitamin B12 with a content of
5 mg per 100 g compared to A. dometicus (62). Retinol (vitamin
A) and β-carotene were detected in A. domesticus, while only
Retinol was detected in G. assimilis. A. domesticus possess a
retinol content of up to 67 g/100 g dry weight and a β-carotene
of up to 0.02 g/100 g dry weight (105). Gryllus assimilis, on the
other hand, has a retinol content of 2.90 mg/100 g of dry matter
(62). Vitamin E is found in both A. domesticus and G. assimilis
(Table 5). This review shows that the edible crickets are a good
source of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin A, vitamin
C, niacin, and thiamine. This is in line with the findings of
Rumpold and Schlüter (5), who reported that insects consumed
as food and feed are usually rich in riboflavin, pantothenic acid,
and biotin. On the other hand, however, they are poor sources
of vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, and in most cases thiamine. The
number of vitamins in edible insects collected from the wild is
seasonal and influenced by the meal the insect consumes. This
problem of seasonal availability of the vitamin can be overcome
through the rearing of the crickets on farms using diets rich in
vitamins. The review shows that edible crickets can meet the
recommended daily intake of most of the vitamins. This can be
achieved by either increasing the number of mg/ 100 g for those
vitamins that are in low supply in crickets or by reducing the
mg/100 g consumed where the vitamins contained in the edible
cricket is high.
SENSORY QUALITIES OF EDIBLE
CRICKETS
Crickets captured from the wild or the one raised in the farms
must be processed before they are consumed. During processing,
the crickets are starved for 1–3 days before they are killed
humanely by scalding them using hot water (129). After killing
them, they are then cooked, smoked, fried, toasted, dried, or
processed into cricket products, such as crackers, to improve their
taste and palatability (50,129,130). The method of preparation of
crickets and their products play an important role in influencing
a person’s willingness to sample and consume them. Before
consumption, the consumer will employ their sensory organs,
such as smell, touch, sight, and sound, to choose whether or they
will eat it.
Sensory attributes as they relate to the processed crickets
and their products therefore influence cricket consumption.
Processed crickets and their products have diverse taste, color,
and flavor. The flavor of the cricket depends on their surface odor
(130). The flavor of crickets also depends on the diet they eat.
Diet choices for crickets can also be adapted depending on how
we want to the crickets to tase. During cooking, crickets tend to
take the flavor of the additives.
The exoskeleton of crickets has a high impact on the texture
of the cricket, i.e., its crunchiness. Crunchy crickets or their
products tend to produce an accompanying sound like that of
crackers or pretzels while being eaten (130). Nymphs of about 6–
7 weeks are the stages of crickets when they are most consumed,
as they contain a low quantity of chitin. The reductions of the
chitin make these crickets less crispy during their consumption
and increase their digestibility. A pleasant color does not always
indicate the deliciousness of the cricket but only influence the
consumer to accept the cricket. During cooking, the cricket color
may change from the initial shades of gray or brown to red, or
its color may be retained, especially if the cricket is black (130).
Crickets containing a considerable amount of oxidized fat, or
improperly dried crickets, may be black, which is a color that
may discourage consumers. Properly dried crickets are golden or
brown and can be easily crushed by the fingers (129).
OTHER BENEFITS DERIVED FROM
CRICKETS
Crickets possess benefits other than being consumed as food by
human beings. These benefits include the following.
Crickets as a Source of Medicine
Humans have used crickets and their products for therapeutic
functions since ancient times (47,131–134). Recent studies have
shown that crickets can be utilized as a traditional remedy
for fever and high blood pressure (135). The cricket legs are
ground into a powder and mixed with water and then taken as
a drink to relieve dropsy (oedema) (134,136–138). In Nigeria,
the intestinal content of mole crickets (Gryllotalpa africana
Beauvois) is applied to patients suffering from athlete’s foot for
treatment (134,139). In some places, Brachytrupes sp. crickets
are also consumed as food supplements for healthy mental
development and pre- and pro-natal care purposes (134,140). In
China, edible Chinese mole crickets are sun-dried to make a herb
called China Gryllotalpa, which is then used as a decoction or is
made into a tincture to enhance bodily functions (141).
Research has been conducted on the utilization of crickets
as a new supplementary diet to fight deficiency diseases, such
as Marasmus and Kwashiorkor, in schoolchildren (36,142).
The findings are interesting in that the incorporation of cricket
powder in diets of the schools optimized the growth and
learning of the children (142). Moreover, the presence of essential
amino acids, including valine, lysine, threonine, and methionine,
in edible crickets help in breaking down of saturated fatty
acids, which are implicated in lifestyle conditions like obesity,
hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and cancer in human beings
(143). Previous studies have also shown that the cricket powder
is rich in most of the mineral-nutrient elements deficient in
human beings, such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron,
and copper. One can thus obtain these minerals that are
important in fighting various diseases, such as osteoporosis,
malfunction of the nervous system, and anemia, by consuming
the edible crickets. Direct consumption of crickets has also
been shown to decrease ethanol levels in the blood by the
help of enzymes such as alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and
acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), which stimulates the liver
mitochondria to break down alcohol that may damage the
liver (144). Glycosaminoglycan (GAG), which mediates anti-
atherosclerotic and antilipemic effects, have been confirmed in
crickets, and one can attain this compound by consuming the
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TABLE 5 | Vitamin composition of different species of edible crickets.
Vitamin Cricket species Recommended daily intake
Acheta domesticus Gryllus assimilis Children Adult female Adult male
mg/100 g mg/100 g mg/day mg/day mg/day
Retinol (Vitamin A) <67.00 2.90 ±0.05 6 15 15
βcarotene <0.02 NR NR NR NR
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) 0.04 NR 0.4 1.1 1.2
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 3.41 0.23 ±0.08 0.3 1.1 1.3
Niacin (Vitamin B3) 3.84 NR 2 14 16
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) 2.30 NR 1.7 5 5
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) 0.23 NR 0.0001 0.0013 0.0013
Biotin (Vitamin B7) 0.02 NR 0.005 0.03 0.03
Folic acid (Vitamin B9) 0.15 NR 0.65 0.40 0.40
Vitamin B12 0.01 10.00 ±0.00 0.004 0.0024 0.0024
Vitamin C 3.00 1.01 ±0.63 15 65 75
Vitamin D <17.15 NR 5 5 5
Vitamin E 1.32 30.00 ±0.01 6 15 15
Vitamin K NR 40.00 ±0.00 0.03 0.065 0.065
Choline 151.90 NR 125 425 550
References (105) (62) (128) (121,128) (121,128)
NR, Not Reported.
crickets (145). Besides, cricket extracts have been studied as a
therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases, such as chronic
arthritis and gut inflammation (95,135,144).
Crickets as Livestock Diets
The high nutritional content of edible crickets, the small space
requirement for their production, and the effect they have on
the environment make them valuable as animal feed. Moreover,
crickets have an added advantage since they have already been in
use as an ingredient in animal feed (146). Crickets can be given
to the animals as feed either whole after killing them or can be
crushed into a powder and then used to formulate livestock diets.
Livestock feeds formulated by incorporating crickets are cheaper
compared to the cost of commercial feeds, which currently
account for 70% of the cost of livestock production (147). The
most promising crickets for production of livestock feed are A.
domesticus,G. veletis,G. bimaculatus,G. sigillatus,T. mitratus, G.
mitratus,T. emma, B. portentosus, and G. assimilis (50,146,148–
152). Recent studies have shown that cricket meal can partially
replace broiler mash, especially the protein part. Cricket meal
can replace 5–15% of fish meal or soy meal without any negative
effects on broiler feed intake, weight gain, or feed conversion
efficiency (153). Also, replacing the protein composition with
Gryllus testaceus cricket meal in a broiler chicken diet did increase
the essential amino acids in the chicken (150). In addition to
the nutritional value, the insect-based feed could have a further
advantage in improving the taste of final meat products (154).
Another report has demonstrated that African catfish (Clarias
gariepinus) diet containing 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0% fish meal
can be successfully changed to contain 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%
G. bimaculatus crickets, respectively (151). Furthermore, growth
performance and body composition could be improved when
African catfish were provided with a diet containing 50–100%
crickets (151,152). As compared with commercial fish-based
meals, a cricket-based meal significantly increased the body
weight, resistance to diseases, protein efficiency ratio, and specific
growth rate of the catfish (152). The study also found the fish
provided with 100% cricket meal contained a significantly lower
feed conversion ratio compared to the lower inclusion level.
The findings further revealed the whole-body crude protein
value was higher in catfish fed with a meal containing 50–100%
cricket meal.
In summary, existing studies have clearly demonstrated that
crickets are a promising protein source for animal meals and
can meet the increasing global requirement (5). Before the mass-
production of such cricket-based meals, however, governments
and companies should ensure health and safety concerns relating
to edible crickets, such as the presence of anti-nutrient properties
and legislation of use of these crickets, are addressed (57).
Cricket Harvesting as a Strategy of Pest
Control
In recent years, there has been a prevalence of crickets in
warm areas around the world, which has caused a remarkable
loss of field crops and other plants. Moreover, when the
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
crickets get into domestic houses they become a significant
nuisance by destroying household properties. The capturing
and consumption of edible crickets therefore not only ensures
nutritional availability to people and livestock but also protects
the plants and household properties from unexpected insects
infestation (http://www.entomoljournal.com/archives/2016/
vol4issue6/PartA/4-5-101-553.pdf; https://www.bbc.com/news/
av/world-middle-east-52991180/pakistan-locust-plague-locals-
collect-insects-for-chicken-feed). Gathering crickets from farms
and consuming them as food can also help in reducing pesticide
use in controlling these cricket pests. This, in return, can protect
the environment from pollution, minimizing the killing of other
useful insects and poisoning of consumers (78). An excellent
example of a place where the gathering of crickets for human
consumption or feeding chickens is Mexico, where this has
contributed to a reduction in the cricket population of farms,
a reduction in the amount of pesticides used in crops, and a
decreased financial burden on farmers (155,156).
Cricket Contribution to Economic
Development
Collection and rearing of crickets provide employment and cash
income to people both at the household level and at the level
of industrial production. For example, in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America, there is a demand for edible crickets, and this makes
it easier to bring them into the market for sale (157–159). The
crickets are sold at local markets while alive or after being killed.
Live crickets are packed into various weights for various buyers
and then brought to the streets of towns and the markets for
sale. Alternatively, the crickets are killed and are either fried or
are processed into cricket products as human food or chicken
and fish feed and then brought to the market for sale (32–
34,159,160). The cricket businesses that occur in many countries
are usually influenced by the demand of the local people or
immigrant communities because of the development of a specific
market that sells cricket products. Cricket collection and farming
have also led to further opening up for international trade, such
as border trade in edible crickets, which is commonly practiced
in the Southeast part of Asia and Central Africa (159).
Crickets and Livelihood Improvement
Edible crickets trapped from the wild or domesticated in farms
play a role in livelihood improvement by providing an improved
diet in terms of nutritional content and diversity and as a
supplement to the dietary needs of low-income families. These
crickets also provide food at times of famine for people living
in developing countries and Western countries. The resource-
poor people in the society, including women and landless people
living in urban centers and rural areas, can actively involve
themselves in the collection, rearing, processing, and selling
of the surplus of crickets and their products in the streets of
towns. These ventures can significantly change their quality of
life through the generation of income, which, in return, they
can use to purchase the basic needs they are lacking. Crickets
could be directly and easily gathered from the wild or reared on
the farm with a little technology and by involving much capital
in procuring basic rearing and harvesting equipment (161).
Rearing crickets requires a small portion of land and minimal
market introduction efforts, as crickets already form part of some
local food cultures (32,162). Malnutrition is a widespread issue
affecting many disadvantaged members of society, especially
during times of social conflict and natural disasters. Since crickets
are nutritionally rich and easily accessible, having simple rearing
techniques and rapid growth rates, they can offer a cheap and
efficient chance to mitigate food insecurity. The edible crickets
and their products can be provided for hunger-stricken people
as a relief food and thus improve their livelihoods. Furthermore,
cricket flour and powder can be used to fortify the traditional
food in different communities before feeding vulnerable persons
in society to improve their livelihood (36,142).
Crickets as a Food Preservative
Chitosan from the chitin of the edible cricket species exoskeleton
has been identified to be a possible intelligent and biodegradable
bio-based polymeric material for packaging of various foods.
Such natural packaging using the “exoskeleton” of crickets can
change the internal conditions of the food product, thereby
protecting the food product from spoiling and micro-organisms.
This is possible because it has been proved that chitosan from
crickets stores antioxidants and has antimicrobial activity against
yeasts, molds, and bacteria (163–165). However, the chitosan
polymeric material can be compromised when it gets into contact
with moisture and may therefore not be utilized in true natural
form but may be synthesized further into chitosan film for a
positive impact to be achieved (165).
Singing Crickets as a Source of Music
Rearing of crickets as pets has existed since prehistoric time in
Asia some Western countries. For instance, crickets have been
mentioned in an adage dating back to 600 BCE found in Ancient
Greece: a young girl and her dying pet cricket. Since then,
some poetry work has been scripted on the songs of crickets
(166). In the People’s Republic of China, singing crickets have
been household pets for more than 2,000 years. During the
Tang Dynasty (618–906 CE), Chinese people reared crickets in
small cages for their songs. Whenever the autumn arrived, the
ladies of the palace trapped crickets and placed them in small
golden cages, which they placed near their pillows to listen to
their songs when night fell. This tradition was also embraced
by ordinary people (167). Some South American crickets have
been implicated to have beautiful songs that made Amerindians
people rear them (168,169). In the Luo community in Kenya,
there is a traditional belief that eating crickets improves the vocal
prowess of musicians. As such, during music festivals, children
who are members of the school choir would hunt and eat crickets
to improve their vocal ability (32).
Cricket Fighting as a Sport
Edible crickets can be used as sporting activity for recreation
purposes. In China, Cricket fighting has existed from the time
of the Song Dynasty (960–1278 CE). This practice of allowing
crickets to fight was later declared illegal during the Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911 CE). Currently, however, cricket fighting is legal, and
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
it has become a common sporting activity in many Chinese cities,
such as Beijing, Guangzhou, Huwan, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and
Tianjin, where cricket fighting clubs and societies have been
formed (170). Cricket fighting has spread to other parts of the
world, such as New York and Philadelphia (171) as a result of the
migration of Chinese people to these places. During the sport,
people gather together in social halls with their crickets to get
entertained as the crickets fight. The best example of the fighting
cricket is the Chinese fighting cricket T. mitratus.
Promotion of Cultural Entomology
Crickets have contributed a lot to the shaping of literature,
art, and doctrine in societies around the world—referred to as
cultural entomology (172). Contributions from this discipline
have assisted in highlighting the different roles the crickets have
undertaken in literature, especially in children’s books, movies,
and visual art, as collected artifacts, decoration, and especially as
inspiration for innovative expression.
The crickets have also played different roles in folklore and
superstition in different parts of the globe. In this perspective,
some communities hold a lot of esteem for crickets since they
believe that once you hear the song of the cricket it spells good
fortune, although others say it is a bad omen when a cricket
makes noise around you. In China, for instance, the crickets
have been implicated to foretell the coming of rain, death, or
the returning of a lover who has been away (173). Moreover,
the people of China keep crickets in a small cage to have good
luck (174). In Barbados, when a singing cricket enters the house,
it spells the fortune of money into the family, and no person
is therefore allowed to kill or chase away the visiting cricket.
On the other hand, when a quiet or less noisy cricket gets into
the house, it forecasts sickness or a pending death in the family
(175). Omens concerning crickets are also found in Brazilian
folklore where they bear different meanings to various events.
For instance, when a black cricket gets into a house of someone,
it indicates that a person in that house will be sick while a
gray cricket is a sign of money coming to the household (176).
A cricket also foretells the pending death of a member of the
family, and, therefore, whenever a cricket sings in the house, it
is captured and killed immediately to avert the death (177). In
the other parts of Brazil, the cricket spells the pregnancy in a
member of the household when it sings non-stop. If it sings and
breaks, it then spells a windfall of money to that home (178).
A singing cricket also directs people to the source of drinking
water during droughts. In the case of a cricket aboard a sailing
ship, singing foretells the proximity of land to the captain and
sailors (176).
A mole cricket (genera Scapteriscus and Neocurtilla,
Gryllotalpidae) that enters into the house of a Brazilian
brings both good luck and rainfall (178). When it digs tunnels in
the soil, loosening it, people usually interpret this behavior as a
sign that rainfall is imminent (178). It is said that the appearance
of a mole cricket on the surface of the ground is an indicator
that the soils are waterlogged after a heavy downpour or they are
ready to disperse to occupy new areas (179). In Zambia, there
is a belief that whoever comes across an African mole cricket
will have luck (180). Zambians therefore keep mole crickets to
retain luck.
RISKS OF CRICKET CONSUMPTION
Consumption of crickets is generally safe. However, it could
expose one to various risks that must be taken into consideration.
For instance, (44) has published various risk profiles related to the
consumption of crickets. Gathering a large number of crickets
from the wild for consumption or sale could cause a serious
imbalance to the ecosystem (181). To overcome such an effect on
biodiversity, it is advisable to rear crickets at a farm level under
controlled and defined conditions for consumption for food and
marketing. This means that farm rearing of crickets must be
done with appropriate and safe substrates to guarantee the health
and safety of consumers. The wrong choice of cricket diet may
pose a health hazard to consumers. For instance, the result of
analyses carried out from 2003 to 2010 indicated possible risks
of consuming heavy metals due to the nature of the bran used
as a substrate (182). Additionally, consuming crickets reared in
inappropriate organic waste is discouraged. Furthermore, some
crickets can also contain naturally poisonous compounds such as
cyanogenic glycosides (183). Cyanogenic glycosides are natural
plant toxins that are present in several plants, most of which are
consumed by crickets.
Consumption of crickets containing cyanogenic glycosides
may cause acute poisoning, leading to growth retardation and
neurological symptoms due to a damaged central nervous system
(CNS) (184). The other likely risks of consuming edible crickets
include poor handling and delish treatment. According to (185),
consuming crickets with their feet can cause intestinal discomfort
based on the amount ingested. Eating crickets can also cause
allergies to those persons sensitive to insect chitins. Some
individuals have such a small amount of chitosan enzyme that
the eating of crickets can cause an allergic reaction to them (44).
Some crickets have a tough exoskeleton formed of chitin, which
is difficult to digest for humans.
The risk of contracting zoonotic diseases from some cricket
species must also be taken into consideration. The intestinal
flora of crickets could be a predisposing agent for the growth
of unwanted microorganisms. Klunder et al. (86) evaluated the
microbial content of fresh, processed, and stored edible crickets
A. domesticus and Brachytrupes. The results showed that various
types of Enterobacteriaceae and sporulating bacteria can be
identified and subsequently seperated from raw crickets entering
them most likely during contact with the soil (186). Fasting, heat
treatment, and appropriate storage conditions are paramount to
dangerous disease-causing pathogens in crickets and other edible
insects (155,187).
CRICKET FARMING AROUND THE WORLD
The high potential of crickets as food and feed has led to the
development of rearing systems and establishment of subsistence
and commercial cricket farms in several countries in Asia,
Europe, America, Australia, and, recently, Africa. Asia is the
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
leading continent in cricket farming in countries such as
Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Lao Peoples’
Democratic Republic (PDR) (35,188,189). Examples of edible
cricket species that have been farmed successfully in Asia for
food and feed include the house cricket A. domesticus,G.
bimaculatus,T. occipitalis,T. mitratus,G. testaceus, Jerman
cricket (Gryllus sp.), the short-tail cricket B. portentosus, and
T. portentosus (35,54,146,189–191). Acheta domesticus is the
preferred cricket species for large-scale production for most parts
of the globe (192).
Cricket farming in Thailand, which is said to be the hot
spot of cricket consumption, has an established cricket industry
with over 20,000 farms producing cricket products such as
adult crickets, eggs, and biofertilizer from cricket waste for
commercial purposes (35,146,193,194). Farmers in Thailand
rear two cricket species: A. domesticus,G. bimaculatus. They,
however, prefer rearing G. bimaculatus, which form a greater
portion of the Thai production since G. bimaculatus has a short
lifecycle and is stronger and hardy, though less popular than
A, domestica (146). Thai farmers initially used to rear their
crickets in small concrete cylinders, plastic boxes, wood, and
other types of containers, but of late they farm crickets in large
pens with concrete walls (193). These pens are easy to clean,
cheap to build, and durable. Several egg trays supply the living
section of the pen as hiding places for the crickets. Predators
that may kill the crickets are kept off the rearing pens and the
farm by use of mosquito nets. The cricket eggs used to start
a colon are either purchased or tapped from crickets in the
wild by supplying bowls containing clean egg-laying substrates,
such as rice bran, wheat bran, ash, or fine sand soil, for the
females to lay the eggs. Eggs take 7 to 10 days to hatch. Each
harvesting cycle is between 28 and 35 days. Cricket farming in
Thailand follows a family-owned business model which produces
about 3,000–7,000 tons of crickets per year (49). A medium-
scale farm can yield 500–750 kg of mature crickets per 45-days
harvesting cycle, which generates a revenue of about 2,000–2,500
USD (193).
In Indonesia, cricket farming is extensively practiced in several
cities of the Java islands for livestock feed, home consumption,
and business purposes. The crickets are farmed in Java cities,
including Cirebon, Bekasi Demak, Kudus, Purwodadi, and
Yogyakarta and in East Java in Tulungagung, Kediri, and Porong
(54). Cricket production in Cirebon is 200 kg of young crickets
and 8 kg eggs per day. However, some small-scale cricket farmers
have been reported in some villages, where farmers rear crickets
to feed their poultry or as an ingredient for medicines (149). The
crickets farmed in Indonesia are G. bimaculatus,G. testaceus, G.
mitratus, and the German cricket Gryllus sp.
Cricket farming has just been initiated in South Korea with the
support of the Korean government, which has already established
legal measures to support the cricket industry. Currently, several
research projects are being carried out in South Korea under the
guidance of the Rural Development Administration. This has
led to an increased number of G. bimaculatus farms in South
Korea (195). This has further led to a Korean company using
an automated farming system for large-scale production of the
crickets (196).
In Cambodia, cricket farming is of small-scale production
aimed for home consumption (193). This is as a result of
the farmers in Cambodia being resource poor. They therefore
rear crickets in small farms using small plastic containers,
wood, and other types of containers. The Cambodian farmers
use plastic bags instead of egg trays as a living area for the
crickets. Whereas, these bags are said to be cheaper, they pose
a risk to the crickets which will consume the particles of the
bags. Farmers use ash in the water containers to avoid small
crickets drowning. It is unclear if this is a good method.
Sometimes farmers spraying small particles of water on the
floor of the rearing pens for the crickets to drink but this
may be safe for the crickets since the water may generate too
much humidity in the rearing pen. Recently, some farmers
are enrolled in training programs to get equipped with better
information on how to rear healthy crickets. There are breeders
of crickets in Myanmar, but no farmers have been reported.
Likewise, there are a few cricket farmers in Malaysia (197).
The Philippines collect their edible crickets from the wild (193,
198).
Cricket farming in western countries is a new trend that is
about 10 years old. The house cricket (A. domesticus), brown
field cricket (G. assimilis), and two-spotted field cricket (G.
bimaculatus) are the common crickets bred in Europe and
for industrial processing (44,148). The western follows a
farming model that aims at optimizing breeding activities by
reducing human labor during the production of the crickets.
Their model aims at raising crickets on a large-scale basis
for industrial processing unlike for the Asian model that aims
at producing enough for subsistence use. Due to the tough
conditions of EU regulations, there are a few farms rearing
crickets for food in Europe in countries such as Belgium,
France, Finland, and the Netherlands (44). The largest cricket
farms for food in the EU are run by a company called Kreka,
which is based in the Netherlands. In Finland, the Nordic
Insect Economy used to be a major cricket producer, but
production as decreased (193). Finland is also the home of
Entocube, a startup that began by rearing crickets in containers
placed in urban areas but which has now progressed to a new
250,000 Euro project of farming crickets in a 60-years-old mine,
taking advantage of the 28◦C temperatures emanating from
the geothermal station. Cricket farming in North America is
practiced in Canada and the US. In Canada, cricket farming
is carried out by private companies such as Entomo Farms,
Third Millenium, and next Millenium. These companies rear
crickets to sell as dry insects and/or processed cricket powder
and flour to most of the edible cricket startups in the US,
where there are only a few cricket farms (199,200). In the
USA, cricket farming is undertaken by Aspire Food Group,
which started its cricket flour processing with the Aketta brand,
has expanded its market activities by purchasing the cricket
energy bar brand Exo in 2018. The cricket farmed in the US is
A. domesticus.
In Africa, cricket farming is at its infancy stage in countries
such as Kenya, Uganda, Mali, and Madagascar (32,201,202).
Cricket-rearing technology has been disseminated to farmers
in these countries through mass media (televisions, radios,
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
and print materials) and training of students and farmers.
The institutions of training include Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
University of Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University
of Agriculture and Technology and Makerere universities, and
the International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology
(icipe). A grant from the Danish government facilitates the
technology transfer of cricket farming through GREENiNSECT
project that supports “the rearing and eating crickets as a
delicious, affordable and healthy solution for malnutrition.” The
project has accelerated, leading to the establishment of small-
scale cricket farms in L. Victoria region, which was the initial
point of introduction in Kenya and Uganda. From this point
of introduction, cricket farming has spread to other regions,
such as central Kenya and the coast of Kenya. Three cricket
species, S. icipe, A. domesticus, and G. bimaculatus are reared
(28,29,203,204). In most cases, these cricket species are reared
in the same farm by one farmer; however, in some instances,
they are reared in separate farms by different farmers. The cricket
species reared by the farmer depends on which species is more
appealing to him or her. Scapsipedus icipe and A. domesticus are
most popular among farmers because they are softer than G.
bimaculatus. In Kenya, there are about 300 cricket farmers who
produce 28,800 kg of crickets per year (205). The cricket farm
capacity can produce about 160 kg of crickets/ one harvesting
cycle of 60 days. According to the field survey by Ayieko et al.
(32), the largest production volume of farmed crickets is at Bondo
and Kisumu counties in the Nyanza region. Most farmers use
rectangular plastic containers while others rear the crickets in
cylindrical plastic containers that have ventilation covered with
plastic netting (28,29),. The yield is low at 4 kg per cage at the
harvesting stage.
Farming of crickets requires varying degrees of labor input
during the rearing cycle (29). Each day one person is involved
in the transfer of the egg containers from the main enclosures to
the empty egg-laying enclosures and for daily feeding of crickets.
This requires one person for 1 h of work. But where large-scale
farming of crickets is practiced, such as in Thailand, more people
are required to work in the cricket farms (146). Cricket farming
in Kenya has picked up since cricket requires a small starting and
maintenance capital and it is easy to set up farms for crickets.
Farmers must explore the idea of adding value to their crickets by
processing them. Moreover, rearing of crickets will ensure there
are enough crickets for consumption and to stop depending on
wild-collected crickets.
CONCLUSION
The current study has shown that consuming crickets as food
by human beings is traditionally practiced in 49 countries
around the world. Over 60 cricket species are known to be
edible. Crickets are a highly nutritious food resource and may
therefore be included in the list of the common diet of global
consumers in the future. These crickets could also be used as
nutritional supplements for special diets for schoolchildren, sick
people, and athletes. Inclusion of potentially suitable species of
crickets into the normal diet requires defined and standardized
conditions of their rearing as well as the detailed monitoring
of their composition, including biologically active compounds.
Though the EFSA and icipe have already assessed hygienic and
toxicological and microbial risks related to edible crickets, more
research on their composition and nutrient profile should be
carried out to fully implement edible crickets as food into the
global legislation documents. Currently, there are only a few
cricket species that are farmed. The farmers must be encouraged
to start rearing other species of crickets that have not yet been
confined. Also, animal breeders should try to find out whether it
is possible to crossbreed the crickets with a long lifecycle with the
ones with a short lifecycle.
CONTRIBUTION TO THE FIELD
Edible crickets have become popular in the past few years
not only in the scientific literature but in other platforms as
well. One of the major advantages of eating crickets is their
impressive nutritional composition. Many sources report that
crickets have better nutritional characteristics than traditional
protein sources. In our research, we aimed to give a complete
picture of edible crickets in the world, their nutritional profile
and other benefits. The materials we used are published results
of different authors from the past few years. The list of crickets
provided by various authors’ shows that there are 66 crickets
that are consumed as food and feed in the world and crickets
generally have a better nutritional profile than other meats.
Based on our findings, crickets have a promising nutritional
profile in terms of energy, protein, lipids and important fatty
acids, mineral elements vitamins, carbohydrate and medicinal
elements and may become part of many food products in
future. As an enterprise, cricket farming, can mitigate food
insecurity, act as a source of income when sold and a source
of employment. The present review provides comprehensive
information on the diversity of crickets, their nutritional
values and their potential to contribute to the livelihood
of mankind.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
HM, SN, MA, MM, SE, JE, EK, JO, SH, KF, MO, NR, and CT:
conceptualization, writing—original draft, and writing—review
and editing. HM, SN, EK, and SH: data curation. HM, SN, EK,
SE, and MM: formal analysis. HM, SN, MA, MM, SH, NR, SE,
JE, EK, and KF: methodology. HM, SN, and EK: software. SN,
MM, JE, SE, SH, CT, and KF: validation. HM: investigation.
All authors contributed to the article and approved the
submitted version.
FUNDING
This research received funding from the International Center of
Insect Physiology and Ecology.
HM was financially supported by Danida funded
GREENiNSECT Project (BB/J011371/1), Netherlands
Organization for Scientific Research, WOTRO Science for
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Magara et al. Edible Crickets in the World
Global Development (NWO-WOTRO) (ILIPA–W 08.250.202),
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ) (ENTONUTRI–81194993), the Canadian International
Development Research Centre (IDRC), and the Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)
(INSFEED–Cultivate Grant No: 107839-001) through the
International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to icipe for allowing us to use
their library and network for literature search and interviewed
cricket farmers from USA. We also gratefully acknowledge
the icipe core funding provided by Biovision Foundation for
Ecological Development (Switzerland), the UK’s Department
for International Development (DFID), UK Aid from the
Government of the United Kingdom, Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), the Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation (SDC), the Federal Ministry for
Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Germany, and
the Ethiopian and Kenyan Government. The views expressed
herein do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the donors.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2020.
537915/full#supplementary-material
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Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.
Copyright © 2021 Magara, Niassy, Ayieko, Mukundamago, Egonyu, Tanga,Kimathi,
Ongere, Fiaboe, Hugel, Orinda, Roos and Ekesi. This is an open-access article
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