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Mijoro Rakotoarinivo, Sylvie R. Andriambololonera, Henk J. Beentje,
Thomas L.P. Couvreur, Verohanitra M. Rafidison,
Volatiana Rahanitriniaina, Lolona Ramamonjisoa, Solo H.J.V. Rapanarivo,
Robert D. Turk, William J. Baker & John Dransfield
Strategy for the Conservation
and Sustainable Use of the
Palms of Madagascar
Document published with the support of the programme
SUD EXPERT PLANTES DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE
Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable
Use of the Palms of Madagascar
Mijoro Rakotoarinivo
Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar.
Sylvie R. Andriambololonera
Madagascar Programme, Missouri Botanical Garden, Antananarivo, Madagascar.
Henk J. Beentje
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom..
Thomas L.P. Couvreur
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Ecuador.
Chair of Palms Specialist Group, Species Survival Commission – International Union for the Conservation of
Nature.
Verohanitra M. Rafidison
Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar.
Lolona Ramamonjisoa
Direction of Protected Areas, Natural Ressources and Ecosystems, General Direction of Environmental
Governance, Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Madagascar.
Volatiana Rahanitriniaina
Direction of Protected Areas, Natural Ressources and Ecosystems, General Direction of Environmental
Governance, Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Madagascar.
Solo H.J.V Rapanarivo
Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar.
Robert D. Turk
Ranomafana Arboretum and Fruits, Vegetables and Environmental Education Program of the Church of
Jesus Christ in Madagascar
William J. Baker
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom.
John Dransfield
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom.
2020
Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable (SEP2D)
Cover photo : Dypsis decipiens in Itremo massif, photo : M. Rakotoarinivo.
This document contains information obtained from authentic and verified sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made for this publication. To obtain permission to use the electronic material in this work, please contact the "Sud
Expert Plantes Dévéloppement Durable, SEP2D".
http://www.sep2d.org
Preface
Madagascar is not exempt from the threats that humans are currently posing to the entire planet. Many
species are threatened with extinction or overexploitation, including Malagasy palms, more than 90% of which
are endemic, i.e. found nowhere else in the world. In addition, human activities, overexploitation of species and
destruction of environments, are compromising the diversity of palm trees that is the pride of Madagascar.
Today it becomes a priority to react to these threats by developing and implementing strategies for the
conservation and sustainable management of endemic plant species in the different phytogeographical divisions
of Madagascar. The project "Establishment of an Action Plan for the Conservation of Palms in Madagascar"
(AAP3-21) has developed strategies for the conservation of species of the Palm family. This work summarizes the
botanical and phytogeographical knowledge of this plant family. It also highlights the threats to the species, in the
form of unsustainable harvesting, but also the over-exploitation of their habitats, especially forests.
Confronted by multiple challenges, a conservation strategy must be implemented within the overall
conservation framework for all species in Madagascar, so that the objectives of safeguarding biodiversity are
compatible with the needs of the Malagasy population. Indeed, we can only protect what we know, especially if
the products of the species to be conserved are known and appreciated by all.
The Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable (SEP2D) program is proud to have supported this project
for the elaboration of a conservation strategy for Malagasy Palms, the quality of which will undoubtedly be an
example for other intertropical countries where palms are important for their biodiversity and multiple uses.
SEP2D's contribution to the strategies is just as essential as their collaboration in implementing the
recommendations contained in the strategies.
But strategies are only effective if the recommendations they propose are implemented! This is the
challenge we all face today: scientists, government officials, conservationists, teachers, NGOs, rural communities
and the general public. It is the responsibility of all of us to ensure that the recommendations are integrated into
the broader framework of the sustainable management of our country's ecosystems and implemented for the
good of all!
In conclusion, I am honored to pay tribute to the project leader, and to all those who have contributed to
the development of this strategy, with a special mention to the team of the Executive Secretary of the SEP2D
program and all the financial partners of the program.
Pr Hery Lisy Ranarijaona,
Focal Point of SEP2D Indian Ocean.
Foreword
This document is the result of a research project on the conservation and sustainable use of palms in
Madagascar, carried out by a consortium of researchers from the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the
University of Antananarivo, the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza and the Ranomafana Arboretum.
For the preparation of this strategic document, researchers from these three institutions worked together with
experts and professionals in the field of botany and biodiversity conservation from the following institutions: the
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Institute of Research for Development and the
Directorate of Protected Areas, Natural Resources and Ecosystems of the Ministry of Environment and
Sustainable Development of Madagascar. The research was funded by the "Sud Expert Plantes Développement
Durable, SEP2D", a program financed by the Agence Française pour le Développement, the Fond Français pour
l'Environnement Mondial, the Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires Etrangères of the French Government, the
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement and the Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. The SEP2D was
established in order to create a network of expertise around plant biodiversity in the South, by supporting
research projects, herbarium collections and specific training.
The content of this document is inspired by the guide of the International Union for Conservation of
Nature - IUCN - on the Elaboration of Strategies for Species Conservation. Three aspects related to research and
conservation biology are thus developed in this report: (1) to provide objective scientific information on the
diversity of palms, their habitats and the threats to the different species; (2) to identify the highest priority actions
for conservation, and (3) to address information and recommendations to natural resource managers, decision-
makers and others whose actions are important for the preservation of biodiversity.
Palms, with their majestic architecture, often dominate the landscapes of Madagascar, both in the
eastern and western regions. Palms also provide many of the essential elements for human life. The conservation
of the different species is therefore of great importance, not only for biological and ecological reasons, but above
all for economic reasons in a country where the majority of the population still depends on natural resources for
survival.
Acknowledgements
This Madagascar Palm Conservation Strategy is a collaborative effort that has involved a number of people
who have generously given of themselves and their time, expertise, and data. Each contribution is greatly
appreciated. Special thanks go to the program Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable - SEP2D - for its
support in the research that enabled us to collect the information necessary for the publication of this document.
Our sincere thanks to the SEP2D managers, in particular Hery Lisy Ranarijaona - Indian Ocean Regional Focal Point,
Jean-Pierre Profizi - Technical Assistant, Stephanie Ardila Chauvet - Executive Secretary and Anshuman Rana -
Technical Assistant Partnerships, for helping to develop the scope of the document through their comments and
the various training and professional development opportunities offered during the project. We are grateful to
Hary-Liva Ravelonjatovo of the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement in Antananarivo for her valuable
assistance in managing the project.
We thank the collaborators at the botanical gardens for their active participation in the successful ex situ
conservation of palm trees in Madagascar: Franck Rakotonasolo, Letsara Rokiman and Julien F. Razafindramaro
of the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza; Jean Gilbert Tsehenoharizaka, Rolland Razafiarison and
Germain Andrianaivoson of the Ranomafana Arboretum.
Many researchers helped in the compilation of the data; we are grateful for their collaborations: Alison
Shapcott, Lauren Gardiner, Hoby Gloria Andriamanohisoa Raveloson, Chris Birkinshaw, Chantal Misandeau, Besoa
R. Ramananirina, Maminjato Andriatahiana and Radoniaina B. Rakotomanandriana.
Finally, we would like to sincerely thank all the people who participated in the different stages of this
strategy, devoting their time and sharing their knowledge and experience in the field of conservation in
Madagascar, especially the staff of Madagascar National Parks, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Missouri
Botanical Garden and the Association for the Defense of the Ambodiriana Forest for their warm welcome and
cooperation during the field work. The staff of the Directorate General of Environmental Governance, attached
to the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development provided valuable advice for the policy framework
of this document: Eric Robsomanitrandrasana, Sahoby I. Randriamahaleo, Pascaline Ranivoarisoa, Seheno
Manantsoa, Tefinirina Rajerisoa and Liva Raoelina.
Glossary
Action plan:
a set of specific measures, tasks or activities to be undertaken to complete a
project.
Arborescent :
which has the form and appearance of a tree.
Ariary :
official monetary unit of the Republic of Madagascar.
Dioecious :
refers to a species whose unisexual male (stamen) and female (pistil) flowers are
carried by different plants.
Dwarf palms:
a small sized palm, generally not exceeding 2m in height and colonizing the
undergrowth of the forests.
Endemic :
refers to an animal or plant species whose range is limited to a given region.
Indigenous
a taxon or population whose presence in a given region is the result of natural
processes, without human intervention.
Monoecious:
refers to a species whose unisexual male (stamen) and female (pistil) flowers are
carried on the same plant.
Monotypic :
refers to a taxon that has only one immediately subordinate sub-taxon. For
example, a genus is qualified as monotypic if it includes only one species.
Palm heart
The central part of the stem of palm trees. It mainly comprises the developing
leaves surrounding the terminal meristem. It is made up of whitish-colored plant
tissues, tender but quite firm, and edible.
Piassava :
robust fibres from palm trees, extracted from the leaf sheath.
Taxon :
a conceptual entity that is intended to encompass all living organisms that share
certain well-defined taxonomic or diagnostic characteristics. A taxon can thus be
any taxonomic level such as species, genus, family, etc.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AZE :
Alliance for Zero Extinction
CBD :
Convention on biological Diversity
CITES :
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
FAO :
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAPBM :
Fondation pour les Aires protégées et la biodiversité de Madagascar
GBIF :
Global Biodiversity Information Facility
MNHN :
Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris
NBSAP:
National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans
IPNI :
International Plant Name Index
IRD :
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
MBG :
Missouri Botanical Garden
MEEF :
Ministère de l'Environnement, de l'écologie et des Forêts.
PBZT :
Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza
RBG Kew :
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
REBIOMA :
Réseau de Biodiversité de Madagascar
SSC :
Species Survival Commission
SEP2D :
Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable
UNEP- WCMC :
United Nations Environment Program World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
WWF :
World Wildlife Fund
Content
INTRODUCTION 1
I. STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON PALMS IN MADAGASCAR 5
I.1 - Taxonomy and diversity 6
I.2 - Present distribution and demographics 10
I.3 - Biology and Ecology 15
I.4 - Use and values of palms 18
I.5 - Threats and problem analysis 27
I.6 - Protection and conservation measures 32
I.7 - Policy and Strategic Context 37
II. ACTION PLAN 40
VISION 41
MISSION 41
OBJECTIVES 41
Objective I: To understand, to document and to recognize the diversity of palms of Madagascar 41
Objective II: To conserve the diversity of palm species in Madagascar 42
Objective III: Palms are used sustainably and equitably 44
Objective IV: To promote education and awareness of plant diversity, its role in sustainable livelihoods and its
importance for all life on earth. 46
Objective V: To build the capacity and public commitment required for the implementation of the strategy 46
CONCLUSION 47
LITTERATURE CITED 48
1
INTRODUCTION
Dypsis dransfieldii in Vinanivao, East Masoala, photo: W. Baker
2
Areas with high biodiversity richness are often those
most affected by the species extinction crisis. The case of
Madagascar is a concrete example of this. Having lost a
large majority of its diversity of fauna and flora in recent
decades (Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Godfrey et al., 2019; Hanski
et al., 2007), the decline in species diversity on the island
has led to ecosystem disruption resulting in various
environmental, biological and ecological problems and
sometimes the accentuation of the effects of climate
change (Herrera, 2017).
Madagascar is a global priority for biodiversity
conservation (Goodman and Benstead, 2005; MEEF, 2016).
The uniqueness of its flora is often reflected in a high rate of
endemism, either at the specific level or at the level of
higher ranked taxa (Callmander et al., 2011). This is the case
for the palm family or Arecaceae. Today, 208 indigenous
species are recorded as native on the island (Govaerts et al.,
2020); of these, 98% are endemic and these often represent
distinct evolutionary lineages (Kissling et al., 2012). Despite
the low number of species compared to other large families
of flowering plants such as Rubiaceae, Asteraceae and
Orchidaceae (Callmander et al., 2011), the palm family is an
important and emblematic element of the vascular flora of
Madagascar.
Palms are among the most well-known and popular
plants in the world and are considered a "symbol of the
tropics" (Broschat et al., 2017). Unfortunately, many
species are in danger of extinction due to direct or indirect
pressures from human activities. Palm conservation at the
national level in Madagascar is a tremendous challenge
because of the need to maintain diversity and achieve
sustainable development, especially considering that 83% of
known species have been declared endangered or
threatened with extinction (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). The
publication of this statistic of threatened Malagasy palm
species has alarmed the world (Figure 1). The level of
extinction threat facing Madagascar’s palms is particularly
high compared to the global trend for vascular plants,
where the rate of threatened species is estimated at 27%
(IUCN, 2020) and compared to palms on the African
continent where only 10% of the species are threatened
according to IUCN red list criteria (Cosiaux et al., 2018).
Habitat loss has often been cited as the most frequent
reason for the decline of different palm species in
Madagascar (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). As a consequence
of deforestation, about 21% of the island's area has been
lost since 2000 (Global Forest Watch, 2020). Forests are
often cleared for "tavy" or slash-and-burn agriculture
(Muttenzer, 2010), a fallow system where indigenous
people abandon a plot of land after only two years of
exploitation to clear another (Figure 2). The situation is
especially worrying for Malagasy palms because the
Figure 1. Examples of
international press
headlines revealing to the
world the high risk of
extinction of
Madagascar's palms in
2012.
3
majority of these species live in primary vegetation,
particularly in tropical rainforests (Couvreur et al., 2011;
Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013), which are constantly
deteriorating and being reduced in terms of the occupied
surface area (Vieilledent et al., 2018; Figure 3). In addition,
the island risks losing 30% of its fauna and flora species,
mainly forest species, by the end of the 21st century if the
exploitation of natural resources continues at the current
rate (WWF, 2016). According to predictions, the island
could even lose all its original vegetation by 2067 (Global
Forest Watch, 2020).
Even though considerable efforts have been made to
ensure the management of forests and protected areas,
conservation programmes in Madagascar still need to be
improved. The unsustainable use of its biodiversity and the
loss of ecosystem services are a major threat to the
achievement of conservation strategies related to its forest
management policies (Rabarison et al., 2016). Protected
areas do not always guarantee effective protection as the
majority of species present there are still considered
threatened and pressures on biodiversity persist in these
areas (Borrini-Feyerabend & Dudley, 2005; Rogers et al.,
2010).
Figure 3. Evolution of deforestation between 1953 and 2014 in Madagascar. The forest cover decreased by 44% over the period 1953-2014.
Natural forests covered 8.9 Mha in 2014 (15% of the country). Since 2005, the annual deforested areas have increased in Madagascar to reach
100,000 ha/year, i.e. a deforestation rate equal to 1.1%/year. (Source: Vieilledent et al., 2018).
Figure 2. Impact of
the practice of tavy in
the forests of
Ambodiriana,
Soanierana Ivongo.
The clearance of an
entire hill of natural
forest is the most
common reason for
logging activities and
gives way to a field of
crops for the people
living near the forests.
4
Many environmental conservation actors have noted
that in order to maintain the ecosystem services provided
by a plant, sustainable management of forests and
protected areas urgently requires the participation of
different stakeholders (Worah, 2008). People are part of the
problem; education and public awareness will be part of the
solution. Effective education and public awareness are
essential to promote conservation policy: build well-
informed citizens and change people's behaviour (Jacobson
et al., 2015).
Purpose of the book
The main objective of this document on the
conservation strategy for the palms of Madagascar is to
ensure that the conservation of this group of plants is
promoted by a wide range of people and organizations in
order to mitigate the rate of extinction of the different
species. At a time when most researchers deplore the
effects of habitat and species loss, there is not enough
action being taken on the ground to stop the loss of palm
diversity. The IUCN Species Survival Commission has
recognised that the simple publication of information on
species is not sufficient to ensure conservation success, and
therefore recommends that action plans include "priority
recommendations specifically designed for key
stakeholders" (IUCN/SSC, 2008). It is therefore important to
establish a national framework for priority actions in line
with the global strategic plan for biological diversity (UNEP
& WCMC, 2013), the 2030 Agenda for sustainable
development (Schultz et al., 2016) and the national
priorities identified for the management of biodiversity in
Madagascar, the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action
Plans, NBSAP, (MEEF, 2016).
The process of preparing the
conservation strategy
A conservation strategy is essential and necessary to
draw attention to conservation priorities, to stimulate the
necessary actions and to raise public awareness. Although
palm conservation practices should be considered at the
local level, the strategies discussed in this document are
generally enough to provide a conceptual framework for
action, regardless of the species being considered. In
Madagascar, as in the rest of the world, the species richness
and number of endemic species are the most frequently
used parameters for defining biodiversity conservation
priorities (Kremen et al., 1999; REBIOMA, 2016; Rogers et
al., 2010). The conservation strategy is intended to make it
easier for decision-makers such as government officials and
development professionals to understand the contributions
of biodiversity to achieving sustainable development goals
(Schultz et al., 2016).
This strategic plan is based on the premise that sound
interdisciplinary scientific information should underpin
decisions and policies related to palm diversity. There is a
need to develop more rigorous criteria not only to identify,
rank and prioritize sites that are important centres of plant
diversity, but also to ensure that conservation actions in
these areas are those that are most appropriate.
The structure of this document follows the structure
suggested by IUCN/SSC (2008) for the conservation strategy
of threatened species or taxa. The document is divided into
two parts: a review of the current knowledge of palms in
Madagascar is presented in the first part of this book which,
together with this introduction, provides useful background
information to understand the ultimate goal of this strategy
document. The second part details the priority action
programmes to achieve palm conservation. This section
gives a general summary of the actions needed and is
illustrated by an outline of specific priority projects that
should be implemented.
It is expected that this conservation strategy will be
completely revised six years after its publication, and that
the activities recommended here will form the basis for
further activities to conserve palms. Conservation work
(from basic ecological research to practical management) is
an ongoing process and must build on previous work; all
have a common goal that no other species should become
extinct, and the conditions that allow species to maintain
their continual evolution must be preserved.
5
I. STATE OF KNOWLEDGE
ON PALMS IN
MADAGASCAR
Ravenea sp. "kona", Ankerana, Ampasimanolotra, (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo)
6
I.1 - Taxonomy and diversity
The palm flora (family Arecaceae) of Madagascar is
exceptionally rich in the global context of the distribution
pattern of this plant family in the world (Figure 4, Dransfield
et al., 2008; Eiserhardt et al., 2011). Madagascar has a very
diverse palm flora, consisting of 208 indigenous species
within 17 genera (Govaerts et al., 2020), with
representatives of four of the five recognized subfamilies of
the family Arecaceae; only the monotypic subfamily
Nypoideae, endemic to the Indo-Pacific zone, is absent
(Dransfield et al., 2008b). With its 208 species (Appendix I),
Madagascar on its own holds nearly 8% of the global palm
flora. This rate of diversity contrasts sharply with
continental Africa where about 68 species belonging to 18
genera are recorded (Cosiaux et al., 2018; Stauffer et al.,
2017). Of the 208 species indigenous to Madagascar, only
four are not endemic: Borassus aethiopum, Elaeis
guineensis, Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata. In
addition, Cocos nucifera, the coconut palm, with a possible
origin in the Western Pacific, has become naturalized in
Madagascar (Gunn et al., 2011). A recent survey of Raphia
throughout the African continent and Madagascar
suggested that the Malagasy taxon, currently known as
Raphia farinifera, may actually be endemic to the island
(Helmstetter et al., 2020) although the species was
previously considered to be introduced (Dransfield and
Beentje, 1995).
Current knowledge of the diversity of palms in
Madagascar remains far from complete. Over the last two
decades, visits to unexplored or poorly studied sites
throughout Madagascar have led to the discovery of
numerous taxa, including a new genus, Tahina (Dransfield et
al., 2008a) and about 40 new species (e.g. Baker et al.,
2016; Rakotoarinivo & Dransfield, 2010). Discoveries of new
taxa continue; several taxa remain undescribed, in herbaria
or in the wild, due to a lack of sufficient botanical samples
for delimitation and publication.
At the generic level, eight of the 17 genera present in
Madagascar are endemic (Table 1). Of these, four genera
are monotypic (Satranala, Bismarckia, Tahina and
Voanioala), three have only two species each
(Lemurophoenix, Masoala and Marojejya) and one has
three species (Beccariophoenix). The remaining genera have
representatives outside Madagascar, although the genera
Dypsis and Ravenea are overwhelmingly Malagasy. The high
level of endemism, both at the generic and species level, is
reflected in the fact that Madagascar has representatives of
12 different evolutionary lineages of palms (Dransfield et
al., 2008b). These different evolutionary lines may
represent independent immigration events to Madagascar
or alternatively the evolution at the level of tribes or sub-
tribes on the island.
.
Figure 4. Distribution range of Palm family in the world. Palms are distributed in tropical and subtropical environments. The circles indicate natural
occurrences; their sizes vary according to the specific richness of the territory. (Source : Eiserhardt et al. 2011).
7
Table 1. The taxonomic composition of palms in Madagascar and their endemism. Data on the number of species in each genus are from
Govaerts et al. (2020) and the taxonomic arrangement according to the classification of Dransfield et al. (2008b).
Subfamily
Genus (total number of
species in the world in
brackets)
Number of
species found in
Madagascar
(endemic in
brackets)
Distribution range of the genus
CORYPHOIDEAE
Bismarckia (1)
1(1)
Madagascar
Borassus (5)
2(1)
Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India to New Guinea.
Hyphaene (8)
1(0)
Africa and Madagascar, Arabian Peninsula and India
Phoenix (14) 2(0)
Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Mediterranean Region,
Africa, Madagascar, Middle East, India to Southeast
Asia.
Satranala (1)
1(1)
Madagascar
Tahina (1)
1(1)
Madagascar
CALAMOIDEAE
Raphia (21)
1(0)
Central and South America, Africa and Madagascar
CEROXYLOIDEAE
Ravenea (22)
20(20)
Madagascar and Comoros
ARECOIDEAE
Beccariophoenix (3)
3(3)
Madagascar
Cocos (1)
1(0)
Pantropical
Dypsis (171)
168(168)
Madagascar, Comoros et Tanzania
Elaeis (2)
1(0)
Tropical Africa and Tropical America
Lemurophoenix (2)
2(2)
Madagascar
Marojejya (2)
2(2)
Madagascar
Masoala (2)
2(2)
Madagascar
Orania (28)
3(3)
Madagascar, Southeast Asia to New Guinea.
Voanioala (1)
1(1)
Madagascar
Subfamily CORYPHOIDEAE
In Madagascar, Coryphoideae subfamily consists mainly
of tree palms from dry climatic zones with the exception of
Satranala, which is found in the eastern perhumid zone
(Figure 5). The subfamily is represented by six genera, all
characterized by costapalmate leaves except for Phoenix,
which has pinnate leaves.
The genus Phoenix is represented by the non-endemic
species, Phoenix reclinata. Its presence in Madagascar could
be due to dispersal from Africa as a result of its fruits being
eaten by various animals (Lim, 2012). Phoenix reclinata
which sometimes forms dense clumps in seasonally flooded
sites, such as the edges of swamps, lakes and rivers, also
occurs in forests, grasslands, wooded grasslands, and on
open rocky slopes in the coastal plain of northern and
southwestern Madagascar (Figure 5a).
Borassus has two species in Madagascar. The systematic
review by Bayton (2007) concluded that the species B.
sambiranensis, formerly considered as endemic, does not
differ from the African species B. aethiopum and is
therefore considered to be a synonym of the latter. The
genus occurs in the grasslands of the western region and
the northern coastal plain of Madagascar (Figure 5b); B.
madagascariensis occurs in a few fragmented sites between
Port-Bergé and Ivohibe, while B. aethiopum is restricted to
the Sambirano region, between Nosy Be and Maromandia.
Hyphaene is represented only by the non-endemic H.
coriacea in Madagascar (Figure 5c). It is a palm of the warm
and dry areas of the lowland region between Vohémar,
Antsiranana and Toliara, on low-nutrient poorly drained
soils, near rivers or marshes. This species is also common in
coastal sand.
Bismarckia is represented by the single endemic species,
B. nobilis. It is a majestic fan palm of the western grasslands
and pastures, often occurring in large stands (Figure 5d).
Satranala is a rare palm in the humid forest of
northeastern Madagascar, scattered in a few sites between
Pointe à Larée and the Masoala Peninsula. There is only one
species for this genus, S. decussilvae. Being the only palm
with fan leaves in the island's rainforest, it differs from
other taxa in this biome type (Figure 5e).
8
Figure 5. Representative palms of the subfamily Coryphoideae in Madagascar. a) A colony of Phoenix reclinata in a small depressed
area in the grassland near Vohémar (photo: S. Rakotoarisoa), b) A group of Borassus aethiopum in the floodplain of Maromandia (photo: M.
Rakotoarinivo), c) A clump of Hyphaene coriacea in the grassland of Analalava (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), d) A colony of Bismarckia nobilis in the
grassland near Boriziny (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), e) Satranala decussilvae in the humid forest near Soanierana Ivongo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), f)
Tahina spectabilis in the grassland of Analalava (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
Tahina is endemic to northwestern Madagascar. It is
monotypic, comprising only T. spectabilis, a giant palm tree
found at two sites in the Analalava district (Figure 5f). This
species is taxonomically isolated with its most closely
related taxa, Chuniophoenix, Kerriodoxa and Nannorhops,
endemic to Southeast Asia and Arabia (Dransfield et al.,
2008).
Subfamily CALAMOIDEAE
This sub-family is represented by a single species:
Raphia farinifera, a palm that is widespread throughout the
island, and is also present in East Africa. Raphia farinifera is
a palm tree very closely associated with human activity,
hence its immense ethnobotanical importance for the
Malagasy (Bussmann et al., 2015). As this species is never
present in primary forest and usually grows near villages, it
has been considered to be non-native and introduced to
the island (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). However, a
preliminary molecular phylogeny study supports the
hypothesis that individuals of Raphia in Madagascar could
represent a species distinct from R. farinifera on the African
mainland (Helmstetter et al., 2020). More detailed studies
will have to be carried out to confirm the status of this
species in Madagascar.
Subfamily CEROXYLOIDEAE
The subfamily Ceroxyloideae is represented in
Madagascar by the nearly endemic genus Ravenea. Of the
22 currently recognized species, 20 are endemic to
Madagascar; the species R. hildebrandtii and R. moorei are
restricted to the Comoros archipelago. The presence of
Ravenea in Madagascar in relation to the range of
Ceroxyloideae, South America and Australia, can be
explained by the hypothesis of long-distance dispersal
during the Eocene (Trénel et al., 2007).
Palms of this genus are dioecious and generally
monocaulous (Figure 6), ranging from dwarf palms to huge
palms in the canopy (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). The
discovery of the species R. delicatula, a branched and
clumping palm (Rakotoarinivo, 2007), represents an
unexpected morphological diversity for this genus (Figure
7).
9
Figure 6. Ravenea sambiranensis in the littoral forest of
Manompana, Soanierana Ivongo. An arborescent palm of 7 m tall
emerging from the canopy of the forest (photo : M. Rakotoarinivo).
Figure 7. Ravenea delicatula. A shrub palm, currently the only
known species with clustering and slender stems within the genus
Ravenea (photo : M. Rakotoarinivo).
Subfamily ARECOIDEAE
The majority of the palms of Madagascar belong to this
subfamily: 182 species belonging to 9 genera.
The presence of Orania in Madagascar constitutes a
disjunct distribution of the genus which is also found in
Thailand and Malesia (Dransfield et al., 2008). Of the 30
currently recognized species, three are endemic to
Madagascar. These latter species occur in the humid forests
of the east, with a wider range for O. longisquama
compared to the other two species, O. ravaka and O.
trispatha, which are remarkable for their distichous leaves,
occurring in a single plane (Figure 8) like the leaves of
Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae).
The genus Beccariophoenix includes three species of
tree palms, all endemic to eastern rainforests or riverine
habitats in the highlands (Figure 9). These species are
among Madagascar's most sought-after palms in
horticulture.
Figure 8. Orania trispatha surviving in a cleared patch of forest in
Vinanivao, East Masoala, (photo: W. Baker).
Figure 9. Beccariophoenix fenestralis surviving after the clearing of
its natural habitat at Ranomafana Est, Ampasimanolotra (Brickaville -
photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
10
Voanioala gerardii, the only species of the genus, is a
tree palm distributed in a few fragmented sites around the
Bay of Antongil.
The genus Dypsis comprises more than three-quarters
of the island's palm flora with 168 endemic species. It is a
complex and variable genus with habit (Figure 10) varying
from tree palm to dwarf and acaulescent palms and even
climbing palms. In some species, the trunk branches.
Lemurophoenix is a giant palm tree of the rainforest, up
to 40m high. Two species are now known for this genus: L.
halleuxii is distributed in the Bay of Antongil region (Figure
11); L. laevis, recently described from a palm tree grown in
Hawaii, has not yet been found in the wild (Dransfield &
Marcus, 2018).
The two genera Marojejya and Masoala are relatively
similar in appearance as they are rather short-stemmed but
stocky and often litter-trapping palms (Figure 12). Each of
these two genera has two species; they are endemic to the
Northeast with the exception of Masoala kona, distributed
between Ifanadiana and Vondrozo.
I.2 - Present distribution and
demographics
Palms are mainly found in primary vegetation; the
eastern humid forests harbour most of the island's flora
(Figure 13, Appendix I) with about 90% of the known
species (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013). The richest palm sites,
in terms of taxonomic diversity, are found in the perhumid
northeastern part of the island, between Toamasina and
Marojejy, where 41-65 species can be counted on a 0.25°
Figure 10. Morphological diversity within the genus Dypsis. a) Dypsis prestoniana, a giant canopy palm of the south-eastern humid forests, in
Vondrozo, b) D. fibrosa, a shrub palm in the understrey of humid forests, in Manombo Farafangana, c) D. faneva, an undergrowth palm in the forests of
Ambanizana, Masoala, d) D. beentjei, an acaulescent palm, without obvious aerial stem, in Antanambe, Mananara Avaratra, e) D. andilamenensis, one
of the two climbing species currently identified in Madagascar, here in the Andilamena montane forests photos: M. Rakotoarinivo).
11
grid area, i.e. about 27 km × 27 km surface (Figure 14).
Overall, the rate of diversity decreases as seasonality and
drought increase and average temperature drops. Palms
are generally absent in the subarid zones of the southwest;
their presence in these sites depends on the presence of
moister microclimates such as that of Dypsis decaryi at
Ranopiso (Figure 15) or in the Ranotsara depressions for
Ravenea xerophila.
Figure 11. Lemurophoenix halleuxii, a giant palm tree from the
Sahavary forest, North of Maroantsetra (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
Figure 12. Marojejya darianii, a species distinct from other palms by its
large, almost entire leaves, with very little dissection of the blade;
Befanjana Soanierana Ivongo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
Figure 13. Current distribution pattern of palms of Madagascar.
Background map adapted from Madagascar Vegetation Atlas (Moat &
Smith, 2007). Vegetation formations are grouped into four categories
here: primary forests correspond to all types of forests that are still
natural, humid, sub-humid, dry and xerophytic thickets; the category
'secondary forest' consists of all secondary forms of natural forests; the
grasslands includes all areas dominated by grasses, with or without
woody plants. Cultivation is for area controlled by human for crops
production.
Figure 14. Predictive model of the
specific richness of the palms of
Madagascar. The colour variation
represents the changes in species
diversity in palms on a
0.25° grid area, i.e.
an area of
27 km × 27 km
(source:
Rakotoarinivo et al.,
2013).
12
Figure 15. Dypsis decaryi in the dry spiny forest of Ranopiso,
Andohahela National Park. One of two species adapted to xerophytic
conditions in Madagascar (Photo: J. Dransfield).
The biogeographic study of palms in Madagascar has
shown that the trend of current species richness is
controlled by the stability of palaeo-precipitation during the
Pleistocene (between 27,000 and 21,000 years ago),
abundant annual rainfall, high evapotranspiration and lack
of seasonality (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013). Furthermore, the
high diversity in the Northeast coincides with sites that
were identified as refuges during periods of Pleistocene
climate instability (Vences et al., 2009). The age of the
humid forests in this region, existing since the Eocene (56-
34 million years ago) coupled with its stability during
geological periods despite climatic disturbances during the
last ice ages of the Pleistocene (Wells, 2003) would have
allowed the evolutionary radiation of the genus Dypsis and
the strengthening of speciation of certain taxa such as
Lemurophoenix, Marojejya, Masoala, Orania and Voanioala,
the majority of whose species are restricted and endemic
to this area.
Of all the palms in Madagascar, Ravenea sambiranensis
is the most widespread species as it occupies almost all
types of habitats recorded in the eastern region, from 0-
2100 m elevation and in a few sites in the western region.
An analysis of the range of all the species shows that 12 of
them have a very wide range, not being limited to a single
phytogeographical territory according to the classification
of Humbert (1955):
- Dypsis fibrosa, D. nodifera, D. pinnatifrons and
Ravenea sambiranensis are very common in the lowland
rainforests of the East but they are able to survive in the
mountains, sometimes up to 1300m altitude, between
Antsiranana and Taolagnaro (Fort-Dauphin).
- Dypsis baronii, D. catatiana, D. heterophylla, D.
procumbens, Ravenea madagascariensis and R. robustior
are common species in mountain forests between 700-
1800m, generally in a continuous range on the eastern
slope of the Highlands between Antsiranana and
Taolagnaro, but may also occur in sheltered sites on the
Western Slope. In addition, these species can also descend
intermittently at low altitude in sites with steep
geomorphology.
- Bismarckia nobilis and Hyphaene coriacea are
constantly present in the western part of the island
between Antsiranana and Betioky Atsimo.
The flora of a given site often differs from that of other
localities by the presence of species with restricted
distribution, often endemic at the local or regional level.
The richness of palm trees in some sites such as Marojejy,
Makira, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra or Zahamena is
explained by the presence of many rare species whose
range is frequently restricted to only a small area. For
example, Dypsis cookei and D. pumila are endemic to the
summit area of Marojejy (Figure 16). The forests around
Vinanivao in eastern Masoala, for example, have at least six
species confined to this area Dypsis acaulis, D. metallica, D.
mijoroana, D. reflexa, D. ovojavavy and D. rabepierrei.
The relative abundance of each species seems to
depend primarily on its role and dominance in the plant
community. Common rainforest species such as Dypsis
fibrosa have an average density of 103 mature individuals
per hectare, but in some sites, juveniles are missing from
the population (Byg & Balslev, 2001). In the absence of
disturbance, the regeneration capacity of these species
could be maximal, as for D. baronii in Zahamena with 240
individuals/ha (Rakotonavalona, 2004). For rare palms, the
density is relatively low, around 30 mature trees/ha, as
observed for Masoala kona and Ravenea dransfieldii in the
Ifanadiana region (Ramamonjy, 2006). The small population
size for these species is compensated by the abundance of
seedlings and juveniles, suggesting a good chance of
regeneration if the population is left undisturbed.
13
Figure 16. Dypsis pumila, known only from the summit of Mount Marojejy. Its distribution range is restricted to the altitudinal gradient between
1900-2100m elevation (photo: W. Baker).
Abundant species are sometimes the dominant
elements of a vegetation community, giving a particular
aspect to the local landscape. At some sites, Bismarckia
nobilis is often the only arborescent species in the grassland
of the western plain (Figure 17). Similarly, Ravenea rivularis
and Beccariophoenix alfredii (Figure 18) form dense
colonies along rivers; the canopy consists exclusively of
these species in some areas of gallery forest
Fluctuations in the abundance of a species could also
depend on anthropogenic pressures. For example, the
density of D. ampasindavae in the Ampasindava Peninsula
varies according to the location of the sites in relation to
the protected area. In the buffer zone, the plants of this
species have almost disappeared; the density is only 1.2
individuals/ha compared to 82 individuals/ha in the core
area (Razafimandimby, 2017).
Morphological variations can be observed at the level of
a species or genus throughout its range, reflecting its
genetic diversity. The study by Shapcott et al. (2007) on the
population genetics of the three species of the genus
Beccariophoenix (B. alfredii, B. fenestralis and B.
madagascariensis) showed that the genetic pool is
significantly diversified not only between the three species
but also between individuals of the same population. There
are distinctive genes and a rather considerable genetic
distance between the southern (Vondrozo and Taolagnaro)
and northern (Mantadia) populations of B.
madagascariensis. The use of population genetics is also
proving to be a fundamental tool for the conservation of
rare species as it allows the possibility that the species
could still subsist in places not yet located thanks to the
presence of alleles not allied to the currently known genetic
heritage. Population genetic studies of Voanioala gerardii
(Shapcott et al., 2012) and Tahina spectabilis (Shapcott et
al., 2020) concluded that knowledge of their current range
is still incomplete.
.
14
Figure 17. Individuals of Bismarckia nobilis scattered in the grassy savannah on the edge of Isalo National Park (Photo: J. Dransfield).
Figure 18. Local dominance of Beccariophoenix alfredii. Hundreds of individuals occupy valley bottoms along a river and totally dominate the
canopy of the underlying gallery forest; the population is thus the only plant species seen from the outside; west of Antsirabe (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
15
I.3 - Biology and Ecology
Morphologically, the palm flora is dominated by species
of small size (Figure 19); less than 1.5 m high and with a
small diameter stem, i.e. undergrowth palms, dwarf palms,
acaulescent palms and climbing palms. These biological
types constitute a total of 65% of the known species, while
arborescent palms, taller than 3m, constitute nearly 35% of
the species in Madagascar.
Figure 19. Diversity of biological forms for the palms of Madagascar.
Six growth types have been identified for all species: tree palms) giant
palms or palms of the canopy, stem more than 10m high, over 10cm in
diameter; medium-sized palms) arborescent palms, often palms of the
undergrowth, stem between 3-10m high, above 5cm in diameter; small
palms of the understorey) between 1.5m and 5m high but with slender
stem, less than 5cm in diameter ; dwarf palms) short stem, the
maximum size of the palm does not exceed 1-1.5m in height;
acaulescent) no visible stem on the ground surface, the palm has rosette
leaves; climbing palms) with a particularly flexible stipe which uses other
plants such as trees but also other vertical supports, to climb towards the
canopy.
The stem is usually cylindrical. The diameter remains
uniform and constant but in some species such as Dypsis
decipiens (Figure 20) or Ravenea krociana, the trunk is
bottle-shaped due to the swelling of its middle part. The
trunk is usually solitary and unbranched but, in some cases,
there is dichotomy (D. fibrosa, D. crinita, Figure 21) or
simple aerial branching (D. oreophila, D. serpentina).
Branching can also be subterranean, from a short rhizome,
hence the clumping aspect of many species (e.g. D.
lutescens, D. baronii, D. decipiens).
Figure 20. Dypsis decipiens, a species characterized by the swollen
trunk at the centre, giving a bottle-like appearance to the palm,
Itremo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
Figure 21. Bottom view of the branched trunk of Dypsis fibrosa,
Soanierana Ivongo (Photo: C. Wattier).
Leaves can be exceptionally large such as those of
Tahina spectabilis with a blade up to 5m in diameter or
those of Raphia farinifera which can reach over 6m in
length. The large leaves are usually pinnate but those of
1% 16%
2%
35%
19%
27% Climbing Palms
Dwarf palms
acaulescent Palms
Small Palms of the understorey
Medium-sized Palms
Tree palms
16
Marojejya darianii are almost entire, with very few
segments or completely undissected. Entire leaves are
found mainly in some species of dwarf palms or shrub
palms of the undergrowth in the genus Dypsis.
Palms have a slow growth rate making the first
flowering in the natural environment only after decades for
tree palms; estimated to be around 29 years for
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis (Rakotoarinivo, 2005),
40 years for dryland palms such as Dypsis decaryi
(Ratsirarson et al., 2009) or Borassus aethiopum
(Johannsmeier, 2016) or even up to 80 years for Tahina
spectabilis (Shapcott et al., 2020). In cultivation, however,
tree palms such as Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D.
carlsmithii, D. robusta or Lemurophoenix laevis began to
flower at the age of 12-14 years in gardens outside
Madagascar (Dransfield, 2002; Dransfield & Marcus, 2018;
Hodel et al., 2005).
Floral biology depends on the taxonomic position.
Malagasy members of Arecoideae are protandrous
(Dransfield et al., 2008); male flowers arrive at maturity
before the females so that pollination is always cross-
pollinated between two distinct inflorescences, either from
the same or different plants. An inflorescence like that of
Dypsis fibrosa, about 120cm wide, has on average 7500
female flowers and up to 24,000 male flowers
(Andriatahiana, in prep.). For dioecious palms as in the
genus Ravenea (Ceroxyloideae) and in the majority of
Coryphoideae in Madagascar; the plants are unisexual,
being either male or female. Very few sex ratio studies have
been undertaken so far at the population level of these
dioecious palms, but based on existing data, trends could
vary from one species to another. The population density of
R. madagascariensis in the Manambolo forest, Andringitra
is skewed to being more male: 9 males versus 5 females on
an area of one hectare (Ranantenainasoa, 2000). For
Bismarckia nobilis, the population in the grassland of
Maintirano is dominated by females; 74 females versus 24
males/ha (Rabefarihy, 2007).
All the species are pleonanthic except for Raphia
farinifera and Tahina spectabilis. The two latter species are
hapaxanthic palms that flower a single time during their life
when all axillary buds at the stem tip are transformed into
inflorescences when the plant reaches maturity. Once the
hundreds or thousands of fruits produced have ripened, the
plant dies (Figure 22).
Figure 22. Mature Tahina spectabilis in senescent stage. The leaves
have all already fallen, the plant ensures only the ripening of the
thousands of fruits produced by the single flowering event. As soon as
the fruits dispersal by barochory is completed, the floral stalk breaks
down, causing the trunk of the palm to collapse (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
Bees, Apis mellifera, are the most widely observed
pollinators (Ratsirarson & Silander, 1996) although there
are other visiting and pollinator insects such as flies, wasps
and beetles (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). In several species
of the genus Dypsis, the flowers produce fragrant odors and
a small amount of nectar (Rudall et al., 2003). Studies on
floral biology have shown that about 9% of female flowers
turn into fruit (Ratsirarson & Silander, 1996).
Flowering may occur at any time of the year but
the majority of species flower in the hot and humid season,
during which two peaks of anthesis can be observed (Figure
23): between October and November (46 species), and in
March (88 species). Palms in low altitude humid forests
(e.g. Dypsis fibrosa, D. lastelliana, Ravenea sambiranensis)
mostly flower between October and May, while palms in
the western region start flowering towards the end of the
dry season, between August and September. Montane
palms are often in full anthesis between May and August
(e.g. D. baronii, D. ceracea, D. coursii, D. humbertii). Overall,
fruit development and ripening take place two to three
months after flowering.
17
Figure 23. Monthly variation in the number of species in flowering
and fruiting throughout the year.
Palm seeds require a reasonable amount of humidity
and high temperatures, between 29-35°C, to germinate
(Broschat et al., 2017). Germination studies in some
Ravenea species have shown that dehydration of seeds
below 5% of moisture results in loss of viability
(Rakotondranony et al., 2006). Germination tests on 19
species (Table 2) carried out at the Ranomafana Arboretum
concluded that the germination rate varies from 16-90% for
the surveyed species. These seeds were sown directly in a
soil composed of organic matter called "fongo" from the
Eucalyptus forests and sand in a ratio of 1:1 or 1:2, without
any prior treatment. Dormancy of the seeds is broken from
5 to up to 309 days after sowing. The delay in break of
dormancy of some species seems to be related to climatic
conditions; some seeds were sown at the beginning of the
cool season (e.g. Dypsis mananjarensis, D. pinnatifrons and
D. scandens). The young plants of some species such as
Dypsis lutescens, D. prestoniana and Ravenea robustior
grew quite fast so that they were ready to be transplanted
in the garden after 18 months in the nursery.
All types of soils in Madagascar are colonized by palm
trees, with the exception of mangrove soils. According to
the FAO soil classification (2020), ferralsol is the substrate
type with the highest number of species, since it occupies
almost 80% of the island's surface and is found mainly in
the eastern region. Apart from the main soil types
colonised by the majority of species (Table 3), some species
have specialised in rather spatially restricted soil categories.
For example, Tahina spectabilis occurs only on fluvisols,
soils of young alluvial deposits. Similarly, Dypsis onilahensis
has a preference for leptosols, a shallow (sometimes
gravelly) substrate on very hard bedrock. Some species
such as those of the coastal plains or very low altitude areas
are restricted to surface substrates with permanent
Table 2. Summary of the palm seed germination trial carried out in the Ranomafana Arboretum between 2018-2020.
Species
Number of
sown seeds
Germination rate (%)
Break dormancy (number of days after sowing).
Beccariophoenix fenestralis
100 81.0 38
Dypsis basilonga 200 16.5 226
Dypsis concinna
330 33.9 5
Dypsis decipiens 25 80.0 5
Dypsis forficifolia
66 63.6 30
Dypsis lutescens 200 71.0 38
Dypsis madagascariensis
104 45.2 232
Dypsis mananjarensis 580 61.2 211
Dypsis pachyramea
71 76.1 54
Dypsis pinnatifrons 1095 76.1 203
Dypsis prestoniana
500 27.6 170
Dypsis procumbens 500 67.6 224
Dypsis robusta
1050 3.4 197
Dypsis scandens 267 89.1 215
Hyphaene coriacea
70 7.1 115
Phoenix reclinata 400 49.8 45
Ravenea dransfieldii
38 78.9 54
Ravenea robustior 300 55.0 7
Ravenea sambiranensis
1278 88.4 6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Flowers Fruits
18
Table 3. Main types of soils inhabited by the palms of Madagascar.
Type of soil (according to FAO,
2020) Characteristics
Number of
species Examples
Arenosol : sandy soils with very little or
no development
Texture : sandy
Drainage: excessive
pH = 6.4
48 Dypsis aquatilis, D. arenarum, D. bosseri, D.
carlsmithii, D. psammophiila, D. soanieranae
Cambisol : soils in the mid-formation
stage with low differentiation of horizons
Texture: silt-clay-sand to
clayey
Drainage: medium
pH = 4.9-7.2
74
Dypsis ambanjae, D. andilamenensis, D.
decaryi, D. gautieri, D. leptocheilos, D. pusilla,
D. tsaratananensis, Lemurophoenix halleuxii,
Ravenea delicatula
Ferralsol : deep, heavily weathered
soils with chemically poor but physically
stable subsoil
Texture: sandy-clay to clay
Drainage: moderate
pH = 4.8-5
150
Beccariophoenix fenestralis, Dypsis acaulis, D.
ankaizinensis, D. baronii, D. ovombontsira, D.
perrieri, Ravenea nana, R. sambiranensis.
Gleysol : soils with permanent or
temporary moisture near the surface
Texture: loamy or loamy-clay.
Drainage: poor
pH = 5.1-5.6
29
Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis lutescens, D
plurisecta, Marojejya darianii, Orania ravaka, O.
trispatha, Ravenea musicalis
Nitisol : a well-drained, deep, red soil
with a clay content of more than 30%
and a bouldery structure
Texture: loamy-clay Drainage:
moderate
pH = 5.9-6.2
88
Dypsis albofarinosa, D. culminis, D. dracaenoides
gronophyllum, Masoala kona, Ravenea glauca, R
rivularis,
Régosol : a soft bedrock that has been
slightly altered
Texture: finely silted
Drainage: moderate
pH = 4.9-5.4
28 Beccariophoenix alfredii, Dypsis ambositrae, D.
oropedionis
moisture content, as in the case of Borassus
madagascariensis, Dypsis lutescens, Marojejya darianii or
Ravenea musicalis (Figure 24). Highland palms are adapted
to a type of substrate with fine soil, or growing directly on
bedrock, such as Dypsis decipiens, D. ambositrae or D.
oropedionis.
Studies of palm habitat in humid forests (e.g.
Rakotonavalona, 2004; Ramamonjy, 2006) have shown that
the most frequently associated plants are the species
belonging to the genera Cyathea (Cyatheaceae), Dracaena
(Asparagaceae) and Pandanus (Pandanaceae). Habitats are
also often characterized by the presence of moss carpets
and epiphytic ferns. Palms are more abundant where forest
canopies are usually discontinuous but species diversity
within the forest seems to be correlated with dense
undergrowth (Rakotonavalona, 2004). The majority of
palms in humid forests are mesophilous. Confined to the
herbaceous layer, dwarf palms are, however, sciaphilous;
direct sunlight rarely reaches the forest floor
(Rakotonavalona, 2004).
I.4 - Use and values of palms
Palms are among the most useful groups of plants for
human beings, after grasses and legumes (Govaerts et al.,
2020). As sources of non-wood forest products, palms are
vital in poor countries such as Madagascar because they
play a substantial economic role at the level of rural villages
or for populations dependent on forest resources
(Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). Of the 208 species indigenous
to Madagascar, 150 species have been reported as having
at least one type of use and are thus exploited by humans
(Appendix II). Palms provide multiple resources such as
materials for construction or weaving, food, medicine and
ornamental plants (Figure 25)
19
Figure 24. The rheophytic palm Ravenea musicalis, restricted to swamps and rivers of the coastal plain north of Taolagnaro.
.
Figure 25. Various forms of palm uses in Madagascar
020 40 60 80 100
House
construction
Decoration
Horticulture
Medecine
Food
Housetools
Basketry
Religion
Number of species Number of utilisation types
20
Multiple-use species (Table 4) are often those with
relatively wide ranges and high local abundance. Their
exploitation methods may vary from one area to another;
some forms of utilisation are shared, while others are site-
or region-specific. In the majority of cases, exploitation by
local communities is often traditional and sustainable,
although some activities, such as felling trunks to gain
access to the edible heart or extracting the sap to make
local wines, can be fatal to the palm.
Studies on the traditional knowledge of the species
Dypsis fibrosa through the eastern humid forest (e.g.
Bussmann et al., 2015; Byg & Balslev, 2003; Dransfield &
Beentje, 1995) have revealed that all parts of the plant,
except for the roots (Table 5), are exploited by the local
population. These include the leaves for thatching (Figure
26), trunks to extract the edible heart, and fibres as a
source of rope. Even trunks left rotting in the wild can
provide food after about 3 months, as edible weevil larvae
that have developed in the decaying fibres of the trunk are
collected there (Byg & Balslev, 2001). In addition, the
piassava from Madagascar (fibres of D. fibrosa) was once
valued at twice the cost of raffia fibre from West Africa
(Dransfield & Beentje, 1995).
Table 4. The most utilised palms by indigenous people in Madagascar. The data presented in this table come from the compilation and
recapitulation of the information present in the literature and from the responses to direct surveys carried out during field visits.
Species Habitat
Number of utilisation
forms
1- Dypsis fibrosa
Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude
32
2- Bismarckia nobilis
Western grassland
21
3- Ravenea sambiranensis
Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude
18
4- Dypsis lastelliana
Eastern humid forest, low altitude
17
5-
Dypsis pinnatifrons
Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude
17
6-
Dypsis lutescens
Eastern humid forest, low altitude
14
7- Hyphaene coriacea
Western grassland
14
8- Dypsis madagascariensis
Subhumid and dry forests of the west
12
9- Dypsis nodifera
Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude
11
10- Borassus madagascariensis
Western grassland
10
Table 5. Main uses of Dypsis fibrosa across the eastern region of Madagascar.
Plant parts
Main utilisation form
Leaves
Thatching
Decoration: festivity at the village community or at church
Fibre (piassava of the
leaf)
Fibres were formerly harvested as a source of income and were sold to the furniture industry (for
upholstering).
Rope
Maintenance of household equipment
Mattress filling
Stem
Salt, extracted from the infusion of the heart of the palm, used in cough treatment; formerly also
used as a seasoning.
Extraction of weevil larvae, served cooked or fried.
Pith (terminal bud)
Medicine, eaten raw or cooked, used to treat coughs
Cooked and eaten as a rice accompaniment.
Inflorescence
Household broom
Fruits/ seeds
Horticulture
21
Figure 26. A house with a roof made of leaves from Dypsis fibrosa in Ifanadiana region. a) seen from the outside, the wall of the house
is composed of wood and the roof is built with hundreds of overlapping palm leaves, one on top of the next; b) placement of the leaves for the roof,
seen from inside the house.
22
In the western region, Bismarckia nobilis is essential to
the daily life of local people. This species is used for
subsistence but also to generate income (Table 6).
According to studies carried out in the north of Morondava,
40-52% of the individuals of this palm are exploited
(Rabefarihy, 2007). In the Maintirano rural area, up to 65%
of the houses in the village of Betanatanana have roofs
made from leaves of B. nobilis (Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006).
Raw materials from B. nobilis are even exported to the
cities. For example, some hotels in Morondava have chosen
to use the leaves of this palm tree for their roofing, not only
for aesthetics but also for energy savings. The temperature
inside bungalows covered with B. nobilis leaves is reduced
by about 4-5°C compared with the outside temperature
(Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). A hotel can consume up to
100,000 leaves every 5 years for general roof renewal in
their bungalows. In all cases, a leaf is purchased at a price
ranging from 50 to 100 Ariary at the extraction sites.
In general, the utilisation of each species depends on
the form, density and durability, or the flavor of the organ if
it is edible:
(a)
Traditional houses
are often constructed with
different parts of palms: trunk boards, whole trunk or with
leaves (Table 7). About 50 species of palm tree or shrub
are exploited for this practice, whose importance and place
in the house depend respectively on the structure and
durability of the part used (Figure 27). Leaves with fairly
large dimensions such as those of Dypsis fibrosa or
Bismarckia nobilis are used for roofing. The stems of tree
palms are split open and flattened usually to form floors
but sometimes also for walls. For example, a floor made of
Ravenea sambiranensis planks for a 4m × 6m house in
Tampolo (Fénerive-Est) requires 6-8 stems (Rakotoarinosy,
2018). In addition, the stems of undergrowth palm trees
are used to support the roof, to insert into the gaps
between the walls of the house or also to fence off the
property.
Table 6. Uses and economic values of Bismarckia nobilis in western Madagascar (sources: Rabefarihy, 2007; Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006).
Type of utilisation Used parts Product and required quantity
Estimated cost
of the product
(in Ariary)
Lethality of the
activity in relation
to the survival of
the palm
House construction
Leaves Roof (3m x 5m): 2000 leaves; lifespan = 7 years. A leaf is sold at
50-80 Ariary. no
Trunk
For a house of 2m x 4m, 60 boards of 3.5m are
needed (a trunk can supply up to 4 boards);
lifespan = 7-8 years.
yes
Basketry Leaves
1.5m x 2m mat; life span = 8-15 months
7000 Ariary
No
Basket
Hat
Household utensils Trunk
Pot of flowers about 40cm high (a hollowed
trunk of 3m provides about 8 pots)
500 Ariary per
unit
Yes
Food
Trunk
Sora (wine): a hole in the trunk at its apex to
extract sap. The fermentation of the sap then
constitutes an alcoholic drink.
1l of sora is worth
800 Ariary; one
trunk provides an
average of 68
litres of sap.
Yes, the palm tree
dies after a month of
extraction.
Pith
To be given directly to pigs when there is a
shortage of bran or to be processed into flour
called "kabija".
Yes, felling of the
stem.
23
Table 7. Examples of uses and lifespan of the raw palm materials in the construction of traditional houses.
Used parts Species/ locality Required quantity
Lifespan of
the product in
the house
Source
Trunk :
planks
Bismarckia nobilis/
Betanatanana,
Maintirano
30 individuals to make planks 3-3.5m in
length, to cover the wall of a house of 4-
6m in size
7-8 years Ratoavimbahoaka
(2006)
Dypsis ampasindavae /
Ambanja
6 to 9 stipes for supplying 4m boards for
the flooring of a house of 4m × 6m.
5-7 years Razafimandimby (2017)
Ravenea
madagascariensis/
Manambolo, Andringitra
4 to 6 stipes of 4m long boards, for the
ceiling of a surface of 4m × 4m. 15 years Ranantenainasoa,
(2000)
Ravenea sambiranensis
/ Tampolo, Fénerive-Est
6-8 trunks to supply boards of 4m length
to cover a floor of a house of 4m × 6m.
5-6 years Rakotoarinosy, (2018)
Dypsis arenarum/
Tampolo, Fénerive-Est
Trunks of 3-4m long are sectioned
lengthwise in quarters to support the roof.
6-9 years Rakotoarinosy, (2018)
Leaves
Dypsis fibrosa/
Manompana,
Soanierana Ivongo
Leaves about 2.5m long, to be arranged
in groups of 3 and stacked across the
roof; 400 leaves for the roof of a 4m × 3m
house
7-8 years Rakotomanadriana, in
prep.
Figure 27. Traditional house made mainly from materials from palm
trees in Vinanivao, Masoala. The roof is made of leaves of Dypsis
fibrosa, the ridge is covered by leaves of Satranala decussilvae, while the
floor is made of planks of arborescent palms. The rest of the house is a
mixture of timber, planks of Ravenala and leaves of Pandanus.
(b)
Basketry
is a regular source of income for indigenous
peoples. The species used for this type of activity have
tough but workable leaflets that do not degrade easily. A
total of 18 species including Beccariophoenix
madagascariensis, Bismarckia nobilis, Hyphaene coriacea
and Ravenea dransfieldii have been identified for this
practice. Products woven from the leaflets of Ravenea
lakatra are very popular and are sold at a fairly high price in
the Ifanadiana market (Figure 28). For example, a 'lakatra'
hat for an adult costs 4,500 Ariary each, compared to 2,000-
2,500 Ariary for a hat made of rushes or reeds. In the Bay of
Rigny area (Antsiranana), a monthly collection of 120-160
leaves of Hyphaene coriacea allows women to make 60-80
baskets; generating an income of at least 43,000 Ariary
(Rakotonandrasana et al., 2015).
c) Some
household tools
are made from various parts of
palms, especially for the species Raphia farinifera (Figure
29). Apart from ‘hafotra’ fibres (bark of Dombeya spp. and
Grewia spp. - Malvaceae) or from sisal fibres (Agave
sisalana - Agavaceae), rope used by local populations also
comes from the piassava from young leaves of "Vonitra"
(Dypsis fibrosa, D. crinita and D. utilis). In addition,
household brooms (Figure 30) in areas surrounding the
eastern lowland or mid-altitude humid forests often consist
of the inflorescences of different species of "Anivona"
(Ravenea spp.)" or "Vonitra". In the western region, the
petioles of Borassus madagascariensis, B. aethiopum,
Bismarckia nobilis and Hyphaene coriacea are cut into
several small pieces and then gathered together to form the
so-called brush "kifafa satrana". This type of brush is usually
intended for urban use and sold at markets in the capital or
in large cities throughout the country. In the highlands the
leaflets of Dypsis decipiens are also used to make brooms
(Rakotomanadriana, in prep.).
24
d) Some palms such as D. lastelliana, D. nodifera, D.
andrianatonga and D. nodifera have been used in the past
Figure 28. The
importance of
Ravenea lakatra for
the local people in
the Ifanadiana
region. (a) The
leaflets of the young
leaves are harvested
from the wild and
taken to the weekly
market in the town of
Ifanadiana to be sold
as raw material to
basket makers. These
leaflets are then
prepared in the
workshops for
processing into
various products such
as hats (b) or mats (c)
[photos : R.
Rakotomanandriana.
Figure 29. Everyday equipment and tools made from
Raphia farinifera (left). The Raphia palm represents a multi-
purpose plant in rural areas of Madagascar. In addition to fibres that
are exploited in basketry, various organs are also used to make
household materials: a) vanilla packing basket, woven from the
fibres; b) stool with a sitting part made from rolled up raffia leaflets;
c) a winnowing basket for rice, made from pieces of the petiole; d)
fish trap, made from pieces of the petiole (photo : R.
Rakotomanandriana).
Figure 30. Remnants of the inflorescence of Dypsis
fibrosa used as a broom in houses bordering the forests
around Manompana, Soanierana Ivongo (below, photo : R.
Rakotomanandriana).
25
to extract
salts
1 for seasoning (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995);
such practice is still carried out in remote sites on the edge
of natural forests, far from shops and grocery stores.
Physico-chemical analyses of the vegetable salt of D.
nodifera have shown a significant amount of mineral
nutrients such as magnesium, manganese, calcium and iron
(Randriamanantenasoa, 2010). As the presence of these
elements even in very low doses gives salt some curative
properties, the traditional use of palms as medicinal
remedies in the form of salt or pith decoction reinforces
these results. In Zahamena, D. nodifera salt is used to treat
coughs, malaria and pancreatic problems (Byg & Balslev,
2001). Similarly, D. andrianatonga is a remedy for coughs
around Manongarivo (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995).
Recently, the chemical compound 'isovitexin' has been
found in the leaves of D. lutescens; this type of flavonoid
has anti-cancer properties (Chiduruppa et al., 2018).
However, only about ten palm species in Madagascar have
so far been indicated as having medicinal properties; a
number probably underestimated (Gruca et al., 2016).
e) The majority of tree palms and some of the shrub
palms are felled for their edible
palm hearts
2 or palm
cabbage. The latter is collected to be eaten raw, on the
premises, for shrub species such as Dypsis baronii, D.
oreophila and D. pinnatifrons. On the other hand, the
extraction of hearts from tree palms such as D.
tsaravoasira, D. pilulifera, Masoala madagascariensis and
Voanioala gerardii is intended for cooking for rice
accompaniment or as a staple food (Byg & Balslev, 2001,
2003; Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). A palm is harvested for
its heart if ithas a relatively sweet, non-bitter taste and
does not require the addition of salt for cooking (Dransfield
& Beentje, 1995). In relation to these criteria, the most
sought-after species for their hearts are Dypsis
tsaravoasira, D. pilulifera, D. perierri and Ravenea albicans.
f) Palms are ideal
horticultural plants
. The taxonomic
diversity present on the island is reflected in the great
range of morphological diversity, some of which such as
Bismarckia nobilis, Dypsis lutescens, Ravenea rivularis or
Tahina spectabilis are very popular worldwide. Seeds of
some species such as Ravenea rivularis are exported from
Madagascar in large quantity and are available on the
international market. Trade data within Madagascar is very
poorly documented despite the fact that many species are
overexploited. During a survey on the use of palm trees in
1 Palm salt consists of the ashes of the pith after it is burnt.
2 The heart of the palm or palm cabbage corresponds to the apical
meristem of the palm; the terminal bud having been extracted from the
crown of the leaves at the top of the trunk, after the palm has been felled.
the Ambositra region, the inhabitants claimed that a
"kapaoka3" of D. decipiens seeds is sold to collectors for
3,000 Ariary. Whole plants, usually juveniles, are frequently
sold along the national roads. Prices vary from 20,000 –
40,000 Ariary for tree palms or medium sized palms such as
D. ambositrae, D. baronii or D. lutescens, compared to
5,000-10,000 Ariary for dwarf palms such as D.
hildebrandtii, D. nodifera or D. louvelii. Such rural trades are
often carried out illegally; the palms are removed from
their natural environment without prior authorization. In
Antananarivo, at the nurseries of approved horticulturists, a
young palm such as of B. nobilis or D. lutescens costs at
least 60,000 Ariary; the price can even go up to 800,000
Ariary for large individuals.
In the last 20 years, cultivation of endemic palms as
ornamental plants has been gaining popularity in
Madagascar. For example, the plantation of Bismarckia
nobilis along the Avenue de l'Indépendance in Analakely,
Antananarivo. Some other species commonly planted in
Madagascar include Dypsis baronii, D. lutescens, D. decaryi
and Dypsis madagascariensis. Other species deserve a
much larger planting in public places, schools, and hotels
such as Dypsis lastelliana in the east, Beccariophoenix
alfredii in the centre, and Borassus madagascariensis in the
west. Many palms grown in Madagascar are exotic, such as
Livistona chinensis, Roystonea regia (royal palm), and
Washingtonia spp. (Dransfield & Beentje 1995).
The majority of indigenous palm trees are illegally cut
and collected for self-consumption. Trade at the local scale
is quite scarce and only intended for the elderly or those
who cannot collect for themselves. Compared to other
groups of plants, palms constitute a material of choice
because of the toughness and longevity of the finished
products. For example, rice storage houses are built with
planks of Ravenea madagascariensis in Manambolo, a
peripheral area of Andringitra, because its "wood" is very
hard and cannot be gnawed by rats (Ranantenainasoa,
2000). In the humid and subhumid regions, Ravenala
madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae) has multiple uses
comparable to those of palms but generally has a shorter
life span except for the stipe boards (Rakotoarivelo et al.,
2014). For example, a roof made of leaves of Ravenala can
be kept for an average of 3-4 years, compared with at least
7 years for a roof made of Dypsis fibrosa or D.
ampasindavae.
3 A Kapaoka is equivalent to the volume of 25 cl, this is a common
measure in Madagascar, from a can of condensed milk.
26
Palms can also provide ecosystem services for the
benefit of the environment. Fruits constitute food sources
for different types of animals (Table 8), including lemurs
and birds. Palms can also provide habitats for animals. The
crowns are often home to small invertebrates such as
insect larvae; some species of birds also build their nests on
the leaves of palms and some geckos lay their eggs directly
inside the crown (Figure 31). Documentation is still lacking
on the importance or correlation of these associations with
animal species, but the study by Andreone et al. (2010)
shows, for example, that three species of amphibians
exclusively use the fallen leaves of three Dypsis (D.
hovomantsina, D. lastelliana, and D. tsaravoasira) as their
habitats in Betampona and Ambatovaky. Palms are thus an
example of framework species because their loss in the wild
may lead to a decline in the population of other species
dependent on them
Table 8. Compilation of existing literature on the dispersion of palms by animals in Madagascar
Palm species Disperser
Type of
animal
Locality(localities) Source(s)
Dypsis arenarum Hapalemur griseus griseus Lemur Tampolo, Fénerive-Est Rakotoarinosy (2018)
Dypsis pinnatifrons
Eulemur macaco Lemur Lokobe, Nosy Be Birkinshaw (2001)
D. ampasindavae
Eulemur macaco
Lemur
Lokobe, Nosy Be
Birkinshaw (2001)
D. fibrosa Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur
Manombo, Farafangana
Agnalazaha,
Vangaindrano
Ralainasolo et al., (2008)
Andriamaharoa et al. (2010)
Rattus rattus, Eliurus webbi
Rodents
Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro
Bollen (2003)
D. mananjarensis Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur
Agnalazaha,
Vangaindrano
Andriamaharoa et al. (2010)
Dypsis prestoniana
Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur
Agnalazaha,
Vangaindrano
Andriamaharoa et al. (2010)
Eulemur fulvus collaris,
Cheirogaleus sp. Lemurs Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Coracopsis nigra,
Streptopelia picturata,
Hypsipetes
madagascariensis
Birds Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Pteropus rufus Bat Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Dypsis nodifera
Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Pteropus rufus Bat Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Dypsis saintelucei
Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Dypsis scottiana
Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Rattus rattus, Eliurus webbi Rodents Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003)
Ravenea
madagascariensis
Coracopsis vasa,
Alectroenas
madagascariensis
Birds Manambolo, Andringitra Ranantenainasoa, (2000)
27
Figure 31. Eggs of Phelsuma sp. in the crown of Dypsis brevicaulis; Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro (Photo: F. Hogg).
I.5 - Threats and problem analysis
According to the IUCN Red List (2020), nearly 84% of
palm species in Madagascar are threatened with extinction
(Figure 32). Observations on the status of natural
populations since 1995 have highlighted the reduction in
the number of mature individuals for many species
(Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). The high number of species
categorized as Critically Endangered and Endangered
(Figure 31, Appendix II) illustrates the ongoing decline that
palms are facing in relation to their conservation status at
the local or national level.
The loss of palm habitats is the result of the production
of annual and perennial non-timber crops including crops
for food, fodder or industrial products. Overall, 112 species
have lost part of their habitats due to this type of threat;
some of them are currently in a critical state as the number
of their mature individuals at the local level is below the
minimum threshold necessary for a viable population. For
example, one of the last habitats of Dypsis ambositrae
around the town of Ambositra was lost (Figure 33) within
16 years due to the continuous clearing of the
Ambatofitorahana mountain forest. The site was logged to
produce charcoal (Figure 34); such activity resulted in the
complete clearing of the forest to make way for cultivated
fields.
Figure 32. Summary of IUCN Red List assessments on palms
from Madagascar. The numbers correspond to the species assigned
to each category of threat defined by the Red List during the assessment
of the conservation status in 2012. Of the 9 Red List categories (IUCN,
2020), 7 have been assigned to Madagascar palms: LC for Least
Concern, NT for Near Threatened, VU for Vulnerable, EN for
Endangered, CR for Critically Endangered and DD for Data Deficient.
28
Figure 33. Loss of habitat for Dypsis ambositrae at Ambatofitorahana, Ambositra. The forest fragment was still considered almost intact
in 2003 (Photo: J. Dransfield) where about 10 mature and many regenerating individuals were recorded for this species. Unfortunately, a visit to this site
in 2019 revealed the impact of deforestation on the population structure of this palm tree. The natural habitat has been completely cleared and some
mature stands of this species have been spared; only a few seedlings remain in the secondary plant formations.
29
Figure 34. Impact of habitat destruction on the local survival of Dypsis ambositrae in Ambatofitorahana, Ambositra. The
destruction of a portion of the mountain forest of Ambatofitorahana for the local charcoal production from forest species has caused the habitat loss of
D. ambositrae. In 2012, the forest was cleared (a); the trees were felled for use as wood chips while the charcoal oven was set up on the site (b). Such
activity resulted in the total loss of the forest fragment by 2019.
Habitat loss caused by forest or bush fires is a major
factor in the decline of palms in savannah, sub-humid and
dry forests. Although adult individuals can sometimes
survive, juvenile individuals suffer and perish (Figure 35).
Often the population structure is disturbed due to mortality
of regeneration individuals and loss of viable seed stock in
the soil (Rakotoarinivo & Rajaovelona, 2013;
Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006).
Threats associated with the use of biological resources
concerns the harvesting of terrestrial plants, particularly for
use as food (palm hearts) and for access to the seeds
(horticultural palms) (Figure 36). These collecting activities
result in the loss of reproductive stems, and particularly the
decline in the population of single-stemmed species.
Similarly, the exploitation of Bismarckia nobilis and
Borassus madagascariensis for the production of "sora", a
kind of local wine, in western Madagascar is a factor
contributing to the rapid decline of these two species. In
Morondava, approximately 2,250 individuals of B. nobilis
have been affected by this activity in one year; these
individuals do not recover and die after only one month of
sap extraction (Figure 37, Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006).
Logging, land clearing and timber harvesting are also
major threats to the decline of natural populations. In these
cases, palms are not the primary target but may become
threatened due to collateral damage (Figure 38). The
extensive degradation of Madagascar's rainforests,
following an estimated deforestation rate of 0.5-0.94% of
the island's surface area for 2005-2013 (i.e. an area of
4,400-4,500 ha of forest lost per year - Gardner et al.,
2018), has reduced primary forests to less than 25% of their
original extent (Moat & Smith, 2007). This situation implies
an increased risk of extinction of biota restricted to primary
forests such as palms. Palms are particularly vulnerable to
changes in ecological conditions, especially degradation of
humid forests. Survival and population dynamics are
reduced for many species when habitat quality declines
(Dransfield & Beentje, 1995) or when habitats have become
fragmented (Scariot, 1999). Changes in habitat quality
greatly affect the survival of many species with small
ranges. Some of their adults persist in degraded habitats
(Figure 39) while young individuals cannot survive in
conditions of high solar radiation (Dransfield et al. 2008)
due to their requirements for shade. Thus, young palm
individuals such as those of Dypsis baronii, D. lastelliana
and D. fibrosa, which are relatively common in moist
forests, rarely survive in adjacent secondary formations.
Therefore, the loss of primary habitat in the only known
collection sites for certain species explains the failure to
observe them in the wild over the last several decades. For
example, three species from the Bay of Antongil region,
Dypsis lucens, D. monostachya and D. plurisecta have not
been seen in the wild since 1930; their habitats would
correspond to the coastal plain currently converted into
cultivated fields around the town of Maroantsetra. Despite
recent expeditions to the forests around this town, and to
Masoala National Park and Makira Natural Park, these
species remain to be rediscovered.
30
Figure 35. A group of Dypsis decipiens injured by fire in the Itremo grassland. The fire seems to have been intense, consuming even the
leaves located at more than 8m above the ground. While the adults can often survive in this type of situation, as long as the terminal bud remains intact,
the younger individuals often perish by being completely burned by the fire.
Figure 36. Remnants of
Voanioala gerardii after
an adult tree was cut
down to access its
edible heart, Rantabe,
Mananara Avaratra.
(photo : M. Rakotoarinivo)
31
Figure 37. Remains of Bismarckia nobilis after the extraction of sap for the production of a local wine, Morondava region (Photo:
Ratoavimbahoaka).
Figure 38. Use of palm leaves to make temporary huts in the forests. In Masoala National Park, illegal loggers of precious woods have
felled many palm trees to make temporary huts from their leaves. The exploitation of palm trees is not the primary objective of poaching; however, the
diversity of palm trees at the local scale is affected.
32
Figure 39. A group of Ravenea sambiranensis left
untouched after the clearing of their natural habitat (photo:
M. Rakotoarinivo).
Many threatened species assessed as Critically
Endangered according to the IUCN Red List
(Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014) are restricted to small forest
fragments or areas at high risk of degradation outside
protected area networks. For example, Dypsis
ifanadianae and D. scandens are only known from
degraded forests in Ifanadiana; Ravenea musicalis is
restricted to the wetlands of the Mahatalaky plain, north
of Taolagnaro. The only known site of two endemic
palms in the Andilamena forests, D. andilamenensis and
Ravenea delicatula, has no form of protection; miners
have already started to make excavations in the ground
to search for rubies and quartz crystal (Rakotoarinivo,
2007).
Direct forms of exploitation of the species might
progressively lead to the local extinction of the species.
In the Maintirano region, the use of leaves in house roofs
requires on average 59,900 individuals of Bismarckia
nobilis every 5 years (Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006); a healthy
individual produces 7-8 exploitable leaves per year.
Sustainable leaf extraction does not cause the death of
the palm but threats increase when there is a shortage
of harvestable leaves at the time of collection. People
will exploit the young leaves, which can quickly decay; or
they will cut down large palms, those with stem more
than 7m in height in order to access the mature leaves.
In Morondava, the felling rate for this purpose
represents around 1% per year of adults in the natural
environment (Rabefarihy, 2007). Despite the natural
abundance of this species, such a rate of exploitation
could cause local extinction of the species within a few
decades.
I.6 - Protection and conservation
measures
Compared to current pressures and threats, much of
Madagascar's biodiversity is unlikely to be able to survive
if species are not present in protected areas (Borrini-
Feyerabend & Dudley, 2005). The Malagasy
government's effort to increase the size of protected
areas to 6 million hectares, including Madagascar's
National Park network, Key Biodiversity Areas and
Madagascar's Protected Areas System, has been globally
beneficial for palm conservation. Altogether, 9 species
remain outside of in situ conservation measures (Table 9,
Appendix II); these species have been seen in natural
formations but their often-restricted ranges are outside
the perimeters of existing protected areas. Conversely,
palms such as Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. commersoniana,
D. canescens, D. heteromorpha, D. ligulata, D.
monostachya, D. plurisecta, and D. soanieranae have not
been seen in the natural environment for the last three
decades despite the fact that their area of occurrence
should coincide with existing protected areas.
Table 9. List of species whose known range does not
coincide within the networks of existing protected areas in
Madagascar.
Species
Locality
Beccariophoenix alfredii
Betafo
Dypsis andilamenensis
Andilamena
Dypsis aquatilis
Taolagnaro, recensée sur la zone
périphérique de la NAP de
Tsitongambarika.
Dypsis basilonga
Ifanadiana, Mont Vatovavy et
Andrambovato
Dypsis ifanadianae
Ifanadiana, dans certains vestiges
forestiers le long de la route nationale 25.
Dypsis pulchella
Andilamena
Dypsis scandens
Ifanadiana
Ravenea delicatula
Andilamena
Ravenea musicalis
Taolagnaro
Given their size and their geographical positions,
protected areas such as Marojejy, Makira, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra, Ambatovaky, Zahamena-Ankeniheny
Corridor, Fandriana-Vondrozo Corridor and Andohahela
contribute greatly to the conservation of the habitats
and natural populations of many species. For example,
33
68 species are recorded in Masoala National Park; about
ten of these species occur only in this protected area and
are confined to different parts of the peninsula. In
addition, some of the protected areas identified as
"Alliance for Zero Extinction4" sites (Table 10) contribute
significantly to the maintenance of rare and locally
endemic species. Some species occur only in these sites.
Table 10. Unique species in protected areas identified as
AZE sites in Madagascar.
Alliance for Zero
Extinction site
Species restricted to the site
NAP Daraina - Loky –
Manambato Dypsis gautieri
Reserve Naturelle
Intégrale Tsaratanàna
and extension
Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. montana, D.
tsaratananensis
Marojejy National
Park Dypsis cookei, D. mirabilis, D. pumila
Masoala National
Park
Dypsis acaulis, D. caudata, D. dransfieldii,
D. furcata, D. metallica, D. mijoroana, D.
minuta, D. ovojavavy, D. rabepierrei, D.
reflexa, D. vonitrandambo
Anjanaharibe-Sud -
Marojejy – Makira
corridor
Dypsis andapae, D. brittiana, D. humilis, D.
makirae, D. monostachya, D. plurisecta, D.
rakotonasoloi
Mananara Avaratra
National Park
Dypsis antanambensis, D. beentjei, D.
ovobontsira
Ankeniheny-
Zahamena Corridor
Ravenea louvelii
Palms are an important component of horticulture,
providing many species that are harvested and traded
around the world. Horticulture contributes to the
preservation of many rare palms from around the world
that are at risk of extinction (Broschat et al., 2017). A
significant number of palm species are now being
represented by more individuals in cultivation or outside
Madagascar than are found in the wild. For example, the
species Dypsis lutescens has been able to naturalize in
territories such as the Andaman Islands, Reunion, El
Salvador, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Canary Islands, South
Florida, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Solomon
Islands and the West Indies (Chiduruppa et al., 2018).
The morphological and taxonomic diversity of palms
in Madagascar has led to the success of some species as
ornamental or indoor plants. It is difficult to have a
complete list of palms present and cultivated abroad, but
according to Beech et al. (2020), at least 142 species of
palms from Madagascar benefit from ex situ
conservation measures in botanical gardens around the
4 Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites contain the entire population of
one or more species listed as Endangered (EN) or Critically Endangered
(CR) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
world. Some species, very popular and emblematic of
Madagascar such as the Bismarck palm (Bismarckia
nobilis), the golden palm or cane palm (Dypsis lutescens),
the triangle palm (Dypsis decaryi) and the majesty palm
or river ravenea (Ravenea rivularis, Figure 40), are
cultivated and constitute living collections in more than
60 botanical gardens (Table 11).
Figure 40. Mature trees of Ravenea rivularis cultivated in
the Stan Walkley's Garden, Brisbane, Australia. (Photo W.
Baker).
According to GBIF (2020), the botanical gardens with
the most species in their living palm collections are
Wilson Botanic Garden in Costa Rica, Fairchild Tropical
Garden, Florida, USA and Hawaii Tropical Garden, USA
(Table 12). Inside Madagascar, the Botanical and
Zoological Park of Tsimbazaza, Antananarivo, the
Ranomafana Arboretum, Ifanadiana and the Ivoloina
Park (Figure 41), Toamasina stand out from other
botanical gardens for their floristic richness in native
palms.
34
Table 11. List of the most represented palms of
Madagascar in botanical gardens around the world (Source
GBIF).
Species
Number of
ex situ
places
1.
Bismarckia nobilis
87
2. Dypsis lutescens 82
3.
Dypsis decaryi
73
4. Ravenea rivularis 60
5.
Dypsis leptocheilos
32
6. Dypsis madagascariensis 26
7.
Tahina spectabilis
24
8. Beccariophoenix madagascariensis 23
9.
Ravenea glauca
23
10. Dypsis decipiens 18
11.
Ravenea xerophila
18
12. Dypsis lastelliana 16
13.
Beccariophoenix alfredii
15
14. Dypsis baronii 13
15.
Dypsis ambositrae
12
Table 12. The three botanical gardens outside of
Madagascar with the most species of Malagasy palms in
their collection of living plants.
Botanical
garden
Number
of
species
Species
Wilson
Botanical
Garden, Costa
Rica
18
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis,
Bismarckia nobilis, Dypsis
ambositrae, D. arenarum, D. baronii,
D. decaryi, D. decipiens, D. fibrosa,
D. lastelliana, D. madagascariensis,
D. mananjarensis, D. nodifera, D.
rivularis, D. scottiana, D. utilis,
Marojejya insigins, Ravenea rivularis,
R. xerophila
Fairchild
Tropical
Garden, USA
15
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis,
Bismarckia nobilis
Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis
carlsmithii, D. crinita, D. decaryi, D.
leptocheilos, D. lutescens, D.
madagascariensis, D. malcomberi,
D. utilis, Ravenea glauca, R.
rivularis, R. xerphila. Tahina
spectabilis
Hawaii
Tropical
Botanical
Garden
12
Beccariophoenix alfredii, B.
fenestralis, Bismarckia nobilis,
Dypsis leptocheilos, D. lutescens, D.
madagascariensis, D. paludosa, D.
pinnatifrons, Marojejya darianii,
Ravenea rivularis, Tahina
spectabilis.
Figure 41. Juvenile of Marojejya darianii in Ivoloina Park,
Toamasina. The plant was obtained from a sowing of seeds in 2005
(photo: C. Birkinshaw).
Horticulture has greatly contributed to the
knowledge and conservation of the palms of
Madagascar, but it can also be an element in the loss of
genetic and specific diversity at the local level:
(a) Many localities of extremely threatened palms or
even the discovery of new species have been highlighted
by horticulture, sometimes from unexpected sites or in
areas where palms are generally rare or absent. For
example, the occurrence of the rare species
Lemurophoenix halleuxii and Voanioala gerardii in
southern Makira was reported by a seed collector from
Maroantsetra. Field checks at this site noted that the
population size of each of the populations of these two
species is significantly larger than those initially known
from the Masoala Peninsula (Shapcott et al., 2012). One
species, Beccariophoenix alfredii, has been located and
described based on information provided by seed
collectors (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2007). In addition, six
species have been identified and described from
specimens grown outside Madagascar (Table 13); these
plants are obtained from seeds collected in situ, with
uncertain scientific names at the time of export, but
clearly from undescribed species when their individuals
matured and began to flower in gardens (e.g. Dransfield
& Marcus, 2018; Hodel & Marcus, 2004). To date, all
species described from cultured samples have been
located in the wild (figure 42) except for Lemurophoenix
laevis, Dypsis leucomalla and D. plumosa.
35
Table 13. List of palms presumed to be native to Madagascar but described from samples collected in cultivation.
Species
Year of description and
origin of the holotype5 First observation of the species in Madagascar
Dypsis albofarinosa
2004, Hawaii
2010, Andringitra
Dypsis carlsmithii
2002, Hawaii
2005, Masoala
Dypsis leptocheilos
1993, Tahiti
In 1906, Perrier de la Bâthie collected a palm tree that had long remained
unidentified. The species was properly described in 1993, knowing that it
was one of the most exported species at the time. The first botanical
collection for this species took place in 2007 in the Maevatanana region
even though seed exporters had already reported its presence (still kept in
secret) at different sites in the west of the island.
Dypsis leucomalla
2013, Hawaii
Not yet located in the wild but probably in the Toamasina region.
Dypsis plumosa
2009, Hawaii
Not yet located in Madagascar
Dypsis robusta
2005, Hawaii
2011, Ranomafana Arboretum
Dypsis rosea
2014, Hawaii
Marojejy, the illustration used for Dypsis pinnatifrons by Dransfield and
Beentje (1995) in the book "The Palms of Madagascar" (p. 338)
corresponds in fact to this species (Dransfield et al., 2014).
Lemurophoenix laevis
2018, Hawaii
Not yet located in Madagascar
Figure 42. The only known mature plant in Madagascar of
Dypsis robusta, Ranomafana Arboretum. The species was described
from plant samples grown in a palm nursery in Hawaii. The individual in
the Ranomafana Arboretum was only identified once it reached its mature
stage (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo).
(b) Many endangered palms are traded internationally
while their seeds still come from their natural populations
in Madagascar. Between 2008 and 2016, only 13 species
have been legally applied for commercial export to the
Madagascar CITES Scientific Authority for Flora (Table 14),
while there are at least a few dozen species whose seeds
are on sale in retail stores around the world. The majority
of palms originating from Madagascar and currently
present in horticulture are so far derived from seeds
coming from the natural environment. Nearly 32 tons of
seeds have been exported from Madagascar for R. rivularis
over 10 years. It is also worth noting the 68 kg of Dypsis
seeds not identified at the species level that have been
commercialized, explaining thus the discovery of new
species on palms grown outside the island (see Table 13).
At present, nine species are listed in the Appendices of the
convention (CITES, 2002): Dypsis decipiens in Appendix I
and Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D. decaryi,
Lemurophoenix halleuxii, Marojejya darianii, Ravenea
louvelii, R. rivularis, Satranala decussilvae and Voanioala
gerardii in Appendix II. While these species have been
proposed to the Convention (CITES, 2010, 2002) in order to
conserve their often small, fragmented and locally
threatened natural populations, export of their seeds
continue and the quantity demanded is constantly
increasing. For example, the quantity of seeds exported of
R. rivularis ranged from 1,500 to 6,550 kg/year between
2002 and 2011; an annual quota of seeds to be exported
equal to 4,500 kg was defined in 2014 in order to preserve
the regeneration of natural populations (UNEP and WCMC,
2014).
5 In botany, a holotype is a herbarium specimen from which a new species has been described for the first time; it is thus the reference element attached to the scientific
name.
36
Table 14. List of palms legally exported, having been the subject of a
legal request to the Madagascar CITES Scientific Authority for Flora
between 2008 and 2016
Species
Quantity of
exported seed (kg)
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis
40
Bismarckia nobilis
500
Dypsis baronii
20
Dypsis decaryi
836
Dypsis sp.
68.5
Dypsis fanjana
0.4
Dypsis lutescens
30
Dypsis onilahensis
100
Lemurophoenix haleuxii
25
Ravenea glauca
42
Ravenea rivularis
31,971
Ravenea sambiranensis
30
Tahina spectabilis
25
Conservation efforts at the local level are among the
most effective actions to reduce the risk of extinction of
many rare and endangered species. One example is the
project for the conservation of two palms in the Itremo
Massif, Dypsis ambositrae and D. decipiens, in 2012 by the
Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre. During the course of
this project 320 seedlings of D. ambositrae and 642
seedlings of D. decipiens were produced, half of which were
reintroduced into their natural environment. To strengthen
the implementation and impact of this project, various
activities were carried out with local populations, including
conservation workshops with local communities, an
awareness program in the Maharitrafo radio station of
Mangataboahangy (Figure 43) and environmental actvities
in the primary schools of Itremo and Amborompotsy. At
these schools students of the fourth grade classes
participated in a drawing competition on their perception
of palm tree conservation in the Itremo Massif (Figure 44).
In addition to the ecological capacity building acquired by
the pupils, the renovation of the vegetable gardens of the
two public schools enabled them to raise funds from the
sale of vegetables sold at the market. This income was then
used to continue the activities of the vegetable garden and
to organize an excursion for the students to the Itremo
forests (Rakotoarinivo & Rajaovelona, 2013).
Figure 43. Animated media presentation in the Maharitrafo
radio station of Mangataboahangy, Itremo, to raise
awareness on environmental protection and the conservation
of the Dypsis decipiens palm tree.
Figure 44. Winning illustrations from the drawing competition
on palms and their environments in primary schools around
the Itremo Massif.
In 2008, shortly after its discovery and description as a
new genus and species, a careful controlled harvest of
seeds of Tahina spectabilis was made, with seed widely
distributed in Madagascar and a significant legal export of
seed to Europe, where the batches of seeds were
distributed to botanical gardens and palm growers
worldwide. The sale of these seed batches generated
significant income that was repatriated to Madagascar, to
the villagers near to the at-the-time only known site. These
funds were used to establish fire breaks and fencing to
protect the palm population and to improve the village
school buildings and purchase agricultural equipment for
37
the use of villagers. Thus, villagers realised the value of
conserving this extraordinary palm. Since then, the palm
has been discovered in a few other sites. In 2017, the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew worked on the implementation of
sustainable management of Tahina spectabilis by setting up
an action plan for the conservation of the species (Gardiner
et al. 2017). The action plan includes the following
activities:
- Creation and maintenance of firebreaks;
- Erection and maintenance of fences to prevent
zebu trampling seedlings;
- Community monitoring and reporting on Tahina
population demographics, initiation of flowering, possible
harvesting activity, and presence of pests;
- Education and awareness raising of local people,
and especially children, about the species and its
importance;
- Dissemination of a protocol for seed collection and
sustainable sales after future fruiting events;
- Creation of an ex situ population in the Anjajavy
Protected Area;
- Population demographics and genetic study of the
species across all sites and species distribution modelling
carried out to better understand the biology and future of
this species.
I.7 - Policy and Strategic Context
The Government of Madagascar made a commitment to
prioritize a number of key elements to achieve the National
Environment Program, particularly in terms of raising public
awareness and involving citizens in changing their behavior
and attitudes towards the environment.
The effectiveness of the measures taken in this forestry
policy is ensured by a legal and regulatory framework in
which the activities implemented by all stakeholders are
guided by joint action plans for the conservation of
Madagascar's biodiversity.
I.7.1 - Implementation of environmental
policy
In relation to the conservation of palm diversity and the
preservation of their phytogenetic resources, the following
treaties and framework documents are of particular
importance:
a) Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD
: In line with
the Aichi objectives (UNEP & WCMC, 2013) suggested by
the CBD, Madagascar has developped the document
"National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, NBSAP"
(MEEF, 2016) in order to ensure the continuity of ecological
functions and ecosystem services provided by biodiversity
in the well-being and socio-economic development of the
human population. For this strategy, the support of all
stakeholders is expected by 2025 to reduce biodiversity loss
and degradation in Madagascar. The implementation of the
NBSAP is fundamental to the conservation of Madagascar's
palms given the irreplaceable economic and social value of
many species across the island. The guidelines for actions in
response to biodiversity loss must be a joint decision
between the competent authorities and all stakeholders; an
essential element to ensure citizen awareness and
sustainable development (Schultz et al., 2016).
The conservation and sustainable use of palms is
organized around five strategic objectives recognized in the
NBSAP:
- Raising awareness about the value of biodiversity,
the causes of its impoverishment and the consequences of
its destruction in ecological, economic and cultural terms
(awareness raising, communication and education of
stakeholders, sharing of knowledge and the biodiversity
science base to guide decision making and to generate
investment for biodiversity conservation).
- Minimizing direct pressures on biodiversity:
sustainable use through good governance, sound
management and reduction of loss or degradation of
habitats and ecosystems.
- The need to improve and enhance the status of
biological diversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and
genetic diversity such as the creation and management of
terrestrial protected areas.
- The strengthening of the benefits derived from
biological diversity for all and the services provided by
ecosystems in the framework of sustainable management
of biodiversity (restoration of at least 15% of degraded
areas, the fight against desertification, implementation of
the Nagoya Protocol).
- Strengthening the implementation of participatory
planning, knowledge management and capacity building,
and the establishment of systems to protect.
As a signatory of the CBD, Madagascar had to develop
a national strategy for plant conservation, but to date, this
has not yet been done. The last report on the
implementation of the NBSAP (Randriamahaleo, 2018)
stated that traditional knowledge on plants is documented
and protected but remains very disparate as it comes
mainly from conservation sites. This report recommends
the need for capacity building and training in the field,
more specifically in the following areas:
- the strengthening of the institutional framework for
the implementation of actions,
- improving the quality and availability of the human
resources needed to carry out priority actions, and,
38
- raising the awareness of the general public,
particularly those who, in their profession or daily life, are
users of biodiversity.
(b) Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES
: The level of
exploitation of endemic palms as horticultural plants in
Madagascar is quite high. To date, nine species of palms are
included in the list of taxa regulated by CITES; this list needs
to be updated in relation to the exploitation data available
at the level of the CITES Management Authority. Exploited
quantities are also governed by the concept of non-
detriment findings (ACNP) to ensure sustainable
exploitation and survival of natural populations. ACNP is
issued by the CITES Scientific Authority after an intensive
study of the population dynamics and reproductive biology
of the species concerned. The quota determines the
maximum number of specimens that may be exported in a
given year without negatively affecting the survival of the
species (CITES, 2016). For the moment, only Ravenea
rivularis among the 9 species of palms from Madagascar
listed in the CITES Appendices, has an annual exploitation
quota set at 4,500 kg (UNEP & WCMC, 2014).
c) Protected Areas:
Madagascar has decided to develop
its natural assets and promote the sustainable use of
natural resources for poverty reduction. In 2003, the
government launched the "Durban Vision" by extending the
size of terrestrial protected areas on the island to 6 million
hectares. This process led to the creation of the protected
area system, which currently includes 126 conservation
areas managed by Madagascar National Parks and nature
conservation NGOs. Covering major habitats capable to
sustain viable populations of flora and fauna, Madagascar's
terrestrial protected area networks aim to maintain
biological diversity and ecological processes essential to life
by allowing the genetic exchanges necessary for species
stability (FAPBM, 2015).
Since some threatened palm species and populations
are found only within a few protected areas (see Table 10),
the implementation of the development and management
plan for each of these conservation areas is essential to
preserve the extinction of species that are mainly
threatened by non-rational uses or illegal exploitation.
d)
General State Policy:
This document constitutes a
general policy framework for the inclusive and sustainable
development to combat against poverty, vulnerability and
precariousness (République de Madagascar, 2014). Within
this global framework and consistent with the Environment
Code (Law No. 2015 - 003), the Forest Policy (Politique
Forestière, POLFOR) has been developed with a global
vision that "all stakeholders should work together to ensure
that Malagasy forest resources are protected and
developed in a sustainable, rational and responsible
manner" (MEEF, 2016). Thus, the strategy for the
conservation and sustainable management of palm trees
contributes to the achievement of the objective of this
forestry policy "to ensure the sustainable and efficient
management of Madagascar's forest assets". The efforts to
be undertaken to conserve and preserve the palms of
Madagascar will particularly strengthen the:
- " Forest restoration/afforestation ", by advocating
restoration actions with indigenous species, of which some
palm species are part,
- "Forestry exploitation, valorization and marketing
of woody and non-woody forest products of plant origin",
providing information on the methods of exploitation of
palm trees and the quantities extracted in the natural
environment.
Madagascar is one of the 28 African countries that have
officially committed to AFR100 (African Forest Landscape
Restoration Initiative) with an initial pledge to implement
the restoration of 4 million hectares by 2030 (MEEF, 2017).
Endemic palms may be candidates among the taxa used in
forest restoration.
I.7.2- Gaps related to the conservation of
palms
In recent years, considerable progress has been made in
studies and research on the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity in Madagascar. However, Madagascar
faces many constraints for the implementation of its
commitments towards the conservation and sustainable
use of its biological resources. As far as palm conservation
is concerned, the main problems are:
The lack of forest or park agents influences the quality
of control or patrols in natural forests; this favours the
development of illegal harvesting of forest resources, often
leading to the loss of mature individuals. This is the case of
rare palms that are in great demand locally or in
horticulture, such as Beccariophoenix alfredii, Voanioala
gerardii and Dypsis tsaravoasira.
Reforestation faces investment problems. It does not
yet compensate for degradation, since it generally only
covers around 0.40% of the total annual area destroyed or
damaged by fire, exploitation or clearing (Global Forest
39
Watch, 2020). However, within the framework of AFR100,
the State is implementing the restoration of degraded
natural forests through the principle of reforestation for
enrichment with local natural species (MEEF, 2017).
Logging companies are rarely professionals and behave
like operators concerned above all with short-term profit.
This is why the means and methods of exploitation that
they implement do not integrate any concern for the
sustainability of natural resources.
Felling techniques have repercussions on palm trees
and their habitats. Sometimes even palm trees are felled to
provide them with food or temporary shelter (hut).
The absence of a specific law on the protection and
management of threatened or vulnerable plant species
makes it difficult to combat illegal logging, particularly for
rare but highly prized palms in horticulture. The collection
of these species is often done in an irrational way: cutting
down adult plants to gain access to seeds or uprooting
regeneration individuals. Many palm seedlings are sold in
local markets or along national roads without the
merchants having certificates of origin or authorization to
sell these species.
40
II. ACTION PLAN
Palms seedlings in the shadehouse of the Parc Botanique et Zooologique de
Tsimbazaza (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo)
41
VISION
"By 2025, Madagascar's great richness in palm species is
properly managed (conserved and sustainably used) by all
relevant stakeholders, including local populations".
MISSION
To achieve this vision, it is important to explore,
conserve and explain the importance of Madagascar's
palms by setting as mission "to stop the factors implying the
decline in palm diversity through the conservation and
sustainable use of all species and the restoration of their
endangered habitats".
This strategy is intended to promote the sustainable
management of palms with concrete and participatory
actions for the conservation and sustainable use of species
diversity.
For the next years, it is crucial to:
- Work with all stakeholders (people, NGOs, public
and private sectors) to advance ideas and innovations in
implementing conservation efforts,
- Reduce pressures on species (direct pressures
and/or pressures on habitats),
- To ensure that the benefits arising from the use of
genetic resources are shared in a fair and equitable
manner,
- Integrate the conservation capacities of all
stakeholders based on sound science and the processes
required by national legislation on the use of natural
resources.
OBJECTIVES
In relation to the strategic goals of the Aichi objectives
(UNEP & WCMC, 2013), five strategic goals are to be
considered for the sustainable conservation of palms while
taking into account their positive consequences and
contributions to sustainable development. These goals
provide a general framework for the implementation of the
Convention on Biodiversity and compliance with the
Nagoya Protocol in order to achieve the objectives of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Schultz et al.,
2016), and national priorities identified in the NBSAP
(MEEF, 2016).
6 Xper3, La plateforme collaborative de gestion de données de
biodiversité : http://www.xper3.fr
7 Palmweb – Palms of the world online : http://www.palmweb.org
Objective I: To understand, to document and
to recognize the diversity of palms of
Madagascar
The implementation of the conservation measures for
species and their habitats requires first of all that the
species concerned are well defined and accepted: an
unresolved basic taxonomy means that measures taken at
the species level cannot effectively address the taxa most in
need of conservation.
Target 1: An online flora of all known species.
Initiatives to be undertaken
- To combine, share scientific knowledge and
coordinate research efforts on the palms of Madagascar.
- To revise the taxonomic classification of the palms
of Madagascar: the ongoing phylogenetic analyses of the
palms of Madagascar (MadClades project of RBG Kew) will
allow to solve the taxonomic problems concerning the
identification of certain species or genera.
- To produce an identification key at the specific
level so that the public can synthetically recognize the
characters that distinguish one species from another. The
Xper36 platform, an online interactive identification key, is
an example of a tool for presenting and using descriptive
data on palms to the general, non-specialized public.
Reasons
For a better conservation of the palms of Madagascar, it
is essential to have access to scientific data so that the
public can improve their knowledge of the species, the
ecosystems and what threatens these species. Several
studies on taxonomy, ecological preferences and species
biology have already been carried out but there are still
many fields of research that are still insufficiently explored
such as plant-animal relationships or ecosystem services
provided by palms. A new update of the monograph of
palms is needed and the basic information indispensable
for the identification of palms such as illustrations and
detailed scientific information should be systematically
available to the public, thus to be included in taxonomic
websites such as Palmweb7 and Tropicos - Catalogue des
Plantes de Madagascar8 . In addition, nomenclatural data
are constantly updated on sites such as "IPNI9" and "The
PlantList10". The existence of scientific publications is often
8 Tropicos : Catalogue of the Plants of Madagascar:
http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Madagascar
9 International Plant Names Index : https://www.ipni.org
10 The plant list: http://www.theplantlist.org
42
ignored by the public, so it is important to make them more
visible and accessible to biodiversity professionals.
The data compiled online will make it possible to report
on the different threats and conservation issues for each
species, particularly for little-known species and in
unexplored regions. Botanists or field agents could
potentially locate these plants during their expeditions.
Target 2: An updated assessment of the
conservation status of native species.
Action to be undertaken
- (Re)Assess the extinction risk of each species according to
the IUCN Red List criteria and categories (2012).
Reasons
The IUCN Red List is not just a registry of names and
associated threat categories. Its true value lies in the fact
that it is a rich collection of information on the ecological
and geographical requirements of species while highlighting
the types of threats to be addressed and the challenges to
their conservation (IUCN, 2020).
The last assessment of the majority of Madagascar's
palms according to the IUCN Red List criteria was made in
2012. Species newly described after this date have not yet
been formally assessed. As the IUCN (2017) suggests, the
category of each species should be re-evaluated every 5
years if possible, or at least every 10 years. The information
collected since 2012 should provide more refined
assessments for many species, given the new data on
occurrence but also on the outbreak of certain types of
threats to the species. The Madagascar Plant Specialist
Group (MPSG), as the Red List authority in Madagascar with
its national partners and with the support of specialists of
this taxon could take the lead in the new re-evaluation. The
latter is particularly important for species listed in the CITES
Appendices in order to have tangible scientific data for the
setting of export quotas.
Objective II: To conserve the diversity of palm
species in Madagascar
With the reduction and fragmentation of the remaining
natural areas, it is becoming increasingly important to
understand the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of
small populations in protected areas in order to preserve
them for a period when future restoration of natural areas
may allow for expansion of their range.
Target 3: The conservation of palms is guaranteed
through effective management of their natural
habitats.
Actions to be undertaken
- To provide to the forestry administration the
biological and ecological information necessary for
supporting the relevant information for the proposal of a
legal framework to protect declared threatened plants and
their natural habitats.
- To establish research or conservation programmes
promoting the survival of threatened or vulnerable species
and the protection and management of existing habitats,
and the restoration of deteriorated habitats.
Reasons
In addition to the designation of protected areas, legal
frameworks that are specifically designed to conserve
endangered species must be created. Priority should be
given to conserving endemic species where they grow, and
this may include urban landscapes and production areas,
natural as well as semi-natural habitats.
It will be useful to develop individual species cards for
those species encountered in protected areas or in a
particular region to facilitate monitoring of species
populations in reserves and the precise identification of
sites colonized by palms. Such tool will include information
on the nomenclature of the species (scientific name and
vernacular name), illustrations and a summary of distinctive
features that will allow instant recognition of the species.
Palm species should be considered in conservation
targets in protected areas. Usually, visitors to these sites,
both national and international, are aware of the wildlife;
plants are rarely considered.
Target 4: Important areas of palm diversity are
identified and integrated into the conservation
process.
Actions to be undertaken
- To use the scientific knowledge currently available
and to be generated in the future on palms in Madagascar
for supporting the conservation rationale that is shared in
the national biodiversity reports.
- To continue explorations for locating new
populations for rare and threatened species.
43
Reasons
Fundamental research on palms is among the most
advanced studies carried out on groups of plants in the
flora of Madagascar. The information currently available is
of vital importance for the management of biodiversity in
Madagascar.
The majority of the sites recognized as species-rich
(Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013) already benefit from protection
measures following the extension of Madagascar's
protected areas system since 2007. This makes it possible
to maintain natural evolutionary processes and thus
generate new variations in the gene pool that will help
species adapt to changing environmental conditions.
In order to better understand the diversity of palms and
to be able to provide measures adapted to each species, it
is important to continue botanical explorations aimed at
locating new populations. Field experiments over the last
two decades have concluded that poorly explored and
sheltered forests are often the last habitats of rare or
extremely threatened species. Based on the current
knowledge trend, future efforts to catalog Madagascar
palms should focus on certain key biodiversity areas where
rare and infrequent palm populations may still persist
(Table 15).
Table 15. Key areas of biodiversity not yet explored or little studied but considered a priority for cataloguing the diversity of
palms in Madagascar.
Region
Key Biodiversity Area
Potentially rare palms
DIANA
Bemanevika and Bealanana
Dypsis andapae, D. curtisii, D. heteromorpha, D. montana,
tsaratananensis, Ravenea nana
Corridor Marojejy – Tsaratanana
(COMATSA)
Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. curtisii, D. heteromorpha, Ravenea nana
SAVA/Analanjirofo
Makira Natural Park (north part, corridor
with Anjanaharibe-Sud)
Dypsis andapae, D. ankirindro, D. brittiana, D. humilis, D. makirae, D.
minuta, D. rakotonasoloi, Ravenea nana
Analanjirofo Makira Natural Park (south part)
Dypsis brittiana, D. ceracea, D. makirae, D. monostachya, D.
rakotonasoloi, Lemurophoenix halleuxii, Satranala decussilvae, Voanioala
gerardii
Analanjirofo Classified forest of Bezavona-Bidia
Dypsis andilamensis, D. ceracea, D. curtisii, D. humbertii, D. jeremiei, D.
lanuginosa, D. linearis, D. pulchella, D. soanieranae, D. turkii, Ravenea
delicatula.
Analanjirofo/ Alaotra-
Mangoro
Corridor Ankeniheny – Zahamena
(northeast part)
Dypsis anjae, D. canaliculata, D. ceracea, D. humbertii, D. remotiflora, D.
sancta, D. schatzii, D. turkii, Ravenea lakatra
Corridor Ankeniheny – Zahamena : south
part
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Dypsis lutea, D. pilulifera, Ravenea
julietiae, R. latisecta, R. louvelii
Alaotra-Mangoro
Ankeniheny – Lakato
Dypsis angusta, D. lutea, D. pilulifera, D. thiryana, Ravenea lakatra
Atsinanana
Littoral forest of the north of Pangalanes.
Dypsis ambilaensis, D. arenarum, D. psammophila, D. saintelucei
Classified forest of Onive & Corridor
Fandriana – Marolambo
Dypsis pulchella, D. sahanofensis, D. thyriana, Ravenea latisecta
Haute-Matsiatra
Corridor Fandriana-Vondrozo : between
Ranomafana and Andringitra
Dypsis angusta, D. basilonga, D. robusta, D. thermarum, Ravenea lakatra,
R. nana
Atsimo-Atsinanana
High Mnanara : south of Vondrozo
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D. dracaenoides, D. culminis, D.
elegans, D. eriostachys, D. gronophyllum, D. mcdonaldiana, D. nauseosa,
D. saintelucei, D. simianensis, D. tanalensis, D. tenuissima, Ravenea
beentjei, R. hypoleuca, R. julietiae, R. krociana
Protected areas of Vohipaho &
Ankarabolava-Agnakatriky
(Vangaindrano)
Dypsis angusta, D. digitata, D. elegans, D. integra, D. simianensis
Anosy Massif of Beampingaratsy
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Dypsis brevicaulis, D. culminis, D.
elegans, D. henrici, D. lilacina, D. malcomberi, D. mcdonaldiana, D.
pustulata, Ravenea declivium, R. hypoleuca, R. krociana, R. nana
Bongolava
Tsinjoarivo
Dypsis oropedionis, D. onilahensis
Melaky
Kasijy
Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis leptocheilos, Ravenea rivularis
44
Target 5: At least 75% of threatened species are
conserved in situ
Actions to be undertaken
- To produce field guides or data cards on local
species for sites particularly rich in palm trees in order to
strengthen the capacities of forestry agents, environmental
technicians and local populations in the monitoring of rare
and endangered palms.
- To promote science that involves local
communities in the collection of information useful for the
implementation of a management and conservation plan
for endangered species.
- To prepare and disseminate locally technical
manuals for the management of natural regeneration of
palm trees and artificial propagation in nurseries for their
reintroduction into natural habitats.
Reasons
In situ conservation often appears to be the best option
for preserving some species because their survival depends
mainly on particular ecological conditions. These are the
cases for high mountain species such as Dypsis pumila
(Marojejy peak, 2100m altitude) or Ravenea nana (on
exposed peaks between Tsaratanana and Fianarantsoa).
The lack of information on threatened palms in each
conservation site is a major obstacle to achieving this goal.
Collaboration with each site manager is strongly
recommended to achieve this target, particularly by
providing basic information for the methods of
identification of the different species.
The involvement of local communities around in situ
conservation is accomplished by combining together
information on the law with the restriction of the rights
allowing the sustainable exploitation (right of use), or the
legal creation of "community reserve" managed by the local
communities.
Target 6: At least 50% of threatened species are
conserved ex-situ.
Actions to be undertaken
- To sample and to cultivate species from poorly
known areas and clades in order to better represent
genetic diversity in cultivation,
- To give guidance on the knowledge of the flora of
the palms of Madagascar in botanical gardens,
- To promote the use of endemic palms in
reforestation and in public places and schools in order to
raise public awareness about the diversity and value of
endemic species.
Reasons
The implementation of an ex-situ conservation strategy
in parallel with an in-situ strategy is advantageous
especially for very rare species that may become extinct in
the wild. The efforts already undertaken at the Tsimbazaza
Botanical and Zoological Park, the Ranomafana Arboretum
and the Ivoloina Park should be continued and extended.
The cultivated palm trees will be used as mother plants for
the collection of seeds for restoration and reintroduction
activities in the natural environment (Target 7) and for
planting in schools and other public places.
Target 7: Threatened species are included in
recovery and reintroduction programs in the wild.
Actions to be undertaken
- To collect seeds from mature palm trees cultivated
in urban areas or botanical gardens to provide seedlings for
the restoration and enrichment of natural populations of
endangered species,
- To study the ability of species and the chances of
survival of seedlings produced in culture to re-establish or
acclimatize quickly in the original habitats.
Reasons
The propagation of cultivated endangered species can
contribute significantly to preserving the diversity of palms.
However, this alone is not a viable alternative because
limited resources and facilities (laboratories, greenhouses,
trained horticulturists, etc.) and unavoidable genetic
changes due to genetic drift and random selection in
artificial environments can make it difficult to re-establish
cultivated strains into the wild. Initiatives undertaken at ex
situ sites such as the Ranomafana Arboretum, the Parc
Botanique et Zooologique de Tsimbazaza, and the Ivoloina
Park to multiply rare and endangered species must
continue. The experiences and capacities acquired during
the last three years are to be popularized and shared with
anyone wishing to work on the restoration of the palms of
Madagascar.
Objective III: Palms are used sustainably and
equitably
Target 8: No indigenous palms are threatened by
the trade
Actions to be undertaken
- Collaborate with the CITES Plants Committee in
Madagascar to inform decisions to be taken for the in situ
conservation of species threatened by international trade,
45
by providing the quotas of exploitable seeds, the
knowledge on the conservation status of the species and its
role in the ecosystem,
- To provide training to CITES officers and forestry
administration officers in the regions or at the level of
customs controls so that they can recognize the diagnostic
characteristics of each species in the seeds or other plant
material likely to be exported.
- Prioritize, at the national level, the ex situ
propagation of palms in order to reduce pressure on
species in the wild.
Reasons
The trade of palms taken from the wild has increased to
the extent at which a certain number of species have been
harvested to near extinction. According to the CITES
Convention (1983), an export permit can only be issued by
the State Scientific Authority if the export will not be
detrimental to the survival of the species. Today, the
biological and ecological information, essential for making
decisions on export applications for different species, exists
but is not compiled to be properly exploited. The
Madagascar Palm Seed Guide published by the Scientific
Authority (Rakouth & Roger, 2011) is an indispensable tool
in this field. However, it would be necessary to revise the
book by including more species, including those that have
been the most commercialized and exported over the last
decade.
While recognizing the country's right to trade wild
specimens sustainably, it is important to give priority to the
ex situ propagation of palms. Artificial propagations will
reduce pressure on wild populations as fewer plants will be
taken from them. Many cultivated species introduced into
cultivation two or three decades ago have now flowered
and yielded viable seeds. This will increase the quality and
quantity of specimens on the national and international
market, making competition with trade in wild-collected
specimens more economically viable.
Economic operators who wish to export seedlings or
young plants abroad will not be able to have collected them
from the wild. These palms must come from propagation in
their own gardens or greenhouses and this must be verified
by the competent authorities before the export permit is
issued.
Target 9: All products from wild harvested palm
are obtained in a sustainable way.
Actions to be undertaken
- To ensure that supply chain practices for palm
products integrate the social and environmental aspects of
collection sites, encourage fair and equitable benefit
sharing and the participation of local communities,
- To promote collaboration between the various
NGOs and concerned stakeholders to undertake an
inventory and evaluation of useful palm products and
exploited by local populations or in urban areas, and raw
and processed exported palm products (e.g. raffia fibers
and handicrafts).
Reasons
As non-timber forest products, palms are exploited by
people who rely on natural resources for their livelihoods
(Bennet, 2011). For their own subsistence, these
communities have developed preferences for the products
to be harvested on the basis of their traditional history of
extraction and use. In many cases, however, using these
products to generate income has led to the loss of many
palms at the local level, which is particularly problematic for
rare and endangered species. Extraction methods are often
destructive and unsustainable, through the cutting down of
reproductive adults. The recent declines of some species of
tree palms such as Dypsis tsaravoasira, Marojejya insignis
or Voanioala gerardii are unfortunately attributed more to
the consumption of their edible heart than to other types
of threats related to habitat or horticulture.
The process of behavior change begins with the
transmission of information that motivate people to
participate in conservation. Creating an enabling
environment for people to understand and explore the
world around them can lead to positive conservation
behavior.
Target 10: Indigenous practices and traditional
knowledge associated with plant resources are
maintained or enhanced to support sustainable
livelihoods.
Actions to be undertaken
- To strengthen the support to local communities in
maintaining their intellectual heritage against globalization
and to achieve sustainable development,
- -To encourage the competent authorities to
integrate an ecosystem approach of traditional knowledge
in national sustainable development policies.
Reasons
Gaps in ethnobotanical data on palms represent not
only the potential loss of traditional local knowledge, but
also the loss of information that could provide important
information for biodiversity and ecosystem management.
46
Traditional knowledge is now being integrated into
biodiversity conservation management projects such as in
the framework of the Intergovernmental Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Traditional
knowledge about palms has the potential to advance
medicine, food security and agricultural practices.
However, despite organized efforts to preserve
traditional knowledge, many traditional practices and
lifestyles are being abandoned or forgotten as a result of
globalization. Indigenous knowledge holders should be
equitably compensated when their knowledge is accessed
and when commercial research is conducted in their
communities.
Objective IV: To promote education and
awareness of plant diversity, its role in
sustainable livelihoods and its importance for
all life on earth.
Rural, urban and business people will each have a
different relationship with plants. Few people live without
at least a few plants at their fingertips. Palms provide
various services to man: food, daily tools, or raw materials.
Once this awareness has been acquired, it becomes
possible to build on the empathy created by the smallest
awakening of interest.
Target 11: The importance of plant diversity and
the need for its conservation through
communication, education and public awareness
programs.
Actions to be undertaken
- To reorient the environmental education strategy
to address the livelihoods, products, and ecosystem
services provided by palms for sustainable development at
local, regional, and national levels.
- To raise awareness of the importance of
conserving palm diversity in national documents or
strategies related to climate change or resource
management.
Reasons
Communication, education and awareness are
important tools for the success of a plan for long-term
conservation and sustainable use. However, simply telling
people about the diversity of palms and what is happening
to them is not enough to ensure that they change their
habits. The success of palm conservation at the local and
national level will only be achieved with the transfer of
knowledge and skills related to plant conservation. It is
11 Botanic Gardens Conservation International, whose Africa Chapter is based in
Nairobi.
essential to integrate biodiversity issues into development
projects aimed at improving sustainable living conditions.
Objective V: To build the capacity and public
commitment required for the implementation
of the strategy
Target 12: To increase the management capability
of organizations involved in the propagation and
collection of palms.
Actions to be undertaken
- To increase the number of technicians that are
able to reproduce and multiply palms in botanical gardens,
- To engage other development sectors, such as
agriculture, industry, education, forestry, water
management and local communities in the promotion of
ex-situ palm multiplication and conservation.
- To share and exchange palm seedlings between
different botanical gardens and conservatories across the
island.
Reasons
Botanical gardens and their scientific associates should
serve as repositories for collections of living palms. By
building up a complete collection, with the necessary staff
and materials, each botanical garden should specialize in
the cultivation of palms that grow well in their climatic
conditions to be used as an ex situ gene pool.
Gardens should systematically collect seeds produced
from their plants, or cross-breed their plants to increase
their genetic base, and then collaborate with horticulturists
with the necessary facilities to germinate the seeds and
then distribute the seedlings to a large number of ex situ
conservation institutes or public gardens. Such activities will
be of great importance in terms of disseminating
information to the public on the existence and importance
of Madagascar's rare palms. A network of public and
private gardens and specialized horticulturists should be
created in order to:
- stimulate collaboration between them, possibly
with the support of the BGCI11,
- to integrate them into initiatives aimed at the
general public (especially schools) or tourists, both national
and international.
The government should stimulate the active
participation of botanical gardens in the implementation of
CITES and the conservation of palms.
47
Conclusion
The erosion of biodiversity affects the diversity of palm
trees in Madagascar because many species persist locally in
juvenile form after some mature plants have been cleared
with the forest. Declining species can regain strength if a
threshold of habitat quality is maintained. Without
adequate protection and management, these threatened
populations are at risk of disappearing in the future
because habitat disturbance and fragmentation provide
suitable conditions for the development of invasive
secondary species, which have negative impacts on
endemic species by reducing the growth rate at different
stages of their life cycle.
The high risk of extinction faced by palms in Madagascar
calls into question the effectiveness of previous
conservation measures taken on the island. In a period of
increasing human population density and pressure on
biodiversity, the long-term success of protected areas is at
the heart of potential solutions for palm conservation. The
most recent extension of the surface area of Madagascar's
protected areas has been essential for the protection of
palms as many species have been able to benefit from new
forms of protection for their habitats. These new protected
areas aim to combine biodiversity conservation and
sustainable development in and around conservation sites.
Nevertheless, the network of protected areas has
limitations; there is often a lack of personnel to carry out
patrols and guards in relation to the size of the parks and
reserves. Operations targeting rare and economically
important species often continue in remote and poorly
monitored sites.
In addition, some priority sites for palm conservation,
usually remote or landlocked forest fragments, are not
included in the current protected areas network. For
example, the only known locality of Beccariophoenix alfredii
is found in small, intact forest patches; its population could
be very sensitive to environmental stochasticity and local
extinction. The protection of this forest is an urgent priority
to conserve this isolated and endemic species. On the other
hand, some small fragments are included in Madagascar's
network of protected areas, such as the area of about 2
km² of degraded coastal plain forest in Analalava (near
Foulpointe) north of Toamasina, which is an exceptional
area with 25 species of palms. This small fragment is
managed locally by Missouri Botanical Garden staff who
promote the site by combining conservation and
ecotourism.
The future of Madagascar's palms depends primarily on
conservation and sustainable use initiatives and decisions
taken at the local level. Given the increasing pressure from
human populations, compounded by the effects of climate
change on species extinction, there is now an urgent need
for priority action for Madagascar's palms. The
conservation strategies and objectives described in this
book provide an essential basis for such a process.
48
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Appendix I (continued)
Appendix
Appendix I: List of indigenous and native palms of Madagascar. Species names follow the accepted nomenclature according to the "World
Checklist of Palms" by Govaerts et al (2020). The distribution range encompasses the general distribution pattern of the species according to the major
geomorphological and geographical subdivisions of the island. The site concept in this table corresponds to a distinct locality not adjacent to any other
known occurrence of the species within a radius of 5km. The altitudinal gradient of the species has been rounded to 100m intervals.
Species Endemic Distribution range
Number
of
known
site(s)
Elevation
(m) Vegetation type(s)
1
Beccariophoenix alfredii
Yes
Highland: Betafo
1
1000-1200
Humid forest
2
Beccariophoenix fenestralis
Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra
1
0-300
Humid forest
3
Beccariophoenix madagasc
ariensis
Yes East: Mantadia - Taolagnaro 5 0-1300 Humid forest
4
Bismarckia nobilis
Yes
West: Antsiranana - Isalo
30
0-800
Grassland
5
Borassus aethiopum
No
Sambirano: Nosy be - Analalava
30+
0-100
Grassland
6
Borassus madagascariensis
Yes West: Antsohihy - Ivohibe 5 0-800 Grassland
7
Dypsis acaulis
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
8 Dypsis acuminum Yes
North: Daraina - Massif
Tsaratanana
4 0-1900 Humid forest
9
Dypsis albofarinosa
Yes
Highland: Andringitra
1
1000-1200
Humid forest
10 Dypsis ambanjae Yes
North: Daraina - Tsaratanana
Mountain
2 600-1200 Humid forest
11 Dypsis ambilaensis Yes
East: Toamasina -
Ampasimanolotra
5 0-900 Humid forest
12
Dypsis ambositrae
Yes
Highland: Ambositra - Itremo
3
1400-1700
Humid forest
13
Dypsis ampasindavae
Yes
Sambirano: Nosy Be -Ambanja
2
0-500
Subumid forest
14 Dypsis andapae Yes
East, Highland: Marojejy -
Mandritsara
3 400-800 Humid forest
15
Dypsis andilamenensis
Yes
Est : Andilamena
1
800-900
Humid forest
16
Dypsis andrianatonga
Yes
North: MaNogarivo - Sambava
8
100-1000
Humid forest
17 Dypsis angusta Yes
East: Ranomafana -
Farafangana
3 0-1000 Humid forest
18 Dypsis angustifolia Yes
East: Toamasina - Anosibe
an'Alal
7 0-1100 Humid forest
19
Dypsis anjae
Yes
East: Zahamena
1
600-800
Humid forest
20
Dypsis ankaizinensis
Yes
North: Massif de Tsaratanana
1
1800-2000
Humid forest
21
Dypsis ankirindro
Yes
East: Makira - Masoala
3
300-800
Humid forest
22
Dypsis antanambensis
Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra
1
200-500
Humid forest
23
Dypsis aquatilis
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
2
0-200
Coastal swampy areas
24 Dypsis arenarum Yes
East: Sainte Marie -
Ampasimanolotra
4 0-100
Littoral forest, coastal
swampy areas
25
Dypsis aurantiaca
Yes
East: Vondrozo
1
600-700
Humid forest
26 Dypsis baronii Yes
Est & Highland: Marojejy -
Midongy Atsimo
28 400-1700 Humid forest
27
Dypsis basilonga
Yes
East: Mananjary - Ikongo
3
200-1100
Humid forest
28
Dypsis beentjei
Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra
1
200-400
Humid forest
29
Dypsis bejofo
Yes
East: Masoala - Toamasina
5
200-700
Humid forest
30
Dypsis bernieriana
Yes
Est : Masoala - Mananjary
7
100-800
Humid forest
31
Dypsis betamponensis
Yes
East: Betampona
1
300-500
Humid forest
32 Dypsis betsimisarakae Yes
Est : Soanierana Ivongo -
Anosibe an'Ala
6 200-1200 Humid forest
33 Dypsis boiviniana Yes
East: Masoala - Soanierana
Ivongo
5 0-300 Humid forest
34
Dypsis bonsai
Yes
East: Marojejy - Zahamena
4
400-900
Humid forest
35
Dypsis bosseri
Yes
East: Fenerive Est - Toamasina
2
0-50
Humid forest
36
Dypsis brevicaulis
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
4
0-400
Humid forest
37
Dypsis brittiana
Yes
East: Makira
1
800-1000
Humid forest
38 Dypsis canaliculata Yes
North & East: Ambanja -
Brickville
3 300-700
Subumid forest, Humid
forest
39
Dypsis canescens
Yes
Sambirano: Ambanja
1
0-100
Subumid forest
Appendix I (continued)
Species Endemic Distribution range
Number
of
known
site(s)
Elevation
(m) Vegetation type(s)
40
Dypsis carlsmithii
Yes
Est : Masoala - Toamasina
2
0-100
Humid forest
41 Dypsis catatiana Yes
Sambirano, Est & Highland:
Ambanja - Taolagnaro
23 100-1900
Subumid forest, Humid
forest
42
Dypsis caudata
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
43
Dypsis ceracea
Yes
East: Andapa - Toamasina
5
400-1200
Humid forest
44
Dypsis commersoniana
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
2
0-100
Humid forest
45
Dypsis concinna
Yes
East: Makira - Ifanadiana
16
300-1200
Humid forest
46
Dypsis confusa
Yes
East: Masoala - Ifanadiana
14
0-1200
Humid forest
47
Dypsis cookei
Yes
East: Marojejy
1
900-1600
Humid forest
48
Dypsis coriacea
Yes
East: Masoala - Vavatenina
5
200-1100
Humid forest
49 Dypsis corniculata Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra -
Toamasina
5 0-900 Humid forest
50 Dypsis coursii Yes
East: Sambava -
Ampasimanolotra
5 200-1900 Humid forest
51 Dypsis crinita Yes
Sambirano & East: Manongarivo
- Ampasimanolotra
13 200-800 Humid forest
52
Dypsis culminis
Yes
East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro
2
100-700
Humid forest
53 Dypsis curtisii Yes
North & East: Tsaratanana -
Soanierana Ivongo
3 300-1700 Humid forest
54 Dypsis decaryi Yes
Sud: Amboasary Atsimo -
Taolagnaro
2 100-500 Dry spiny forest
55 Dypsis decipiens Yes
Highland: Andilamena -
Fianarantsoa
11 1000-1600 Grassland
56
Dypsis delicatula
Yes
East: Toamasina
1
200-500
Humid forest
57
Dypsis digitata
Yes
East: Manajary - Vangaindrano
3
0-100
Humid forest
58
Dypsis dracaenoides
Yes
East: Vondrozo
1
500-700
Humid forest
59
Dypsis dransfieldii
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
60
Dypsis elegans
Yes
East: Mahanoro - Taolagnaro
5
0-700
Humid forest
61
Dypsis eriostachys
Yes
East: Mananjary - Taolagnaro
3
400-800
Humid forest
62
Dypsis faneva
Yes
East: Masoala - Toamasina
6
0-300
Humid forest
63
Dypsis fanjana
Yes
East: Masoala - Zahamena
9
0-900
Humid forest
64
Dypsis fasciculata
Yes
East: Sambava - Ranomafana
17
0-1200
Humid forest
65 Dypsis fibrosa Yes
Sambirano & East: maNogarivo -
Taolagnaro
30+ 0-1100 Humid forest
66
Dypsis forficifolia
Yes
East: Sambava - Toamasina
16
0-1500
Humid forest
67
Dypsis furcata
Yes
East: Masoala - Mahanoro
2
0-300
Humid forest
68
Dypsis gautieri
Yes
East: Daraina
1
900-1100
Humid forest
69
Dypsis glabrescens
Yes
East: Sambava - Toamasina
5
0-600
Humid forest
70
Dypsis gronophyllum
Yes
East: Vondrozo
1
500-600
Humid forest
71
Dypsis henrici
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
1
0-400
Humid forest
72
Dypsis heteromorpha
Yes
North: Tsaratanana - Marojejy
2
1600-1900
Humid forest
73 Dypsis heterophylla Yes
Est & Highland: Sambava -
Ambositra
24 400-1500 Humid forest
74 Dypsis hiarakae Yes
Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo -
Midongy Atsimo
5 300-1000 Humid forest
75
Dypsis hildebrandtii
Yes
East: Zahamena - Ifanadiana
14
0-1500
Humid forest
76 Dypsis hovomantsina Yes
East: Masoala - Soanierana
Ivongo
6 0-600 Humid forest
77
Dypsis humbertii
Yes
East: Ambatovaky - Zahamena
4
300-1300
Humid forest
78
Dypsis humilis
Yes
East: Makira
1
100-200
Humid forest
79
Dypsis ifanadianae
Yes
East: Ifanadiana
1
200-600
Humid forest
80 Dypsis integra Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo -
Midongy Atsimo
7 0-800 Humid forest
81
Dypsis intermedia
Yes
East: Farafangana
1
0-100
Humid forest
82
Dypsis interrupta
Yes
East: Ifanadiana - Farafangana
3
0-600
Humid forest
83
Dypsis jeremiei
Yes
East: Ambatovaky
1
900-1000
Humid forest
84 Dypsis jumelleana Yes
East: Ambatondrazaka -
Vatomandry
12 500-1300 Humid forest
85
Dypsis laevis
Yes
East: Farafangana
1
0-100
Humid forest
86 Dypsis lantzeana Yes
East: Andapa - Soanierana
Ivongo
11 0-900 Humid forest
Appendix I (continued)
Species Endemic Distribution range
Number
of
known
site(s)
Elevation
(m) Vegetation type(s)
87 Dypsis lanuginosa Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo -
Mahanoro
2 300-500 Humid forest
88 Dypsis lastelliana Yes
Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo,
Daraina – Ampasimanolotra
23 0-900 Humid forest
89
Dypsis leptocheilos
Yes
West: Ambilobe - Maintirano
4
0-200
Forêt suhumide
90
Dypsis leucomalla
Yes
***
***
Humid forest
91
Dypsis ligulata
Yes
North: Ambilobe
1
0-100
Forêt suhumide
92
Dypsis lilacina
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
1
400-500
Humid forest
93
Dypsis linearis
Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo
4
400-900
Humid forest
94
Dypsis lokohoensis
Yes
East: Marojejy - Masoala
3
0-1200
Humid forest
95
Dypsis louvelii
Yes
East: Moramanga - Ifanadiana
9
100-1100
Humid forest
96
Dypsis lucens
Yes
East: Maroantsetra
1
400-500
Humid forest
97
Dypsis lutea
Yes
East: Masoala - Vatomandry
5
0-1100
Humid forest
98 Dypsis lutescens Yes East: Daraina - Vangaindrano 17 0-600
Watercourse edge,
coastal swampy areas
99 Dypsis madagascariensis Yes West : Antsiranana - Morondava 10 0-1000
Dry forest, Subumid
forest
100
Dypsis mahia
Yes
East: Farafangana
1
0-100
Humid forest
101
Dypsis makirae
Yes
East: Makira
1
600-1000
Humid forest
102
Dypsis malcomberi
Yes
East: Midongy Atsimo - Befotaka
4
400-1200
Humid forest
103 Dypsis mananjarensis Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra -
Taolagnaro
10 0-800 Humid forest
104 Dypsis mangorensis Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra -
Mahanoro
3 0-200 Humid forest
105 Dypsis marojejyi Yes
East: Marojejy - Anjanaharibe
Sud
2 600-1200 Humid forest
106
Dypsis mcdonaldiana
Yes
East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro
3
0-600
Humid forest
107
Dypsis metallica
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
108
Dypsis mijoroana
Yes
East: Masoala
1
100-200
Humid forest
109
Dypsis minuta
Yes
East: Masoala
1
200-300
Humid forest
110
Dypsis mirabilis
Yes
East: Marojejy
1
0-200
Humid forest
111 Dypsis mocquerysiana Yes
East: Antalaha - Soanierana
Ivongo
11 0-1000 Humid forest
112
Dypsis monostachya
Yes
East: Maroantsetra - Andilamena
2
500-900
Humid forest
113
Dypsis montana
Yes
North: Tsaratanana
1
600-1200
Humid forest
114 Dypsis moorei Yes
East: Masoala -
Ampasimanolotra
2 0-500 Humid forest
115
Dypsis nauseosa
Yes
East: Ifanadiana - Vondrozo
4
0-600
Humid forest
116
Dypsis nodifera
Yes
East: Daraina - Taolagnaro
30+
0-1700
Humid forest
117
Dypsis nossibensis
Yes
Sambirano: Nosy Be
1
0-400
Humid forest
118
Dypsis occidentalis
Yes
North: MaNogarivo - Marojejy
5
400-1700
Humid forest
119 Dypsis onilahensis Yes
Ouest & Highland: Antsiranana -
Amboasary Atsimo
24 300-1400 Subumid forest
120
Dypsis oreophila
Yes
East: Sambava - Andilamena
5
600-1700
Humid forest
121 Dypsis oropedionis Yes
Highland: Ankazobe -
Tsiroanomandidy
2 1100-1500 Humid forest
122
Dypsis ovobontsira
Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra
1
200-400
Humid forest
123
Dypsis ovojavavy
Yes
East: Masoala
1
100-200
Humid forest
124
Dypsis pachyramea
Yes
East: Masoala
7
0-400
Humid forest
125 Dypsis paludosa Yes
East: Masoala -
Ampasimanolotra
6 0-600 Humid forest
126 Dypsis perrieri Yes
East: Masoala -
Ampasimanolotra
7 0-900 Humid forest
127 Dypsis pervillei Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo -
Toamasina
2 300-400 Humid forest
128 Dypsis pilulifera Yes
Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo -
Ampasimanolotra
6 300-1000 Humid forest
129 Dypsis pinnatifrons Yes
Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo,
Daraina - Taolagnaro
24 0-1300 Humid forest
130
Dypsis plumosa
Yes
***
***
Humid forest
131
Dypsis plurisecta
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
132
Dypsis poivreana
Yes
East: Fenerive Est - Toamasina
2
0-100
Humid forest
Appendix I (continued)
Species Endemic Distribution range
Number
of
known
site(s)
Elevation
(m) Vegetation type(s)
133
Dypsis prestoniana
Yes
East: Mahanoro - Taolagnaro
7
0-600
Humid forest
134 Dypsis procera Yes
East: Antalaha -
Ampasimanolotra
13 0-600 Humid forest
135 Dypsis procumbens Yes
Sambirano & East: Manongarivo,
Marojejy - Taolagnaro
27 0-1800 Humid forest
136
Dypsis psammophila
Yes
East: Vohemar - Taolagnaro
8
0-600
Humid forest
137
Dypsis pulchella
Yes
East: Andilamena - Mahanoro
2
300-900
Humid forest
138
Dypsis pumila
Yes
East: Marojejy
1
1900-2100
Mountain thicket
139 Dypsis pusilla Yes
East: Masoala - Mananara
Avaratra
3 0-400 Humid forest
140
Dypsis pustulata
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
1
300-700
Humid forest
141
Dypsis rabepierrei
Yes
East: Masoala
1
100-200
Humid forest
142
Dypsis rakotonasoloi
Yes
East: Makira
1
900-1000
Humid forest
143
Dypsis ramentacea
Yes
East: Mananara Avaratra
1
0-100
Humid forest
144
Dypsis reflexa
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
145 Dypsis remotiflora Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra -
Farafangana
2 0-900 Humid forest
146 Dypsis rivularis Yes West: Ambanja - Marovoay 3 100-800
Dry forest, Subumid
forest
147
Dypsis robusta
Yes
East: Ifanadiana
1
700-800
Humid forest
148
Dypsis rosea
Yes
East: Marojejy
1
500-800
Humid forest
149 Dypsis sahanofensis Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra -
Mananjary
4 200-1400 Humid forest
150 Dypsis saintelucei Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra -
Taolagnaro
4 0-600 Humid forest
151
Dypsis sancta
Yes
East: Zahamena
1
500-600
Humid forest
152
Dypsis sanctaemariae
Yes
East: Sainte Marie
1
0-100
Humid forest
153
Dypsis scandens
Yes
East: Ifanadiana
2
500-600
Humid forest
154 Dypsis schatzii Yes
East: Toamasina -
Ampasimanolotra
2 300-700 Humid forest
155
Dypsis scottiana
Yes
East: Farafangana - Taolagnaro
5
0-800
Humid forest
156 Dypsis serpentina Yes
East: Daraina - Mananara
Avaratra
4 200-600 Humid forest
157 Dypsis simianensis Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo -
Vangaindrano
5 0-600 Humid forest
158 Dypsis singularis Yes
East: Farafangana -
Vangaindrano
2 0-200 Humid forest
159
Dypsis soanieranae
Yes
East: Soanierana Ivongo
1
0-100
Humid forest
160
Dypsis spicata
Yes
East: Marojejy - Andilamena
6
400-1200
Humid forest
161
Dypsis subacaulis
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
1
100-200
Humid forest
162
Dypsis tanalensis
Yes
East: Vohipeno - Vondrozo
2
100-700
Humid forest
163
Dypsis tenuissima
Yes
East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro
2
500-700
Humid forest
164
Dypsis thermarum
Yes
East: Ifanadiana
2
400-1300
Humid forest
165
Dypsis thiryana
Yes
East: Marojejy - Anosibe an'Ala
11
200-1300
Humid forest
166
Dypsis thouarsiana
Yes
East: Sainte Marie
1
Humid forest
167 Dypsis tokoravina Yes
East: Masoala - Mananara
Avaratra
2 400-800 Humid forest
168
Dypsis trapezoidea
Yes
East: Mananjary
1
200-500
Humid forest
169
Dypsis tsaratananensis
Yes
North: Tsaratanana
2
1100-2200
Humid forest
170
Dypsis tsaravoasira
Yes
East: Daraina - Ampasimanolotra
10
0-1200
Humid forest
171
Dypsis turkii
Yes
East: Andilamena - Vavatenina
3
400-1000
Humid forest
172
Dypsis utilis
Yes
East: Vavatenina - Manakara
5
0-1000
Humid forest
173
Dypsis viridis
Yes
East: Maroantsetra - Toamasina
8
100-700
Humid forest
174
Dypsis vonitrandambo
Yes
East: Masoala
1
0-100
Humid forest
175 Hyphaene coriacea Yes
West: Antsiranana - Betioky
Atsimo
25 0-900 Grassland
176 Lemurophoenix halleuxii Yes
East: Masoala - Mananara
Avaratra
3 200-600 Humid forest
177
Lemurophoenix laevis
Yes
***
---
---
Humid forest
178 Marojejya darianii Yes
East: Masoala -
Ampasimanolotra
6 0-500 Humid forest
179
Marojejya insignis
Yes
East: Daraina - Taolagnaro
20
0-1200
Humid forest
Appendix I (continued)
Species Endemic Distribution range
Number
of
known
site(s)
Elevation
(m) Vegetation type(s)
180
Masoala kona
Yes
East: Ifanadiana - Vondrozo
2
400-600
Humid forest
181
Masoala madagascariensis
Yes
East: Sambava - Toamasina
8
0-500
Humid forest
182 Orania longisquama Yes
Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo,
Antalaha - Taolagnaro
13 0-600 Humid forest
183 Orania ravaka Yes
East: Masoala - Soanierana
Ivongo
6 0-600 Humid forest
184
Orania trispatha
Yes
East: Masoala - Farafangana
9
0-400
Humid forest
185
Phoenix reclinata
Yes
West: Vohemar - Toliara
22
0-500
Humid forest
186 Raphia farinifera No
East, Highland, Sambirano and
West
30+ 0-1400 Swampy areas
187 Ravenea albicans Yes
East: Antahala -
Ampasimanolotra
7 0-800 Humid forest
188
Ravenea beentjei
Yes
East: Vondrozo
1
500-600
Humid forest
189
Ravenea declivium
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
1
200-300
Humid forest
195
Ravenea delicatula
Yes
East: Andilamena
1
800-900
Humid forest
190
Ravenea dransfieldii
Yes
East: Marojejy - Ifanadiana
10
0-700
Humid forest
191
Ravenea glauca
Yes
Highland: Andringitra - Isalo
2
600-1900
Humid forest
192
Ravenea hypoleuca
Yes
East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro
2
200-600
Humid forest
193
Ravenea julietiae
Yes
East: Masoala - Vondrozo
10
0-900
Humid forest
194 Ravenea krociana Yes
East: Ampasimanolotra -
Taolagnaro
6 400-1000 Humid forest
196
Ravenea lakatra
Yes
East: Masoala - Farafangana
9
0-900
Humid forest
197
Ravenea latisecta
Yes
East: Moramanga
2
900-1100
Humid forest
198 Ravenea louvelii Yes
East: Moramanga -
Ampasimanolotra
2 800-1200 Humid forest
199 Ravenea madagascariensis Yes
Est & Highland: Marojejy -
Befotaka
28 0-1600 Humid forest
200
Ravenea musicalis
Yes
East: Taolagnaro
2
0-100
Humid forest
201 Ravenea nana Yes
Est & Highland: Marojejy -
Taolagnaro
5 400-1600 Humid forest
202
Ravenea rivularis
Yes
West: Namoroka - Zombitse
5
400-900
Subumid forest
203 Ravenea robustior Yes
Sambirano, Est & Highland:
Manongarivo, Sambava-
Taolagnaro
24 0-1700 Humid forest
204 Ravenea sambiranensis Yes
Sambirano, Est & Highland:
Manongarivo, Sambava-
Taolagnaro
30+ 0-1900 Humid forest
205
Ravenea xerophila
Yes
Sud: Bekily - Andohahela
5
100-700
Dry spiny forest
206 Satranala decussilvae Yes
East: Masoala - Soanierana
Ivongo
5 0-600 Humid forest
207
Tahina spectabilis
Yes
West: Analalava
2
0-100
Humid forest
208 Voanioala gerardii Yes
East: Masoala - Mananara
Avaratra
3 400-600 Humid forest
Appendix II (continued)
Appendix II. The state of traditional knowledge, types of use and conservation measures for the different species of Palms of
Madagascar. Vernacular names and types of utilization have been compiled from miscellaneous literature sources; main threats and conservation
areas have mainly been extracted from the Red list IUCN webpage (www.iucnredlist.org). The IUCN status gives the current extinction risk of the
species according to the Red list categories: LC Least Concern – NT Near Threatened – VU Vulnerable – EN Endangered – CR Critically Endangered –
DD Data Deficient – NE Not Evaluated.
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Beccariophoenix
alfredii
Zina
Horticulture
overcollection, fire
VU
Beccariophoenix
fenestralis
Maroala
Horticulture
overcollection,
NE
Beccariophoenix
madagascariensis
Manara, Manarano, Maroala,
Sikomba
Horticulture,
basketry, house
construction, food
habitat loss,
mining,
overcollection
Mantadia, Vondrozo &
Tsitongambarika
VU
Bismarckia nobilis
Satrana, Satra, Satrabe, Satrana,
Satrapotsy
food, house
construction,
horticulture,
basketry
fire,
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining,
Daraina, Ankarana, Baie
de Baly, Kirindy,
Sahamalaza, Lokobe
LC
Borassus aethiopum
Dimaka
food, house
construction
fire,
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Lokobe
LC
Borassus
madagascariensis
Befelatanana, Dimaka,
Marandravina
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
fire, mining
Ankarafantsika
EN
Dypsis acaulis
habitat loss
Masoala
EN
Dypsis acuminum
Lafaza
horticulture
habitat loss
Manongarivo, Marojejy
EN
Dypsis albofarinosa
horticulture
overcollection
Andringitra
CR
Dypsis ambanjae
Lafa
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Daraina, Tsaratanana
CR
Dypsis ambilaensis
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
EN
Dypsis ambositrae
hovotra
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Itremo
CR
Dypsis
ampasindavae
Lavaboka, Lavaboko
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ampasindava, Lokobe,
Manongarivo
CR
Dypsis andapae
Tsingovatra, Tsingovatrovatra
horticulture
habitat loss
Marojejy
EN
Dypsis
andilamenensis
habitat loss,
mining
CR
Dypsis
andrianatonga
Tsirika andrianatonga
medicine
habitat loss
Manongarivo, Marojejy
VU
Dypsis angusta
habitat loss
Manombo
EN
Dypsis angustifolia
horticulture
habitat loss
Betampona
EN
Dypsis anjae
habitat loss
Zahamena
CR
Dypsis
ankaizinensis
Hovotra, Laboko, Lavaboka,
Lavaboko
food
overcollection,
habitat loss
Tsaratanana
DD
Dypsis ankirindro
habitat loss
Makira
NT
Dypsis
antanambensis
horticulture
overcollection
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Dypsis aquatilis
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis arenarum
Hirihiry
house
construction,
horticulture,
basketry
overcollection, ,
habitat loss
Tampolo
CR
Dypsis aurantiaca
Masoala
NE
Dypsis baronii
Farihazo, Tongalo
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Andasibe-
Mantadia, Itremo,
Marojejy, Marolambo-
Fandriana, Manongarivo,
Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana, Zahamena
LC
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis basilonga
Madiovozona
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis beentjei
horticulture
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Dypsis bejofo
Bejofo, Hovotraomby
horticulture
overcollection
Ambatovaky, Betampona,
Makira, Masoala
VU
Dypsis bernierana
Ambosa
habitat loss,
habitat loss
Betampona, Mangerivola,
Masoala, Mananara
Avaratra, Zahamena
VU
Dypsis
betamponensis
Volon-bodironga
Betampona
VU
Dypsis
betsimisarakae
Tsirika
house
construction
habitat loss
Mangerivola
VU
Dypsis boiviniana
Talanoka, Tsingovatra
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra
EN
Dypsis bonsai
horticulture
habitat loss, fire
Makira, Marojejy, Masoala,
Zahamena
VU
Dypsis bosseri
Analalava (Foulpointe)
EN
Dypsis brevicaulis
horticulture
habitat loss,
mining
Tsitongambarika
CR
Dypsis brittiana
habitat loss
Makira
CR
Dypsis canaliculata
Lopaka, Monimony
food, house
construction
overcollection,
habitat loss
Manongarivo, Zahamena
CR
Dypsis canescens
DD
Dypsis carlsmithii
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Analalava (Foulpointe),
Masoala
CR
Dypsis catatiana
Sinkara, Sinkaramboalavo,
Varoatra
horticulture
habitat loss
Andasibe-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Marojejy,
Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana, Zahamena
LC
Dypsis caudata
horticulture
Masoala
CR
Dypsis ceracea
Lafaza
food, house
construction
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Betampona,
Marojejy, Zahamena
EN
Dypsis
commersoniana
Andohahela
DD
Dypsis concinna
horticulture
habitat loss
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Fandriana-Marolambo,
Ranomafana, Zahamena
NT
Dypsis confusa
Sinkara, Tsimikara, Tsinkara
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Betampona, Mangerivola,
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala,Ranomafana,
Zahamena
NT
Dypsis cookei
horticulture
Marojejy
CR
Dypsis coriacea
Makira, Mananara
Avaratra, Masoala
NT
Dypsis corniculata
horticulture
habitat loss
Betampona, Mananara
Avaratra, Zahamena
EN
Dypsis coursii
Marojejy
LC
Dypsis crinita
Vonitra, Vonitrandrano
house
construction,
horticulture,
medicine,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Betampona,
Makira, Mananara
Avaratra, Mangerivola,
Manongarivo, Masoala,
Zahamena
NT
Dypsis culminis
Tsitongambarika
EN
Dypsis curtisii
Ambatovaky, Tsaratanana
EN
Dypsis decaryi
Lafa
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Andohahela
VU
Dypsis decipiens
Betefaka, Manambe, Sihara,
Sihara lehibe
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection, fire
Ambohitantely, Itremo
VU
Dypsis delicatula
horticulture
Betampona
VU
Dypsis digitata
habitat loss
Manombo
CR
Dypsis
dracaenoides
habitat loss
CR
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis dransfieldii
horticulture
Masoala
NT
Dypsis elegans
habitat loss
Manombo,
Tsitongambarika
CR
Dypsis eriostachys
horticulture
habitat loss
Midongy Atsimo,
Tsitongambarika
CR
Dypsis faneva
Sinkiara maventy, Tsinkiara
mavinty
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala, Zahamena
EN
Dypsis fanjana
Fanjana
habitat loss
Masoala, Mananara
Avaratra, Zahamena,
Betampona
EN
Dypsis fasciculata
Sinkiara
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovakty, Betampona,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Masoala,
Ranomafana, Zahamena
NT
Dypsis fibrosa
Ravimbontro, Vonitra, Vonitra an-
tanety
food, house
construction,
horticulture,
medicine,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe),
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Betampona,
Daraina, Corridor
Ankeniheny-Zahamena,
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Manombo,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana,
Tsitongambarika,
Zahamena
LC
Dypsis forficifolia
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala
LC
Dypsis furcata
habitat loss
EN
Dypsis gautieri
Daraina
VU
Dypsis glabrescens
horticulture
habitat loss
Betampona, Mananara
Avaratra
EN
Dypsis
gronophyllum
habitat loss
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo
CR
Dypsis henrici
habitat loss
Andohahela
DD
Dypsis heteromorph
a
horticulture
Anjanaharibe Sud,
Marojejy, Tsaratanana
DD
Dypsis heterophylla
horticulture
habitat loss
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Fandriana-Vondrozo,
Marojejy, Tsaratanana,
Zahamena, Masoala,
Ambatovaky
NT
Dypsis hiarakae
Sinkiara, Tsirika
house
construction,
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Manongarivo, Masoala,
Makira
VU
Dypsis hildebrandtii
Tsirika
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambohidray,
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Corridor Ankeniheny-
Zahamena, Fandriana-
Marolambo
NT
Dypsis
hovomantsina
Hovomantsina
food, horticulture
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Mananara
Avaratra, Masoala
CR
Dypsis humbertii
habitat loss
Zahamena
VU
Dypsis humilis
habitat loss
Makira
CR
Dypsis ifanadianae
horticulture
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis integra
horticulture
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Mananara
Avaratra, Manombo,
Midongy Atsimo
CR
Dypsis intermedia
horticulture
habitat loss, fire
Manombo
CR
Dypsis interrupta
horticulture
habitat loss, fire
Manombo
CR
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis jeremiei
Ambatovaky
CR
Dypsis jumelleana
Tsirika
horticulture
habitat loss
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Angavo, Zahamena
VU
Dypsis laevis
habitat loss, fire
Manombo
CR
Dypsis lantzeana
horticulture
habitat loss
Makira, Mananara
Avaratra, Masoala
VU
Dypsis lanuginosa
horticulture
habitat loss
Ambatovaky
CR
Dypsis lastelliana
Menavozona, Ravin-tsira, Sira
food, house
construction,
horticulture,
medicine,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe), Anjanaharibe
Sud, Betampona, Daraina,
Makira, Mananara
Avaratra, Mangerivola,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Tampolo,
Zahamena
LC
Dypsis leptocheilos
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Beanka
CR
Dypsis leucomalla
horticulture
NE
Dypsis ligulata
food
overcollection,
habitat loss
DD
Dypsis lilacina
habitat loss
Tsitongambarika
NE
Dypsis linearis
habitat loss
EN
Dypsis lokohoensis
horticulture
habitat loss
Marojejy, Masoala
VU
Dypsis louvelii
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambohidray,
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Corridor Ankeniheny
Zahamena, Zahamena
VU
Dypsis lucens
DD
Dypsis lutea
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Mantadia, Masoala
EN
Dypsis lutescens
Lafahazo, Lafaza, Rehazo
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Daraina, Manombo,
Masoala, Tampolo
NT
Dypsis
madagascariensis
Hirihiry, Farihazo, Kindro,
Kizohazo, Madiovozona
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Lokobe, Manongarivo,
Baie de Baly, Namoroka,
Bemaraha
LC
Dypsis mahia
habitat loss, fire
Manombo
CR
Dypsis makirae
Tsingovatra
horticulture
Makira
VU
Dypsis malcomberi
Rahosy, Vakaka
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Andohahela, Midongy
Atsimo
EN
Dypsis mananjarens
is
Ovodafa, Lafa, Lakatra
food, house
construction,
horticulture,
basketry
overcollection,
habitat loss, fire
Manombo, Midongy
Atsimo, Andohahela
NT
Dypsis mangorensis
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Dypsis marojejyi
Menamoso beratiraty
horticulture
Anjanaharibe Sud,
Marojejy
VU
Dypsis
mcdonaldiana
horticulture
habitat loss
Andohahela
EN
Dypsis metallica
horticulture
habitat loss
Masoala
CR
Dypsis mijoroana
habitat loss
Masoala
NE
Dypsis minuta
horticulture
Masoala
VU
Dypsis mirabilis
habitat loss
Marojejy
EN
Dypsis
mocquerysiana
horticulture
habitat loss,
mining
Masoala, Nosy Mangabe,
Makira, Mananara
Avaratra.
NT
Dypsis
monostachya
DD
Dypsis montana
horticulture
Tsaratanana
VU
Dypsis moorei
Maroala
Mangerivola, Masoala
EN
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis nauseosa
Lafa, Rahoma, Mangidibe
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Manombo
CR
Dypsis nodifera
Bedoda, Ovana, Sinkara,
Tsinkara, Tsingovatra, Tsirika
house
construction,
horticulture,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe),
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Betampona,
Daraina, Corridor
Ankeniheny-Zahamena,
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Manombo,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana,
Tsitongambarika,
Zahamena
LC
Dypsis nossibensis
habitat loss
Lokobe
CR
Dypsis occidentalis
habitat loss
Anjanaharibe Sud,
Marojejy, Tsaratanana
VU
Dypsis onilahensis
Kindro, Sihara
horticulture, food
overcollection,
habitat loss, fire
Isalo, Makay
VU
Dypsis oreophila
Fitsiriky, Kindro, Lafaza, Tsirika
food, horticulture,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Makira, Marojejy,
Tsaratanana
VU
Dypsis oropedionis
horticulutre
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambohitantely
CR
Dypsis ovobontsira
Ovobontsira
horticulture
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Dypsis ovojavavy
Masoala
NE
Dypsis pachyramea
horticulture
habitat loss
Masoala, Nosy Mangabe
LC
Dypsis paludosa
horticulture
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala
VU
Dypsis perrieri
Besofina, Menamosona, Kase
food
overcollection,
habitat loss
Makira, Marojejy,
Mangerivola, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra.
VU
Dypsis pervillei
horticulture
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis pilulifera
Hozatanana, Lavaboka,
Lavaboko, Ovomamy
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Marojejy, Zahamena,
Mantadia & Mangerivola.
VU
Dypsis pinnatifrons
Ambolo, Hova, Ovatsiketry,
Tsingovatra, Tsingovatrovatra,
Tsobolo
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe),
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Betampona,
Daraina, Corridor
Ankeniheny-Zahamena,
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Manombo,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana,
Tsitongambarika,
Zahamena
LC
Dypsis plumosa
horticulture
DD
Dypsis plurisecta
habitat loss
DD
Dypsis poivreana
Hovoka
horticulture
habitat loss
Analalava (Foulpointe),
Tampolo (Fenerive Est)
EN
Dypsis prestoniana
Babovavy, Bobovavy, Tavilo
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Midongy Atsimo
VU
Dypsis procera
habitat loss
Masoala, Mananara
Avaratra et Ambatovaky
VU
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis procumbens
Ambolo, Ovana, Sinkara,
Sirahazo, Tsirikabidy
house
construction,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Makira, Zahamena,
Mantadia, Ranomafana,
Midongy Atsimo et
Andohahela.
NT
Dypsis
psammophila
Lafazovombona
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
EN
Dypsis pulchella
horticulture
habitat loss,
mining
CR
Dypsis pumila
horticulture
Marojejy
CR
Dypsis pusilla
Vonitra
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala
VU
Dypsis pustulata
habitat loss
Tsitongambarika
CR
Dypsis rabepierrei
NE
Dypsis
rakotonasoloi
habitat loss
Makira
CR
Dypsis ramentacea
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Dypsis reflexa
habitat loss
Masoala
CR
Dypsis remotiflora
horticulture
habitat loss
Mangerivola
CR
Dypsis rivularis
Madiovozona, Sarimadiovozona
horticulture
habitat loss
Ankarafantsika and
Manongarivo
EN
Dypsis robusta
horticulture
Ranomafana Arboretum
CR
Dypsis rosea
horticulture
Marojejy
NE
Dypsis
sahanofensis
horticulture
habitat loss
Mangerivola, Mont
Vatovavy
CR
Dypsis saintelucei
food, horticulture,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo
EN
Dypsis sancta
habitat loss
Zahamena
CR
Dypsis
sanctaemariae
horticulture
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis scandens
Olokoloko
Basketry,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis schatzii
horticulture
overcollection
Betampona, Mangerivola
EN
Dypsis scottiana
Raosy, Sinkara
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Andohahela, Midongy
Atsimo
VU
Dypsis serpentina
horticulture
Mananara Avaratra,
Makira
VU
Dypsis simianensis
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Zahamena, Manombo
EN
Dypsis singularis
habitat loss
Manombo
CR
Dypsis soanieranae
Sinkara, Tsinkara
horticulture
habitat loss
DD
Dypsis spicata
horticulture
habitat loss
Marojejy, Makira
LQ
Dypsis subacaulis
habitat loss
NE
Dypsis tanalensis
Matitana, Matitanana
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis tenuissima
habitat loss
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Andohahela
EN
Dypsis thermarum
Fanikara
horticulture,
household tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ranomafana
VU
Dypsis thiryana
Sinkiara, Sinkarambolavo,
Taokonampotatra
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Marojejy, Masoala, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra
VU
Dypsis thouarsiana
DD
Dypsis tokoravina
Tokoravina
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala, Analalava
(Foulpointe)
CR
Dypsis trapezoidea
habitat loss
CR
Dypsis
tsaratananensis
Kindro
Tsaratanana
DD
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Dypsis tsaravoasira
Hovotravavy, Lavaboka,
Tsaravoasira
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Daraina, Marojejy,
Masoala, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Ambatovaky, Zahamena,
Mangerivola.
VU
Dypsis turkii
Sinkiaramboalavo
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Zahamena, Ambatovaky
EN
Dypsis utilis
Vonitra, Vonitrandrano
food, household
tools
overcollection,
habitat loss
Zahamena,
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Ranomafana, Corridor
Fandriana-Vondrozo
EN
Dypsis viridis
horticulture
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Zahamena
VU
Dypsis
vonitrandambo
habitat loss
Masoala
CR
Elaeis guineensis
Tsingilo
food, house
construction
overcollection
LC
Hyphaene coriacea
Satrana, Satra
food, horticulture,
household tools,
basketry
overcollection, fire
Daraina, Ankarana, Baie
de Baly
LC
Lemurophoenix
halleuxii
Hovitra vari mena
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala
EN
Lemurophoenix
laevis
horticulture
NE
Marojejya darianii
Ravimbe
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala
EN
Marojejya insignis
Beondroka, Besofina, Betefoka,
Fohitanana, Hovotralanana,
Kona, Mandanozezika,
Maroalavehivavy, Menamoso
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Marojejy, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra,
Ambatovaky, Mantadia
Betampona, Andohahela.
LC
Masoala kona
Kona, Kogne
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo
EN
Masoala
madagascariensis
Hovotralanana, Kase,
Mandanozezika
food, horticulture,
basketry
overcollection,
habitat loss
Marojejy, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra
CR
Orania longisquama
Anivona, Sindro, Ovobolafotsy,
Vakapasy
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Manongarivo, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra,
Analalava (Foulpointe),
Manombo.
LC
Orania ravaka
Sindro, Ovobolafotsy,
Vapakafotsy
horticulture
habitat loss
Masoala, Makira and
Mananara Avaratra
VU
Orania trispatha
Anivo, Sindro
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala, Mananara
Avaratra, Manombo
VU
Phoenix reclinata
Dara, Taratra, Taratsy
food, house
construction,
horticulture
fire
NE
Raphia farinifera
Rofia, Rafia
food, house
construction,
horticulture,
household tools
overcollection
Marojejy, Anjanahribe-sud,
Makira, Masoala,
Mananara Avaratra,
Namoroka, Ankarafantsika
LC
Ravenea albicans
Hoza-tsiketra
horticulture
habitat loss
Masoala, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Zahamena, Mangerivola
EN
Ravenea beentjei
horticulture
habitat loss,
mining
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo
CR
Ravenea declivium
NE
Ravenea delicatula
Anivona
habitat loss,
mining
CR
Ravenea dransfieldii
Anivo, Lakabolavo, Lakatra, Ovo-
tsarorona
food, horticulture,
house
construction,
basketry
overcollection,
habitat loss,
mining
Marojejy, Masoala, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Betampona
EN
Ravenea glauca
Anivo, Sihara
horticulture
overcollection
Andringitra, Isalo
VU
Ravenea hypoleuca
horticulture
habitat loss
Tsitongambarika
CR
Appendix II (continued)
Species
Vernacular name(s)
Type(s) of
utilisation
Main threat(s)
Conservation area(s)
IUCN
status
Ravenea julietiae
Anivona, Sata, Satra, Satrana,
Sindro madiniky, VakaPasy
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala,Mananara
Avaratra, Ambatovaky,
Manombo
EN
Ravenea krociana
Vakakabe
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Mangerivola, Midongy
Atsimo, Andohahela
EN
Ravenea lakatra
Lakatra, Manara, Tsilanitafika
house
construction,
horticulture,
basketry
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala, Makira and
Andasibe
CR
Ravenea latisecta
Analamazaotra
CR
Ravenea louvelii
Lakamarefo, Siraboto
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Anlamazaotra
CR
Ravenea
madagascariensis
Anivo, Anivokely, Anivona,
Tovovoko
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Marojejy, Zahamena,
Ambohitantely, Mantadia,
Analamazaotra,
Ranomafana, Andringitra,
Ivohibe, Midongy Atsimo
LC
Ravenea musicalis
Torendriky
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
CR
Ravenea nana
habitat loss
Marojejy
EN
Ravenea rivularis
Bakaly, Gora, Malio, Vakaka
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Namoroka, Isalo, Makay,
Zombitse - Vohibasia
VU
Ravenea robustior
Anivo, Anivona, Bokombio, Kona,
Lafa, Lakabolavo, Loharanga,
Manara, Monimony, Retanana,
Tanave, Vakabe, Vakaboloka
food, house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe),
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Betampona,
Daraina, Corridor
Ankeniheny-Zahamena,
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Manombo,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana,
Tsitongambarika,
Zahamena
NT
Ravenea
sambiranensis
Anivo, Anivona, Mafahely,
Ramangaisina, Sindro
food, house
construction,
horticulture
habitat loss
Ambatovaky, Analalava
(Foulpointe),
Analamazaotra-Mantadia,
Andohahela, Betampona,
Daraina, Corridor
Ankeniheny-Zahamena,
Corridor Fandriana-
Vondrozo, Fandriana-
Marolambo, Makira,
Mananara Avaratra,
Mangerivola, Manombo,
Manongarivo, Marojejy,
Masoala, Midongy Atsimo,
Ranomafana,
Tsitongambarika,
Zahamena
LC
Ravenea xerophila
Ahaza, Anivo, Anivona,
horticulture,
basketry
habitat loss
Andohahela
VU
Satranala
decussilvae
Satranala
house
construction,
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Mananara Avaratra,
Masoala
EN
Tahina spectabilis
Dimaka
horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
CR
Voanioala gerardii
Voanioala
food, horticulture
overcollection,
habitat loss
Masoala
CR
Appendix II
67
Madagascar is one of the most important areas in the world in terms of species diversity for palms, the family
Arecaceae. Out of the approximately 2500 species recognized in the world, the island alone has 208 indigenous
species, of which more than 98% are endemic, found naturally nowhere else. Some taxa are unique from a
biological point of view because they represent distinct evolutionary lines in classification of palms unique to
Madagascar. Palms constitute a significant component of Madagascar's flora. In addition to taxonomic
diversity, palms often characterize the natural landscapes of the island. Nearly 90% of the species are confined
to the humid forests of the East and North-West, but palms are also distinctive in the West by dominating the
grasslands or certain moist valleys, forming in some cases dense and monospecific stands. Because of their
abundance, palms constitute a considerable source of non-timber forest products for many rural communities
which are often dependent on the exploitation of natural resources for their subsistence. About ¾ of the
currently known species have been reported to be useful to humans. In rural areas, many species have
immense utilitarian value in the construction of traditional buildings, in food, in domestic tools, in religious
ceremonies and in the treatment of certain diseases. In urban areas, palm trees are cultivated as ornamental
plants for their majestic habit.
However, the recent destruction and degradation of natural habitats, together with non-sustainable forms of
use, have increased the risk of extinction of many palm species. According to the latest IUCN Red List
assessment, 83% of Madagascar's indigenous palms are threatened with extinction. The loss of these species
will have a direct impact not only on the economy but also on the ecosystem services provided by these palms.
In order to prevent extinction and to promote their sustainable use, the strategy for the conservation and
sustainable use of palms in Madagascar is based on four objectives: study of the diversity and spatial
distribution of palms, study of the ways in which local populations use palms, reduction of the risk of extinction
of species in the natural environment, and, finally, education for sustainable development and raising
awareness of the need to protect nature. By highlighting priority activities for efforts to be undertaken to
restore natural populations, this strategic document will be a reference tool for actions to conserve the palms
of Madagascar.
Funding
Partners
Abstract
