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The Structure of Processing Speed in Children and Its Impact on Reading
Abstract
The present study had two aims. First, we set out to evaluate the structure of processing speed in children by comparing five alternative models: two conceptual models (a unitary model, a complexity model) and three methodological models (a stimulus material model, an output response model, and a timing modality model). Second, we then used the resulting models to predict multiple types of reading, a highly important developmental outcome, using other well-known predictors as covariates. Participants were 844 children enrolled in third through fifth grade in urban public elementary schools who received 16 measures of processing speed that varied in the above dimensions. A two-factor complexity model that differentiated between simple and complex processing speed was the preferred model and fit the data well. Both types of PS predicted reading fluency, and complex (but not simple) PS predicted single word reading and comprehension. Results offer insight to the structure of processing speed, its relation to closely related concepts (such as executive function), and provide nuance to the understanding of the way processing speed influences reading.
... For reading, the strongest and most consistent predictors are language based, including phonological awareness and rapid naming (Catts et al., 2015;Melby-Lervåg et al., 2012;Oslund et al., 2017;Scarborough, 1998;Schatschneider et al., 2004), as well as more general language measures such as vocabulary and listening comprehension (Fernandes et al., 2017;Fricke et al., 2016;Gillam et al., 2023;Leppänen et al., 2008). Outside of language, other predictors of reading include executive functionparticularly working memory (Cirino et al., 2018;Peng, Barnes, et al., 2018;Savage et al., 2007;Siegel & Ryan, 1989); processing speedparticularly complex processing speed (Gerst et al., 2021;Shanahan et al., 2006;Willcutt et al., 2008); and a number of types of attentionfrom visual attention Liu & Liu, 2020;Plaza & Cohen, 2007) to vigilance (Willcutt et al., 2013) to behavioral attention (Grills-Taquechel et al., 2013;Pham, 2016;Sims & Lonigan, 2013). There is support for these predictors across reading outcomes (e.g., word reading, fluency, comprehension), with an increasing role for general language processes with development, particularly for reading comprehension (Foorman et al., 2018;Gillam et al., 2023;Hoover & Gough, 1990;Ouellette & Beers, 2010). ...
... Like RAN, PS is relevant for both reading fluency and math fluency, given their timing properties (Caemmerer et al., 2018;Hudson et al., 2008;Lobier et al., 2013). However, the PS-achievement relation is stronger when the emphasis is on processing more than speed per se (when the action taken or information to be processed is complex versus simple; Gerst et al., 2021). The relation is also present for untimed skills. ...
... PS results (even of the complex variety), even as a latent variable, were stronger for math (r = 0.30) than for reading (r = 0.07 and 0.19). These relations with reading were smaller than expected given some samples (Gerst et al., 2021;Peterson et al., 2017). However, the general pattern in meta-analytic findings is more balanced; for example, Zaboski et al. (2018) found that speed related r = 0.20 with basic reading, and r = 0.23 with basic math. ...
... For example, it is difficult to separate poor word reading automaticity from a number of independent factors. Children could appear to lack automaticity because they lack specific knowledge of graphophonemic mappings (which allow reading of unfamiliar words), or of orthographic representations of familiar words; or because they have low overall processing speed (which is also associated with reading and language outcomes; see, e.g., Gerst et al., 2021;Kail, 2000;Miller et al., 2001). Moreover, in typical response time measures, speed-accuracy tradeoffs (Draheim et al., 2021;Förster et al., 2003), response planning, selection, and motor speed (Eriksen, 1995;Luce, 1986) entangle word reading automaticity with other concurrently active processes. ...
We report two experiments demonstrating that visual word recognition is impeded by the presence of nearby stimuli, especially adjacent words. Reading research has converged on a consensus that skilled readers control their attention to make use of information from adjacent (primarily upcoming) words, increasing reading efficiency. Other lines of research seem to point to potential interference from nearby items, yet this has not been investigated at the critical lexical level. To specifically target lexical activation, here we employ a novel variant of the visual world paradigm with masked (75 ms) flanked visual word targets, contrasting five flanker conditions across two experiments, namely none, repeated symbols, unknown font strings, pseudowords, and words. Analysis of multiple observed variables from 60 and 58 adult Norwegian speakers showed strong interference compared to no flankers-for all flanker conditions except the repeated symbols. Interference increased with additional levels of possible flanker processing, and was greatest for higher-frequency word targets, consistent with rapid dynamic modulation of attentional breadth. Our findings demonstrate that nearby words interfere with lexical activation of the fixated word and call for a more nuanced approach to the role of preview in fluent reading. We conclude that skilled reading involves a constant complex interplay between the drive toward efficiency, which requires a broad attentional field, and the need to shield processing from interference, which limits attentional breadth.
... This cognitive ability increases with development from childhood to adulthood (Newbury et al., 2016). It is thought to be a key determiner of development because improvements in processing speed facilitate gains in other cognitive domains, like working memory and reading, by enhancing efficiency (Gerst et al., 2021;Lobier et al., 2013). Most of the research on this topic approached the relationship between processing speed and reading comprehension, and several studies (Kail & Hall, 1994;Spring & Davis, 1988;Van den Bos et al., 2002) supported using rapid naming measures to assess processing speed predicts reading abilities and these predicts reading comprehension. ...
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el papel del conocimiento de vocabulario, la memoria operativa y la velocidad de procesamiento en la comprensión de textos orales en niños hispanohablantes de 3 a 6 años. Un total de 165 niños (55.76% niñas; M = 4.64 años; DT = 1.07) participaron en el estudio. Los participantes escucharon tres textos narrativos y respondieron a preguntas sobre su contenido literal e inferencial, realizaron tareas de memoria operativa, una tarea de velocidad de procesamiento y una prueba de vocabulario. Los análisis de varianza revelaron diferencias en función de la edad en todas las tareas, con mejores desempeños en los mayores. Los análisis de correlación mostraron asociaciones entre comprensión, vocabulario y memoria operativa, sugiriendo que estas capacidades cognitivas contribuyen a la comprensión de narraciones orales. Los análisis de senderos indicaron que el impacto de la edad en la comprensión está mediado por el vocabulario y la memoria operativa verbal, mientras que la velocidad de procesamiento no intervino significativamente en la comprensión. Los resultados destacan la importancia de apoyar el desarrollo del vocabulario y las habilidades de memoria operativa en la educación temprana, ya que son fundamentales para mejorar las habilidades de comprensión. En conclusión, el estudio revela que las diferencias individuales en la comprensión oral están principalmente ligadas al conocimiento del vocabulario y a la capacidad de la memoria operativa, mientras que la velocidad de procesamiento desempeña un papel secundario.
... This cognitive ability increases with development from childhood to adulthood (Newbury et al., 2016). It is thought to be a key determiner of development because improvements in processing speed facilitate gains in other cognitive domains, like working memory and reading, by enhancing efficiency (Gerst et al., 2021;Lobier et al., 2013). Most of the research on this topic approached the relationship between processing speed and reading comprehension, and several studies (Kail & Hall, 1994;Spring & Davis, 1988;Van den Bos et al., 2002) supported using rapid naming measures to assess processing speed predicts reading abilities and these predicts reading comprehension. ...
This study aimed to analyze the role of vocabulary knowledge, working memory, and processing speed in the listening comprehension of oral texts in 3- to 6-year-old Spanish-speaking children. A total of 165 children (55.76% girls; M = 4.64 years; SD = 1.07) participated in the study. Participants listened to three narrative texts and answered questions about their literal and inferential content, performed working memory tasks, a processing speed task, and a vocabulary test. ANOVA results revealed significant age-related differences across all tasks, with older children performing better than younger ones. Correlation analyses showed associations between comprehension, vocabulary, and working memory; the results suggest that these cognitive abilities are key contributors to oral narrative comprehension. The path analyses fulfilled indicated that the impact of age on comprehension is mediated by vocabulary and verbal working memory, while processing speed did not significantly influence comprehension. The results highlight the importance of supporting vocabulary development and working memory skills in early childhood education, as these are critical to enhancing comprehension abilities. In conclusion, the study demonstrates that individual differences in oral comprehension are primarily driven by vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity, while processing speed plays a secondary role.
... Instead, we provide the interested reader with a set of references upon which the overall rationale for PSW methods rests. Moreover, PSW methods in general are supported by the references in the following arguments: a. Academic achievement (Barnes et al., 2022;Berkowitz et al., 2022;Buckley et al., 2019;Caemmerer et al., 2018;Gerst et al., 2021;Hajovsky et al., 2014;Höffler, 2010;Kendeou et al., 2014;McGrew & Wendling, 2010;Niileksela et al., 2016;Vanderwood et al., 2002;Zheng et al., 2011) b. Occupational choice andachievement (ALMamari &Traynor, 2021;Bertua et al., 2005;Coyle, 2022;Coyle et al., 2014;Goertz et al., 2014;Grobelny, 2018;Ludwikowski et al., 2019;Robertson et al., 2010;Schneider & Newman, 2015;Wai et al., 2009) c. ...
... We report statistically significant correlations between RAN and both TOWRE-2 reading fluency measures; in particular, there was a strong correlation between RAN and SWE, which requires automatic, reading of real single words. But it is important to discuss the lack of statistically significant correlations between reading fluency measures and processing speed measures in the current study, given previous studies have reported this relationship (Gerst et al. 2021;Jacobson et al., 2011;Norton & Wolf, 2012;Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002;Wolf & Bowers, 1999). None of the reading fluency or RAN measures strongly correlated with either of the processing speed measures. ...
The cerebellum is traditionally associated with the control of coordinated movement, but ample evidence suggests that the cerebellum also supports cognitive processing. Consistent with this, right-lateralized posterolateral cerebellar regions are engaged during a range of reading and reading-related tasks, but the specific role of the cerebellum during reading tasks is not clear. Based on the cerebellar contribution to automatizing movement, it has been hypothesized that the cerebellum is specifically involved in rapid, fluent reading. We aimed to determine whether the right posterolateral cerebellum is a specific modulator of reading fluency or whether cerebellar modulation is broader, also impacting reading accuracy, rapid automatized naming, and general processing speed. To do this, we examined the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) targeting the right posterolateral cerebellum (lobules VI/VII) on single-word reading fluency, reading accuracy, rapid automatized naming, and processing speed. Young adults with typical reading development (n = 25; 15 female sex assigned at birth, 10 male sex assigned at birth, aged 18–28 years [M = 19.92 ± 2.04 years]) completed the reading and cognitive measures after 20min of 2mA anodal (excitatory), cathodal (inhibitory), or sham tDCS in a within-subjects design. Linear mixed effects models indicated that cathodal tDCS decreased single-word reading fluency scores (d = −0.36, p < 0.05) but did not significantly affect single-word reading accuracy, rapid automatized naming, or general processing speed measures. Our results suggest that the right posterolateral cerebellum is involved in reading fluency, consistent with a broader role of the cerebellum in fast, fluent cognition.
... One interpretive practice that is not supported by this research is a fluency score that cuts across academic areas. More information is needed about how fluency relates to memory processes, basic skills acquisition, and higher-order academic achievement skills (Gerst et al. 2021;Lovett et al. 2020). Snow et al. (1984, p. 47) called MDS maps of intelligence and academic achievement correlations "The Topography of Ability and Learning Correlations." ...
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used as an alternate multivariate procedure for investigating intelligence and academic achievement test score correlations. Correlation coefficients among Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-5) and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition (WIAT-III) validity sample scores and among Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) and Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition (KTEA-2) co-norming sample scores were analyzed using multidimensional scaling (MDS). Three-dimensional MDS configurations were the best fit for interpretation in both datasets. Subtests were more clearly organized by CHC ability and academic domain instead of complexity. Auditory-linguistic, figural-visual, reading-writing, and quantitative-numeric regions were visible in all models. Results were mostly similar across different grade levels. Additional analysis with WISC-V and WIAT-III tests showed that content (verbal, numeric, figural) and response process facets (verbal, manual, paper-pencil) were also useful in explaining test locations. Two implications from this study are that caution may be needed when interpreting fluency scores across academic areas, and MDS provides more empirically based validity evidence regarding content and response mode processes.
... Since we aimed to examine general processing speed, including perceptual and output speed, rapid naming was selected as the index of ANXIETY AND PROCESSING SPEED IN CHINESE RD 5 processing speed. Rapid naming has also been used widely as an index of processing speed in previous studies (e.g., Gerst et al., 2021;. ...
The present study examined the mediating effect of processing speed on the relationship between state anxiety and reading comprehension in Chinese children with and without reading disabilities (RD). A total of 53 Chinese children with RD and 66 typically developing children were administered cognitive and noncognitive measures. We found that the two groups had distinct patterns of state anxiety and processing speed. A significant indirect effect of state anxiety on reading comprehension through processing speed was found only in children with RD. Our findings contribute to filling a research gap and provide evidence to front‐line practitioners for adapting the teaching and measures for Chinese children with RD.
... Thus, shared variance may at least partially account for correlations observed here. Given that processing speed has been implicated repeatedly in reading disorders (Gerst et al., 2021;Pennington et al., 2012;Shanahan et al., 2006), and given that verbal fluency and reading fluency are at least moderately correlated, it is possible that the fluency portion of the EF score is driving the overall relation. In our view, this explanation seems likely, but future studies should evaluate this finding more directly, in ways that can parse out the differential contributions of processing speed at the construct level and utilize different combinations of NIH EXAMINER components. ...
Executive functioning (EF) is a domain-general process implicated in reading, but there remains lack of clarity within the domain due to varied assessment methods. We investigated the relation of EF (indexed with the NIH EXAMINER) to word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension in struggling readers and evaluated the mediational role of inference making for the EF-comprehension link. Analyses revealed an overall effect of EF on reading, with significant differences between fluency and comprehension, and between single word reading and comprehension, but not between fluency and single-word reading. The EF-reading comprehension relation was fully mediated by inference making.
... That processing speed related weakly to all other predictors and outcomes (median r = .16, 10 correlations) reiterates the need to distinguish between simple and complex processing speed (Child et al., in press;Gerst, Cirino, Miciak, Yoshida, Gibbs, & Woods, 2018;Peterson et al., 2017;Willcutt et al., 2013). More complex processing speed measures are more likely to uniquely predict outcome overlap, though this has yet to be empirically tested in the context of the range of domain-specific predictors, as evaluated here. ...
The predictors of developing reading skill are well known, and there is increasing coherence around predictors of developing math as well. These achievement skills share strong relations. Less knowledge is available regarding the extent to which predictors overlap and predict one another, particularly longitudinally, and across different types of reading and math. We followed kindergarten students (n = 193) for one year, evaluating a range of relevant predictor skills in kindergarten, and a range of relevant achievement outcomes (core, fluency, complex) of reading and math in grade 1. Few predictors differentially predicted math versus reading with some exception (phonological awareness and rapid naming for reading; counting knowledge for math). The pattern was more similar for core and fluency outcomes relative to complex ones. A small set of predictors accounted for much of the overlap among math and reading outcomes, regardless of type (core, fluency, or complex). Results have the potential to inform the development of early screening tools to consider both achievement domains simultaneously, and support the importance of following students identified as at-risk in one domain for their performance in both domains.
This bibliometric research aims to analyse the development of research on reading and speed-reading learning in elementary schools. Data were collected from the Scopus database using the keywords “reading learning,” “speed reading,” and “elementary school.” The analysis focused on publication trends by year, author affiliation, journal, productivity, and research subjects. Results indicate that publications on reading and speed-reading learning have fluctuated in growth from 2013 to 2023, with Codas and Ocnos being the journals with the most publications. Pennsylvania State University, the University of Virginia, and Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia are the top contributors to research on reading learning, while Universidad de Oviedo and Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción are the main contributors to speed-reading research. Capellini is the most prolific researcher in reading learning, and Akyol has contributed significantly to both reading and speed-reading research in elementary schools. Most researchers focusing on reading learning in elementary schools are from the United States, while research on speed reading is led by scholars from Spain, Turkey, and the United States. Network visualization shows that research on reading learning in elementary schools forms nine clusters, with Cluster 1 being the largest, covering 38 topics. Meanwhile, speed-reading research in elementary schools forms a single cluster with 11 topics.
The recommended rehabilitation procedures for Developmental Dyslexia (DD) are not well defined, and there is currently a large debate on which therapeutic approaches are shown to be more useful and effective. Among the trainings focused on general dysfunctional cognitive processes associated with a reading disorder, recent studies suggested the efficacy of trainings on Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) compared to others. The present study was aimed at confirming the effectiveness of RAN training (RANt) to improve the reading performances of children with DD (n = 32) compared to children on a waiting list (WL, n = 25) and to children in different treatment groups, one following a text reading training (RT, n = 26) and the other combining RAN and text reading exercises (RANt+RT, n = 20), through an online platform that allows intensive and self-adaptive activities. Results confirmed the efficacy of RANt in improving reading speed and accuracy compared to the WL group (r2 ranging from small (.16) to medium (.48)) and found the absence of differences with the other active control groups. The single-subject level analysis confirmed the results, a high inter-subject variability in treatment response and pre-post differences were found. Further studies could consider such variability in the functional profile of the DD subjects, but RANt was confirmed to be a valid tool for improving decoding skills.
Purpose
This study aims to explore the eye movement behavior of preadolescent children accessing and diagnosing information.
Design/methodology/approach
The researchers tracked the eye movements of 30 children with an eye-tracking apparatus. Using the kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests to measure perceptual speed and associative memory, they measured information-searching behavior with screen recordings, the data of which were analyzed by IBM SPSS Statistics 26.
Findings
Regarding information accessibility, there was a correlation between the child’s age, associative memory and the number of round-trip choices, and there were differences in the total fixation area among children of different age groups. Regarding diagnosticity, perceptual speed was positively correlated with the total fixation area, and the number of round-trip choices was negatively correlated with fixation duration.
Originality/value
Empirical evidence suggests that during information encoding, perceptual speed is the most important influencing factor. Extensive research indicates that children predominantly rely on recall and familiarity when searching for new information, both of which play roles in associative memory. Through an examination of the psychological and behavioral indicators of children, the study elucidated the cognitive processes involved in information processing and how children engage with information at both visual and cognitive levels.
Despite the abundance of research evaluating working memory training outcomes in children, few studies have examined the underlying cognitive mechanisms. This study aimed to contribute understanding by exploring whether working memory capacity (maximum span) and/or efficiency (basic and cognitive processing speeds), two proposed cognitive mechanisms, are associated with children’s working memory performance immediately and 6-months post-intervention. We used data from a previous trial in primary school children (7–11 years) who completed working memory training (n = 52) or an active control (n = 36), comprising 10 sessions (each 20-minutes) in class over two weeks. Children completed five working memory measures at baseline, immediately and 6-months post-intervention: two Backwards Span and two Following Instructions measures (same paradigms as training activities), and one n-back measure (different paradigm). Maximum span, basic and cognitive processing speeds, and performance were calculated for each measure. Associations between change in maximum span, processing speeds and change in performance on the working memory measures from baseline to immediately and 6-months post-intervention did not differ between groups (all p < .05). Maximum span, processing speeds and performance on working memory measures did not differ between groups. Findings provide little evidence that the studied capacity or efficiency processes contribute to understanding working memory training outcomes in primary school children. Furthermore, working memory training did not have benefits for children’s working capacity, efficiency or performance up to 6-months post-intervention. It is of interest for future studies to explore cognitive mechanisms, including strategy use, maximum span and information processing, in datasets where training effects are observed.
Acquiring mastery in reading is considered one of the primary academic skills during the early years of elementary school. Additionally, attaining proficiency in reading during the early grades of elementary school serves as a strong predictor for future academic achievements and overall success in life. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the effect of several linguistic and cognitive variables on decoding abilities in the Bosnian language. The sample consisted of 153 children in the 2nd to 5th grades of elementary school. To assess decoding abilities, we employed tasks involving reading real words and non-words (pseudowords). The key predictors for both tasks included phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming of letters, working memory, and processing speed. Both models accounted for approximately 64% of the variance in the scores, signifying a substantial advancement compared to existing models of reading in the Bosnian language. The results of this study may contribute to the development of targeted and effective reading interventions in early elementary education.
This study evaluated the factor structure of attention, considering internal and external attention, and juxtaposed alongside processing speed (PS) and working memory (WM). We expected the hypothesized model to fit better than unitary or method factors. We included 27 measures with 212 Hispanic middle schoolers from Spanish-speaking backgrounds, where a substantial proportion were at risk for learning difficulties. Confirmatory factor analytic models separated factors of PS and WM, but the final model did not align with theoretical predictions; rather only measurement factors emerged. Findings extend and refine our understanding of the structure of attention in adolescents.
Cue-based retrieval theories of sentence processing assume that syntactic dependencies are resolved through a content-addressable search process. An important recent claim is that in certain dependency types, the retrieval cues are weighted such that one cue dominates. This cue-weighting proposal aims to explain the observed average behavior, but here we show that there is systematic individual-level variation in cue weighting. Using the Lewis and Vasishth cue-based retrieval model, we estimated individual-level parameters for reading speed and cue weighting using 13 published datasets; hierarchical approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) was used to estimate the parameters. The modeling reveals a nuanced picture of cue weighting: we find support for the idea that some participants weight cues differentially, but not all participants do. Only fast readers tend to have the predicted higher weighting for structural cues, suggesting that reading proficiency (approximated here by reading speed) might be associated with cue weighting. A broader achievement of the work is to demonstrate how individual differences can be investigated in computational models of sentence processing without compromising the complexity of the model.
I consider three aspects of children’s thinking about religious phenomena. It displays intriguing parallels with their thinking about scientific phenomena; it has an impact on their moral behavior; and it is likely to impact their religious experience. Children’s gradual conceptual progress in the domain of religion resembles their conceptual progress in the domain science. These parallels suggest the disarming possibility that older children’s apparently more advanced thinking in the domain of science might be best interpreted, not as a gain in objectivity, but rather as an acceptance of the prevailing orthodoxy regarding the scientific issue in question. Nevertheless, despite these parallels between the two domains, children resemble their parents in expressing more confidence in the existence of scientific as compared religious phenomena. An increasingly plausible explanation for that differential confidence is that children hear adults take the existence of scientific phenomena for granted but hear them express occasional doubt regarding religious phenomena. With respect to moral behavior, children who show a better understanding of God’s special cognitive and observational abilities act more generously when left alone. Finally, recent work on adults’ religious experience suggests that it would be fruitful to look for links between children’s conceptualization of the boundedness and porosity of the mind (both the human and the supernatural mind) and the frequency and nature of their religious experience.
Results from a longitudinal correlational study of 244 children from kindergarten through 2nd grade indicate that young children’s phonological processing abilities are well-described by 5 correlated latent abilities: phonological analysis, phonological synthesis, phonological coding in working memory, isolated naming, and serial naming. These abilities are characterized by different developmental rates and remarkably stable individual differences. Decoding did not exert a causal influence on subsequent phonological processing abilities, but letter-name knowledge did. Causal relations between phonological processing abilities and reading-related knowledge are bidirectional: Phonological processing abilities exert strong causal influences on word decoding; letter-name knowledge exerts a more modest causal influence on subsequent phonological processing abilities.
Working memory (WM) training in typically developing (TD) children aims to enhance not only performance in memory tasks but also other domain-general cognitive skills such as fluid intelligence. These benefits are then believed to positively affect academic achievement. Despite the numerous studies carried out, researchers still disagree over the real benefits of WM training. This meta-analysis (m = 41, k = 393, N = 2,375) intended to resolve the discrepancies by focusing on the potential sources of within-study and between-study true heterogeneity. Small to medium effects were observed in memory tasks (i.e., near transfer). The size of these effects was proportional to the similarity between the training task and the outcome measure. By contrast, far-transfer measures of cognitive ability (e.g., intelligence) and academic achievement (mathematics and language ability) were essentially unaffected by the training programs, especially when the studies implemented active controls (g ̅ = 0.001, SE = 0.055, p = .982, τ2 = 0.000). Crucially, all the models exhibited a null or low amount of true heterogeneity, wholly explained by the type of controls (non-active vs. active) and statistical artifacts, in contrast to the claim that this field has produced mixed results. Since the empirical evidence shows an absence of generalized effects and true heterogeneity, we conclude that there is no reason to keep investing resources in WM training research with TD children.
The consequences of speeded testing for the structure and validity of a numerical reasoning scale (NRS) were investigated. Confirmatory factor models including an additional factor for representing working speed and models without such a representation were employed for investigating reasoning data collected in speeded paper-and-pencil testing and in only slightly speeded testing. For achieving a complete account of the data, the models also accounted for the item-position effect. The results revealed the factor representing working speed as essential for achieving a good fit in data originating from speeded testing. The reasoning factors based on data due to speeded and slightly speeded testing showed a high correlation among each other. The factor representing working speed was independent of the other factors derived from reasoning data but related to an external score representing processing speed.
Executive function (EF) is related to reading. However, there is a lack of clarity around (a) the relative contribution of different components of EF to different reading components (word reading, fluency, comprehension), and (b) how EF operates in the context of known strong language predictors (e.g., components of the simple view of reading or SVR), and other skills theoretically related to reading (e.g., vocabulary, processing speed) and/or to EF (e.g., short-term memory, motor function). In a large sample of 3rd to 5th graders oversampled for struggling readers, this paper evaluates the impact of EF derived from a bifactor model (Cirino, Ahmed, Miciak, Taylor, Gerst, & Barnes, 2018) in the context of well-known covariates and demographics. Beyond common EF, five specific factors (two related to working memory, and factors of fluency, self-regulated learning, and behavioral inattention/metacognition) were addressed. EF consistently showed a unique contribution to already-strong predictive models for all reading outcomes; for reading comprehension, EF interacted with SVR indices (word reading and listening comprehension). The findings extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of EF to reading skill.
We examined whether a general processing factor emerges when using response times for cognitive processing tasks and whether such a factor is valid across three different cultural groups (Chinese, Canadian, and Greek). Three hundred twenty university students from Canada (n = 115), China (n = 110), and Cyprus (n = 95) were assessed on an adaptation of the Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (D-N CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997). Three alternative models were contrasted: a distinct abilities processing speed model (Model 1) that is dictated by the latent four cognitive factors of planning, attention, simultaneous and successive (PASS) processing, a unitary ability processing speed model (Model 2) that is dictated by the response time nature of all measures, and a bifactor model (Model 3) which included the latent scores of Models 1 and 2 and served as the full model. Results of structural equation modeling showed that (a) the model representing processing speed as a collection of four cognitive processes rather than a unitary processing speed factor was the most parsimonious, and (b) the loadings of the obtained factors were invariant across the three cultural groups. These findings enhance our understanding of the nature of speed of processing across diverse cultures and suggest that even when cognitive processes (i.e., PASS) are operationalized with response time measures, the processing component dominates speed.
Objective:
Executive function (EF) is a commonly used but difficult to operationalize construct. In this study, we considered EF and related components as they are commonly presented in the neuropsychological literature, as well as the literatures of developmental, educational, and cognitive psychology. These components have not previously been examined simultaneously, particularly with this level of comprehensiveness, and/or at this age range or with this sample size. We expected that the EF components would be separate but related, and that a bifactor model would best represent the data relative to alternative models.
Method:
We assessed EF with 27 measures in a large sample (N = 846) of late elementary school-age children, many of whom were struggling in reading, and who were demographically diverse. We tested structural models of EF, from unitary models to methodological models, utilizing model-comparison factor analytic techniques. We examined both a common factor as well as a bifactor structure.
Results:
Initial models showed strong overlap among several latent EF variables. The final model was a bifactor model with a common EF, and five specific EF factors (working memory-span/manipulation and planning; working memory-updating; generative fluency, self-regulated learning; metacognition).
Conclusions:
Results speak to the commonality and potential separability of EF. These results are discussed in light of prevailing models of EF and how EF might be used for structure/description, prediction, and for identifying its mechanism for relevant outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record
Our goal in this paper is to understand the extent to which, and under what conditions, executive functions (EFs) play a role in reading comprehension processes. We begin with a brief review of core components of EF (inhibition, shifting, and updating) and reading comprehension. We then discuss the status of EFs in process models of reading comprehension. Next, we review and synthesize empirical evidence in the extant literature for the involvement of core components of EF in reading comprehension processes under different reading conditions and across different populations. In conclusion, we propose that EFs may help explain complex interactions between the reader, the text, and the discourse situation, and call for both existing and future models of reading comprehension to include EFs as explicit components.
Objective:
Interest continues in neuropsychological measures as cross-disorder intermediate phenotypes in understanding psychopathology. A central question concerns their specificity versus generalizability to particular forms of psychopathology, particularly for executive functioning (EF) and response speed. Three conceptual models examining these relationships were tested to clarify this picture at different levels in the diagnostic hierarchy.
Method:
Participants (total n = 641, age 18-60) yielded complete structured diagnostic interviews and a neuropsychological test battery comprising measures of executive function, processing speed, and IQ. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance, linear regression, and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to test (a) a specificity model, which proposes that individual disorders are associated with component EF processes and speed; (b) a severity model, which proposes that the total number of comorbid disorders explain poor EF and/or slow speed; and (c) a higher-order dimensional model, which proposes that internalizing versus externalizing disorders are differentially related to EF or speed.
Results:
EF effects were best explained by a specificity model, with distinct aspects of EF related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus antisocial substance use disorders. Speed, on the other hand, emerged as a general indicator of externalizing psychopathology in the dimensional model, as well as overall severity of psychopathology in the severity model.
Conclusions:
Granular approaches are likely to be most productive for linking EF to psychopathology, whereas response speed has underused potential as an endophenotype for psychopathology liability. Results are discussed in terms of an integrated conceptualization of neuropsychological processes and putative neural systems involved in general and specific aspects of psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record
We examined the prominent theoretical explanations of the RAN-reading relationship in a relatively transparent language (Greek) in a sample of children (n= 286) followed from Grade 1 to Grade 2. Specifically, we tested the fit of eight different models, as defined by the type of reading performance predicted (oral vs. silent word reading fluency), the type of RAN tasks (non-alphanumeric vs. alphanumeric), and the RAN effects (direct vs. indirect). Working memory, attention, processing speed, and motor skills were used as “common cause” variables predicting both RAN and reading fluency and phonological awareness and orthographic processing were used as mediators of RAN’s effects on reading fluency. The findings of both concurrent and longitudinal analyses indicated that RAN is a unique predictor of oral reading fluency, but not silent reading fluency. Using alphanumeric or non-alphanumeric tasks did not particularly affect the RAN-reading relationship. Both phonological awareness and orthographic processing partly mediated RAN’s effects on reading fluency. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to contrast three models of the RAN-reading relationship derived from the most prominent theoretical accounts of how RAN is related to reading: the phonological processing, the orthographic processing and the speed of processing accounts. Grade 4 Greek-speaking children (n = 208; 114 girls, 94 boys; mean age = 117.29 months) were administered measures of general cognitive ability, RAN, phonological processing, orthographic processing, speed of processing, and reading fluency. Phonological processing and orthographic processing were assessed with both accuracy and speeded measures. Structural equation modeling showed that the most parsimonious model was one in which RAN predicted reading fluency directly and through orthographic processing. Phonological processing did not predict reading fluency and speed of processing was more important for the RAN-orthographic/phonological processing relationships than for the RAN-reading relationship. Taken together, these findings suggest that what is unique to RAN is more important for the prediction of reading fluency than what it shares with either speed of processing, phonological processing, or orthographic processing.
The current study tested a multiple-cognitive predictor model of word reading, math ability, and attention in a community-based sample of twins ages 8 to 16 years (N = 636). The objective was to identify cognitive predictors unique to each skill domain as well as cognitive predictors shared among skills that could help explain their overlap and thus help illuminate the basis for comorbidity of related disorders (reading disability, math disability, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). Results indicated that processing speed contributes to the overlap between reading and attention as well as math and attention, whereas verbal comprehension contributes to the overlap between reading and math. There was no evidence that executive functioning skills help account for covariation among these skill domains. Instead, specific executive functions differentially related to certain outcomes (i.e., working memory to math and inhibition to attention). We explored whether the model varied in younger versus older children and found only minor differences. Results are interpreted within the context of the multiple deficit framework for neurodevelopmental disorders.
Evidence that rapid naming skill is associated with reading ability has become increasingly prevalent in recent years. However, there is considerable variation in the literature concerning the magnitude of this relationship. The objective of the present study was to provide a comprehensive analysis of the evidence on the relationship between rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading performance. To this end, we conducted a meta-analysis of the correlational relationship between these 2 constructs to (a) determine the overall strength of the RAN-reading association and (b) identify variables that systematically moderate this relationship. A random-effects model analysis of data from 137 studies (857 effect sizes; 28,826 participants) indicated a moderate-to-strong relationship between RAN and reading performance (r = .43, I2 = 68.40). Further analyses revealed that RAN contributes to the 4 measures of reading (word reading, text reading, non-word reading, and reading comprehension), but higher coefficients emerged in favor of real word reading and text reading. RAN stimulus type and type of reading score were the factors with the greatest moderator effect on the magnitude of the RAN-reading relationship. The consistency of orthography and the subjects' grade level were also found to impact this relationship, although the effect was contingent on reading outcome. It was less evident whether the subjects' reading proficiency played a role in the relationship. Implications for future studies are discussed.
We compared three phonological processing components (phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and phonological memory), verbal working memory, and attention control in terms of how well they predict the various aspects of reading: word recognition, pseudoword decoding, fluency and comprehension, in a mixed sample of 182 children ages 8–12 years. Participants displayed a wide range of reading ability and attention control. Multiple regression was used to determine how well the phonological processing components, verbal working memory, and attention control predict reading performance. All equations were highly significant. Phonological memory predicted word identification and decoding. In addition, phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming predicted every aspect of reading assessed, supporting the notion that phonological processing is a core contributor to reading ability. Nonetheless, phonological processing was not the only predictor of reading performance. Verbal working memory predicted fluency, decoding and comprehension, and attention control predicted fluency. Based upon our results, when using Baddeley’s model of working memory it appears that the phonological loop contributes to basic reading ability, whereas the central executive contributes to fluency and comprehension, along with decoding. Attention control was of interest as some children with ADHD have poor reading ability even if it is not sufficiently impaired to warrant diagnosis. Our finding that attention control predicts reading fluency is consistent with prior research which showed sustained attention plays a role in fluency. Taken together, our results suggest that reading is a highly complex skill that entails more than phonological processing to perform well.
Reaction time variables are used widely in studies of human cognitive ageing and in research on the information processing foundations of psychometric intelligence. The research is largely based on biased population samples. In the present study, large (500+), representative samples of the population of the West of Scotland were tested at ages 16, 36 and 56 years on simple and choice reaction time. Participants were re-tested eight years later, at which time they also took the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). We report simple and choice reaction time means and their variabilities, their stability across 8 years, and their correlations with the PASAT. Simple and choice reaction times become slower and more variable with age. Women from age 36 to 63 show more variability in choice reaction times than men, an effect which remains after controlling for mean reaction time. Reaction time differences largely account for age differences, but not sex differences, in PASAT scores.
We report a longitudinal study investigating the predictors of reading comprehension and word reading accuracy between the ages of 7 to 8 (UK Year 3) and 10 to 11 years (Year 6). We found that different skills predicted the development of each. Reading comprehension skill measured in Year 3 was a strong predictor of comprehension in Year 6; vocabulary and verbal IQ also made significant unique contributions to the prediction of comprehension ability across time. Three comprehension components (inference, comprehension monitoring, and knowledge and use of story structure) emerged as distinct predictors of reading comprehension in Year 6, even after the autoregressive effect of comprehension was controlled. For word reading accuracy, early measures of word reading accuracy and phonemic awareness predicted later performance.
The authors propose an alternative conceptualization of the developmental dyslexias, the
double-deficit hypothesis (i.e., phonological deficits and processes underlying naming-speed deficits represent 2 separable sources of reading dysfunction). Data from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-linguistic studies are reviewed supporting the presence of 2 single-deficit subtypes with more limited reading impairments and 1 double-deficit subtype with more pervasive and severe impairments. Naming-speed and phonological-awareness variables contribute uniquely to different aspects of reading according to this conception, with a model of visual letter naming illustrating both the multicomponential nature of naming speed and why naming speed should not be subsumed under phonological processes. Two hypotheses concerning relationships between naming-speed processes and reading are considered. The implications of processing speed as a second core deficit in dyslexia are described for diagnosis and intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
IQ and achievement scores were analyzed for 678 children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; 6-16 years of age, IQ≥80) administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; n=586) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV, n=92). Approximately 76% of children in both samples were identified with a learning disability (LD). LD in written expression was more common than in reading or math. For both the WISC-III and the WISC-IV, full-scale IQ was the strongest single predictor of achievement in all areas. The verbal subtests comprising the Freedom from Distractibility/Working Memory Index (FDI/WMI) and Verbal Comprehension Index were more highly correlated with achievement scores than the nonverbal subtests on both the WISC-III and WISC-IV. The most powerful predictors of LD, however, were the FDI/WMI and Processing Speed Index (PSI) subtests. These findings suggest that verbal intelligence is more influential in determining level of academic achievement, whereas cognitive abilities assessed by FDI/WMI and PSI are more important in determining LD in children with ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
There is considerable focus in public policy on screening children for reading difficulties. Sixty years of research have not resolved questions of what constructs assessed in kindergarten best predict subsequent reading outcomes. This study assessed the relative importance of multiple measures obtained in a kindergarten sample for the prediction of reading outcomes at the end of 1st and 2nd grades. Analyses revealed that measures of phonological awareness, letter sound knowledge, and naming speed consistently accounted for the unique variance across reading outcomes whereas measures of perceptual skills and oral language and vocabulary did not. These results show that measures of letter name and letter sound knowledge, naming speed, and phonological awareness are good predictors of multiple reading outcomes in Grades 1 and 2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigated the component skills underlying reading fluency in a heterogeneous sample of 527 eighth grade students.
Based on a hypothetical measurement model and successive testing of nested models, structural equation modeling revealed that
naming speed, decoding, and language were uniquely associated with reading fluency. These findings suggest that the ability
to access and retrieve phonological information from long-term storage is the most important factor in explaining individual
differences in reading fluency among adolescent readers. The ability to process meaning and decode novel words was smaller
but reliable contributors to reading fluency in adolescent readers.
Objective:
The present study aimed to investigate the factor structure of a set of neurocognitive tests theoretically assessing executive functions (EF), verbal abilities (VA), and processing speed (PS). This study extended previous research by analyzing if each test is better explained by the specific factor to which it theoretically belongs or by a more general neurocognitive factor; and also by analyzing the relations between the neurocognitive factors.
Methods:
Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) we examined the factor structure of nine neurocognitive tests (EF: Working Memory, Tower, Divided Attention, Stroop, and Verbal Fluency tests; VA: Word List and Confrontation Naming tests; PS: Coding and Telephone Search tests) in a nonclinical sample (N = 90; 18-33 years old, 76 women). We tested five factor models of neurocognitive functioning: a one-factor model; two models with two-correlated factors; and two models with three-correlated factors.
Results:
A three-correlated-factor model, with EF, VA, and PS factors, was the most suitable for our neuropsychological data. The Verbal Fluency test was better explained by the VA factor rather than by the EF factor. The EF factor was correlated with the PS factor, but not with the VA factor.
Conclusions:
Most of the neurocognitive measures used in the present study loaded in the expected factors (with the exception of the Verbal Fluency that was apparently more related to VA). EF and PS represent related but separable functions. Our results highlight the need for a careful interpretation of test scores since performance on one test usually requires multiple functions.
Inadequate responders demonstrate significant risk for learning disabilities. Previous investigations of the cognitive profiles of inadequate and adequate responders have not included measures of executive functions (EFs), which have well-documented associations to reading comprehension. We evaluated EF performance on a common factor comprised of shared variance across tasks as well as five separable EF factors in the context of an intensive reading intervention for struggling fourth graders. To determine whether EF performance at pretest is associated with subsequent responder status, we compared EF performance of three subgroups of students: inadequate and adequate responders and typical students not at risk for reading disabilities. Results of discriminant function analyses and linear regression models comparing groups were largely null; EF performance at pretest demonstrated only small associations with responder status. These results suggest that the assessment of EF may have limited value in predicting which individual students will respond to intensive reading interventions.
This paper reports an investigation of whether data on intelligence obtained by speeded testing have to be represented in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by an additional factor besides the ability factor, and whether the additional factor can be identified as a speed factor. The paper further examined whether the hypothesized speed factor influences the relationship between intelligence and working memory. Two independent datasets including data obtained by speeded intelligence testing, measures of processing speed and of working memory were investigated by means of CFA. A hybrid bifactor model was employed to represent the hypothesized speed and the ability factor of the intelligence data. Whereas the factor loadings for representing ability were set free for estimation, the factor loadings for representing speed were constrained according to theory-based expectations. The results showed that a speed factor is necessary for achieving a good fit to the data with speeded testing. The convergent validity of the speed factor was shown by data on measures of processing speed. Furthermore, it turned out that the consideration of the latent speed factor led to a decrease of the correlation between intelligence and working memory. These results suggest that speeded testing influences the assessment of intelligence and may also bias empirical findings regarding the relationships between intelligence and other constructs.
This study examined associations between broad cognitive abilities (Fluid Reasoning [Gf], Short-Term Working Memory [Gwm], Long-Term Storage and Retrieval [Glr], Processing Speed [Gs], Comprehension-Knowledge [Gc], Visual Processing [Gv], and Auditory Processing [Ga]) and reading achievement (Basic Reading Skills, Reading Rate, Reading Fluency, and Reading Comprehension) in a nationally representative school-age sample. Findings indicate that some cognitive abilities were stronger predictors of reading achievement than previously found (e.g., Gf, Ga, and Gs). Most notably, the Woodcock-Johnson–IV Gf cluster was found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of reading achievement. A secondary analysis suggests that this effect was likely due to the new Number Series test. The results of the study suggest revisions to previous conceptualizations of the associations between the broad Cattell-Horn-Carroll abilities and areas of reading achievement.
This study examined the effectiveness of a researcher-provided intervention with 4th-graders with significant reading difficulties. The intervention emphasized multi-syllable word reading, fluent reading of high frequency words and phrases, vocabulary, and comprehension. To identify the participants, 1,695 fourth grade students were screened using the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test, and those whose standard score was 85 or lower were included in the study (N = 485). Participants were randomly assigned (2:1) to receive either researcher-provided intervention (n = 324) or intervention provided by school personnel (business as usual, BAU) (n = 161). Findings revealed no statistically significant differences between students in the researcher-provided intervention and BAU groups. Using effect sizes as an indicator of impact, students in the researcher implemented treatment generally outperformed students in the school implemented treatment (BAU). Examining growth in standard scores, both groups made significant gains in reading outcomes with standard score growth from pretest to posttest of 3 standard score points on decoding, 5 on fluency,, and 2.0 to 7 standard score points on reading comprehension measures.
The theory of log-linear models is developed for multinomially distributed data – i.e., frequency distributions and discrete multivariate distributions. Such models have applications to data smoothing and can be used in test equating. Attention is given to the computations used to find maximum likelihood estimates using Newton's method and to the computation of asymptotic standard errors for the fitted frequencies. Two examples, using real data, are used to illustrate the output of a computer program that implements these ideas.
Age-related change in processing speed has been linked directly to increases in reasoning as well as indirectly via increases in the capacity of working memory (WM). Most of the evidence linking change in speed to reasoning has come from cross-sectional research; in this article we present the findings from a 2½-year longitudinal study of 277 6- to-13-year-olds. On three occasions, speed of information processing was assessed with Visual Matching and Cross Out; WM was assessed with reading, listening, backward digit, alphabet, and operation span tasks; and nonverbal reasoning was assessed with Raven's progressive matrices. The results provided consistent evidence of direct links from processing speed to reasoning but inconsistent evidence for indirect links from speed to WM to reasoning. These findings suggest that variations in processing speed may constrain the development of reasoning, directly and perhaps indirectly. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/nc0VlFdi468.
Elevated reaction time (RT) is common in brain disorders. We studied three forms of RT in a neurodevelopmental disorder, spina bifida myelomeningocele (SBM), characterized by regional alterations of both white and grey matter, and typically developing individuals aged 8 to 48 years, in order to establish the nature of the lifespan-relations of RT and brain variables. Cognitive accuracy and RT speed and variability were all impaired in SBM relative to the typically developing group, but the most important effects of SBM on RT are seen on tasks that require a cognitive decision rule. Individuals with SBM are impaired not only in speeded performance, but also in the consistency of their performance on tasks that extend over time, which may contribute to poor performance on a range of cognitive tasks. The group with SBM showed smaller corrected corpus callosum proportions, larger corrected cerebellar white matter proportions, and larger corrected proportions for grey matter in the Central Executive and Salience networks. There were clear negative relations between RT measures and corpus callosum, Central Executive, and Default Mode networks in the group with SBM; relations were not observed in typically developing age peers. Statistical mediation analyses indicated that corpus callosum and Central Executive Network were important mediators. While RT is known to rely heavily on white matter under conditions of typical development and in individuals with adult-onset brain injury, we add the new information that additional involvement of grey matter may be important for a key neuropsychological function in a common neurodevelopmental disorder.
This article systematically reviews what is known empirically about the association between executive function and student achievement in both reading and math and critically assesses the evidence for a causal association between the two. Using meta-analytic techniques, the review finds that there is a moderate unconditional association between executive function and achievement that does not differ by executive function construct, age, or measurement type but finds no compelling evidence that a causal association between the two exists.
The two purposes of this paper are to provide a SAS IML macro that performs loglinear smoothing and to apply this macro to loglinear smoothing problems that have not been extensively discussed in the test-equating literature. The SAS macro is demonstrated on univariate, bivariate, and trivariate smoothing problems. The univariate and bivariate examples reproduce published results (von Davier, Holland, & Thayer, 2004). The trivariate example extends the bivariate smoothing example to allow for comparisons of subgroups' univariate and bivariate distributions. The implications are that important questions about distribution differences and subpopulation invariance of equating functions can be considered through comparisons and evaluations of complex loglinear models that are easily fit with this SAS IML macro.
The aim of the present study was to investigate age-related differences in text comprehension performance in 10- to 12-year-old children, analyzing the joint influence of working memory (WM), inhibition-related mechanisms, and processing speed. Children were administered: i) a text comprehension task in which the memory load was manipulated by allowing them to see the text while answering or withdrawing the text (text-present versus text-absent conditions); and ii) WM, inhibition and processing speed tasks. Results showed that age-related differences were not significant in the text-present condition, whereas older children performed better than younger ones in the text-absent condition. Regression analyses indicated that only WM accounted for a significant part of the variance in the text-present condition, whereas in the text-absent condition comprehension performance was explained by the combined contribution of WM and resistance to distractor interference. These findings confirm the crucial role of WM capacity in text processing and indicate that specific inhibitory mechanisms are involved in children's text processing when the comprehension task involves memory load.
To clarify the role of decoding in reading and reading disability, a simple model of reading is proposed, which holds that reading equals the product of decoding and comprehension. It follows that there must be three types of reading disability, resulting from an inability to decode, an inability to comprehend, or both. It is argued that the first is dyslexia, the second hyperlexia, and the third common, or garden variety, reading disability.
This study investigated how measures of decoding, fluency, and comprehension in middle school students overlap with one another, whether the pattern of overlap differs between struggling and typical readers, and the relative frequency of different types of reading difficulties. The 1,748 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students were oversampled for struggling readers (n = 1,025) on the basis of the state reading comprehension proficiency measure. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses showed partial invariance among struggling and typical readers (with differential loadings for fluency and for comprehension), and strict invariance for decoding and a combined fluency/comprehension factor. Among these struggling readers, most (85 %) also had weaknesses on nationally standardized measures, particularly in comprehension; however, most of these also had difficulties in decoding or fluency. These results show that the number of students with a specific comprehension problem is lower than recent consensus reports estimate and that the relation of different reading components varies according to struggling versus proficient readers.
The use of eligibility for a free lunch as a measure of a student's socioeconomic status continues to be a fixture of quantitative education research. Despite its popularity, it is unclear that education researchers are familiar with what student eligibility for a free lunch does (and does not) represent. The authors examine the National School Lunch Program, which is responsible for certifying students as eligible for a free lunch, and conclude that free lunch eligibility is a poor measure of socioeconomic status, which suffers from important deficiencies that can bias inferences. A table characterizing key strengths and weaknesses of variables used as measures of socioeconomic status is provided to facilitate comparisons.
As children develop, they process information more rapidly. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether processing speed in the language domain develops at the same rate as global processing speed. A second aim was to determine the stability of processing speed throughout childhood and adolescence. Children (N = 116) were tested on 10 different speeded tasks at 9 and 14 years of age. Developmental change in processing speed was greater on nonlanguage tasks (sampling global processing speed) than on language tasks. Processing speed was faster on language tasks than on nonlanguage tasks at age 9 but not at age 14. There was evidence of modest continuity in processing speed across the 5-year span.
This article explores the nature and consequences of developmental change in speed of information processing. The first part of the article summarizes evidence indicating that age differences in processing speed reflect developmental change in a global mechanism that limits processing speed on most tasks. The second part of the article describes evidence that suggests a role for processing speed in the development of intelligence. The article concludes with some implications of these findings for theories and assessment of intelligence.
School-level performance on standardized reading comprehension was obtained for 259 public schools in a South Florida district with 270,000 children. Eleven percent of the students were English Language Learners (ELLs), and another 20% were English proficient (EP) and former ELLs, for a total of 31% or about 87,000 ELL students. Thirty-eight percent of all children, or about 100,000, qualified for free or reduced lunch (FRL) because of low family income. This study conducts a school-level analysis where SES markers are as available (and reliable) in both poor and relatively rich schools. Socioeconomic status included the percentage of children in the school with FRL, the average family income, and the average cost of the homes in the neighborhood of the school. Poverty is particularly important to define in a complex way in South Florida because bilingual status interacts with it to a substantial degree. Six unit-weighted composite variables including poverty, bilingualism, ethnicity, child risk behaviors, school resources, and teacher resources were created from 22 measured school-level variables. Schools identified as resilient are important because they have higher reading scores and higher poverty levels than other schools. Other notable characteristics of these resilient schools are that they obtain more state money per pupil, have less crime, and have a better student to teacher ratio.
Processing speed, working memory capacity, and fluid intelligence were assessed in a large sample (N = 214) of children, adolescents, and young adults (ages 7 to 19 years) Results of path analyses revealed that almost half of the age-related increase in fluid intelligence was mediated by developmental changes in processing speed and working memory and nearly three fourths of the improvement in working memory was mediated by developmental changes in processing speed Moreover, even when age-related differences in speed, working memory and fluid intelligence were statistically controlled, individual differences in speed had a direct effect on working memory capacity which, in turn was a direct determinant of individual differences in fluid intelligence
Measurement invariance is usually tested using Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis, which examines the change in the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) when cross-group constraints are imposed on a measurement model. Although many studies have examined the properties of GFI as indicators of overall model fit for single-group data, there have been none to date that examine how GFIs change when between-group constraints are added to a measurement model. The lack of a consensus about what constitutes significant GFI differences places limits on measurement invariance testing. We examine 20 GFIs based on the minimum fit function. A simulation under the two-group situation was used to examine changes in the GFIs (ΔGFIs) when invariance constraints were added. Based on the results, we recommend using Δcomparative fit index, ΔGamma hat, and ΔMcDonald's Noncentrality Index to evaluate measurement invariance. These three ΔGFIs are independent of both model complexity and sample size, and are not correlated with the overall fit measures. We propose critical values of these ΔGFIs that indicate measurement invariance.
Using existing data from several locations across the U.S., this study examined the impact of students' language background on the outcome of achievement tests. The results of the analyses indicated that students' assessment results might be con-founded by their language background variables. English language learners (ELLs) generally perform lower than non-ELL students on reading, science, and math–a strong indication of the impact of English language proficiency on assessment. Moreover, the level of impact of language proficiency on assessment of ELL students is greater in the content areas with higher language demand. For example, analyses showed that ELL and non-ELL students had the greatest performance differences in the language-related subscales of tests in areas such as reading. The gap between the performance of ELL and non-ELL students was smaller in science and virtually non-existent in the math computation subscale, where language presumably has the least impact on item comprehension. The results of our analyses also indicated that test item responses by ELL stu-dents, particularly ELL students at the lower end of the English proficiency spec-trum, suffered from low reliability. That is, the language background of students may add another dimension to the assessment outcome that may be a source of measure-ment error in the assessment for English language learners. Further, the correlation between standardized achievement test scores and exter-nal criterion measures was significantly larger for the non-ELL students than for the ELL students. Analyses of the structural relationships between individual items and between items and the total test scores showed a major difference between ELL and non-ELL students. Structural models for ELL students demonstrated lower statistical fit. The factor loadings were generally lower for ELL students, and the correlations between the latent content-based variables were also weaker for them. We speculate that language factors may be a source of construct-irrelevant vari-ance in standardized achievement tests (Messick, 1994) and may affect their con-struct validity. Due to the rapidly changing demographics of the U.S. population, fairness and va-lidity issues in assessment are becoming top priorities in the national agenda. Be-tween 1990 and 1997, the number of U.S. residents not born in the United States increased by 30%, from 19.8 million to 25.8 million (Hakuta & Beatty, 2000). Ac-cording to the Survey of the States' Limited English Proficient Students and Avail-able Educational Programs and Services 1999–2000 Summary Report, over 4.4 million limited English proficient 1 students were enrolled in public schools (Na-tional Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs, 2002). To provide fair assessment and uphold standards on instruction for every child in this country, both federal (e.g., No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) and state legislation now require the inclusion of all students, includ-ing ELLs, into large-scale assessments (Abedi, Lord, Hofstetter, & Baker, 2000; Mazzeo, Carlson, Voelkl, & Lutkus, 2000). Such inclusion requirements have prompted new interest in modifying assessments to improve the level of English language learners' participation and to enhance validity and equitability of infer-ences drawn from the assessments themselves. Standardized, high-stakes achievement tests are frequently used for assessment and classification of ELL students, as well as for accountability purposes. They shape instruction and student learning (Linn, 1995). These tests are used by ap-proximately 52% of school districts and schools to help identify ELL students, as-sign them to school services, and reclassify them from ELL status. About 40% of districts and schools use achievement tests for assigning ELL students to specific instructional services within a school, and over 70% of districts and schools use achievement tests to reclassify students from ELL status (Zehler, Hopstock, Fleischman, & Greniuk, 1994). However, as most standardized, content-based tests (such as science and math tests) are administered in English and normed on native English-speaking test pop-ulations, they may inadvertently function as English language proficiency tests. English language learners may be unfamiliar with the linguistically complex struc-ture of test questions, may not recognize vocabulary terms, or may mistakenly in-terpret an item literally (Duran, 1989; Garcia, 1991). They may also perform less well on tests because they read more slowly (Mestre, 1988).
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
We examined models of individual change and correlates of change in the growth of reading skills in a sample of 40 children from kindergarten through third grade. A broad range of correlates was examined and included family literacy, oral language, emergent reading, intelligence, spelling, and demographic variables. Individual growth curve analysis was used to model change in Letter Word Identification (LWID), Word Attack (WA), and Passage Comprehension (PC) subtests of the Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery – Revised. Third grade LWID was predicted uniquely by family literacy, phonological awareness, and emergent reading skills. Growth in LWID was predicted uniquely by emergent reading skills. Phonological awareness, spelling, and emergent reading were unique predictors of third grade WA, whereas family literacy and emergent reading skills uniquely predicted third grade PC. The general oral language factor defined by semantic and syntactic variables did not contribute significant unique variance in any of the models. Thus, the pattern of results extends the model of emergent-to-conventional literacy proposed by Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) to third grade and suggests that early contextual understandings necessary for competent reading (family literacy and emergent reading) become more influential as reading skills develop.