Article

Freelance Job Search During Times of Uncertainty: Protean Career Orientation, Career Competencies, and Job Search

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Abstract

Purpose: Freelancers are a growing population of working adults with limited to no organizational support. Yet, their strategies to navigate job search, especially in turbulent times, are unknown. To address this gap, I hypothesized and examined a sequential mediation model whereby freelancer protean career orientation (PCO) influences job search strategies through career competencies (i.e., knowing why, how, and with whom to work) and job search self-efficacy (JSSE). Design/methodology/approach: Data were collected from a sample of 87 Canadian freelancers during the height of the Covid-19 pandemic. Findings: The results supported the sequential mediation from PCO to job search strategies through two of the career competencies (knowing why and how) and JSSE. The mediating role of knowing whom competency was not supported. Social implications: The insignificant mediating role of knowing whom (i.e. professional networks) implies that large networks might not be necessarily beneficial in times of crisis. Thus, the role of networks might be more complex than the literature has proposed. Practical implications: Policy makers and learning institutions can provide freelancers with opportunities to develop transferable skills through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Employers of freelancers can design motivating jobs that provide freelancers with on-the-job learning and development opportunities. Originality: This study brings into focus an overlooked population of workers: freelancers. It investigates a sequential mediation through which freelancer PCO impacts job search strategies. In addition, it compares the effectiveness of career competencies in unfolding the proposed sequential mediation.

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... The final group (8.7 % of the studies) covered more specific, often non-standard or underrepresented groups of workers. For example, some research focused on gig worker samples and explored how career competencies help them strengthen their job search behaviors (Ayoobzadeh, 2022;Duggan et al., 2021). Further, a group of studies relied exclusively on a sample of working women (Duberley & Cohen, 2010;Jayashree et al., 2020;Terjesen, 2005;Yates & Skinner, 2021). ...
... We identified nine such antecedents under the motivational self-regulation category (10 %), of which career mobility (5 %) is predominant. For example, people with self-directed protean career orientation develop career competencies to influence their job search strategies (Ayoobzadeh, 2022). Similarly, increasing levels of career mobility and boundarylessness necessitate developing career competencies to navigate the labor market (Colakoglu, 2011;Kuijpers & Scheerens, 2006;Ryazanova & McNamara, 2019). ...
... Given the nature of self-managed boundaryless careers, working individuals' employability has become critical. Research shows that people with career competencies exhibit high internal and external employability (Ayoobzadeh, 2022;Blokker et al., 2019;Direnzo et al., 2015;Eby et al., 2003). It indicates that people with high career competencies are recognized by the organization through the provision of better career advancement and learning opportunities. ...
... The antecedents of career competencies are also subdivided into four dimensions: personal factors directly or indirectly and contextual factors directly or indirectly affect career competencies. Direct antecedents are associated with new career perspectives, such as career boundarylessness and a protean career orientation (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Colakoglu, 2011;Övgü Çakmak-Otluo glu, 2018). Moreover, some factors duplicate the knowing-how competency, such as career identity (Eby et al., 2003) and career commitment (Kong et al., 2012a(Kong et al., , 2012b. ...
... Chen and Doherty (2013) examined people's perceptions of guanxi benefits such as sharing information, building reputation and exchanging knowledge. From another viewpoint, a network serves as a repository of gained reputation (Ayoobzadeh, 2021) because the organization relies on its members' networking efforts. Additionally, networks serve as new sources of learning that enhance competitiveness (O'Connor et al., 2021). ...
... 4.3 Outcomes 4.3.1 Direct outcomes. When the levels of career competencies are high, we can expect positive outcomes related to work engagement (Akkermans et al., 2013a(Akkermans et al., , 2013b, career satisfaction (Kong, 2013a(Kong, , 2013bKong et al., 2016), well-being (Plomp et al., 2016), perceived internal and external marketability (Eby et al., 2003), job search strategies and employability (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Direnzo and Greenhaus, 2011) and motivation for learning, career EJTD identity and certainty of career choice (Meijers and Kuijpers, 2014;Meijers et al., 2013). Career competencies are also negatively related to employee turnover and job insecurity (Mazzetti et al., 2018). ...
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Purpose A boundaryless career perspective suggests that career competencies are essential for employees who wish to advance their careers in high uncertainty. This study aims to propose an integrated conceptual model for career competencies to provide insights for employees and organizations by identifying what and how one can prepare and provide support for career development in an uncertain and complex work environment. Design/methodology/approach The integrated literature reviewed was adapted to provide a conceptual model for career competencies. All 77 studies were reviewed, guided by the intelligent career theory (ICT) and social cognitive career theory (SCCT). Findings The mechanisms of career competency development were examined through the interrelationship between three types of knowing; knowing-why, knowing-whom and knowing-how. Career competencies can be considered a developmental process, therefore, they could develop through various interventions and accumulate over time. Especially the results indicate that learning is an essential component of career competencies, as it increases self-efficacy and promotes a desire to achieve positive career outcomes. Originality/value This study provided a conceptual model, explored the mechanisms of career competency development and considered how career competencies influence career outcomes. Furthermore, it identified the context of the construct of career competencies by integrating the SCCT and ICT. Finally, it showed the inadequacy of existing research on negative factors of career competency outcomes and recommended further research to broaden the general context of career competency studies.
... Freelancers have received increased attention from scholars, notably regarding career paths (Born & Witteloostuijn, 2013). However, although they constitute major concerns in the professional world, freelancers and their careers still need to be further studied (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Barlage, Van den Born, & Van Witteloostuijn, 2019;Spreitzer et al., 2017). Freelancers have often been depicted as independent actors who adopt boundaryless and protean orientations (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Kost et al., 2019;Parrino, 2015;Lo Presti et al., 2018). ...
... However, although they constitute major concerns in the professional world, freelancers and their careers still need to be further studied (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Barlage, Van den Born, & Van Witteloostuijn, 2019;Spreitzer et al., 2017). Freelancers have often been depicted as independent actors who adopt boundaryless and protean orientations (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Kost et al., 2019;Parrino, 2015;Lo Presti et al., 2018). Such labels point out the autonomous, proactive, value-driven, and independent careers' nature, in contrast to what organisational careers have previously represented (Arthur, 1994;Hall, 1996;Inkson, 2006;Lo Presti et al., 2018). ...
... The findings also show an interesting line of inquiry into the careers of freelancers, and the construction of freelancers' careers in the light of the agency-structure nexus (Akkermans et al., 2021). The career literature highlights the protean nature of workers, particularly regarding skilled contingent workers, who are supposed to be fully in control of their careers (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Hall, 1996;Inkson, 2006;Lo Presti et al., 2018). While some freelancers seem here to represent genuine advocates of protean careers and are pulled by the nature of freelance work (especially those linked to individual career shocks), and they wish to develop their business based on their values and increased autonomy and freedom, many freelancers stress through their career narratives that a number of exogenous events, for some negatively valenced, push them to make the transition. ...
... Moreover, high-PCO individuals are more likely to be proactive, make plans and initiate change (Baruch, 2014), especially when facing unexpected events (Hall et al., 2018). They tend to perceive themselves as employable (Baruch et al., 2020) and seek new work opportunities proactively (Ayoobzadeh, 2022). Relying less on external resources, they are more likely to retain employment due to traits like proactivity, optimism and adaptability (Waters et al., 2014). ...
... Organizations can also cultivate PCO behaviors in their employees, as high-PCO individuals provide value during chance events and negative CSs (Ayoobzadeh, 2022). However, precarious workers often lack resources for personal development, exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities (Côt� e, 2024). ...
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Purpose Our study aimed to understand how a negative career shock (CS), caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, a global crisis, impacted employees’ career success and life satisfaction in China. Design/methodology/approach Employees ( n = 737) from industries adversely impacted by COVID-19-related restrictions (e.g. (a) catering, hotel and tourism; (b) construction and real estate; (c) finance; (d) technology; (e) logistics and (f) manufacturing) responded to an online survey on a negative CS, subjective career success, objective career success (OCS), life satisfaction and protean career orientation (PCO). Findings A negative CS was negatively associated with OCS and life satisfaction. Subjective and OCS were positively associated with life satisfaction. PCO moderated the association between a negative CS and OCS. Practical implications The practical contribution comes from informing strategies for individuals and employers in China to enact when facing future chance events on a national or global scale. Originality/value The theoretical contribution of our research comes from advancing the conservation of resources theory by considering the impact of a negative CS as an independent variable and PCO as a moderator on career success and life satisfaction.
... Transferable competencies in non-standard forms of employment become especially relevant. According to Ayoobzadeh (2021), this applies to freelance employment, which, especially in the pandemic period, complicates job search methods and the need to implement a consistent mediation model. In addition, career guidance influences job search strategies through job search efficiency and transferable competencies. ...
... The importance of competencies is determined by formula 2, the ratio of points for the i-th competence to the total sum of points for all competencies. The sum of the weighting factors of all competencies should be equal to one: (2) where α i -weighting factor of the i-th competence; і -competence number; y i -the score assigned to the i-th competence by the expert; ∑y i -the sum of points of all experts for the i-th competence; ∑∑y ithe sum of scores of all experts for all competencies. ...
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Accelerated digitalization, uncertainty, rapidly changing work environment, and the spread of remote employment due to quarantine restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have led to differentiated requirements for HR managers in different sectors of the economy and the need to get quickly adjusted to new working conditions. This implies an increased importance of transferable competencies for HR managers, especially in advancing their flexibility and expanding employment opportunities. That is why the study aims to develop a universal model of transferable competencies of HR managers based on the analysis of global and local trends in demand on the labor market. Furthermore, a methodological approach is used to assess these trends based on behavioral indicators in rapidly changing conditions. The paper used a comparative analysis of the international experience in forming HR competencies and trends in demand on the Ukrainian labor market. The findings highlight the current transferable competencies of HR managers. They included the abilities to communicate effectively, use digital technologies confidently, work in multitasking mode, manage people and projects, effective self-management, and work in a team. The developed model of transferable competencies of HR managers and methodical approach to their assessment based on behavioral indicators provide an opportunity to diagnose the level of their development for effective work of HR managers in a distant mode, opportunities for trans-professionalism, and career growth.
... According to Stringfellow and Shaw (2009), some conceptual articulations of several entrepreneurs' competencies exist but not essentially vis-à-vis their careers. Hitherto, careers-related studies encapsulate the concept of CC more generally by investigating jointly the "three ways of knowing", precisely "career motivation and purpose" (knowing-why), "skills and experience" (knowing-how) and "networks and relationships" (knowing-whom) (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994). Whilst competencies have been examined in several contexts, such as expatriate (Dickmann et al., 2018), young professionals (Blokker et al., 2019), employees (Haenggli and Hirschi, 2020;Sultana and Malik, 2019), women managers (Chen et al., 2012) and academics (Beigi et al., 2018;Sherif et al., 2020), not much is understood about their starring function in entrepreneurial careers (Zikic and Ezzedeen, 2015). ...
... Furthermore, whilst intelligent career theory has been used in other fields such as academia (Beigi et al., 2018;El-Baroudi and Khapova, 2021), executives (Guptill et al., 2018;Lee, 2018), expatriates Cappellen and Janssens (2008) and other professionals (Beigi et al., 2020;Blokker et al., 2019;Haenggli and Hirschi, 2020;Schlosser et al., 2021) and mostly found empirical backing for numerous CC and relevant resources in influencing CS in all its forms, there is a vacuum in the context of entrepreneurs. This especially refers to knowing whom, why and how, which are prominent in the new career literature but are glaringly ignored by most research in the entrepreneurship area (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Crowley-Henry et al., 2021;Schlosser et al., 2021). Further, despite the intelligent career framework's (ICF) JEEE theoretical appeal and practical applicability, much empirical work continues to focus on CS as measured from an organisational viewpoint. ...
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the influence of creativity and resource availability on career competencies (CC) and career success (CS) of entrepreneurs in Nigeria using the intelligent career framework. Design/methodology/approach Data was obtained using answers to questionnaires given to 348 successful entrepreneurs. The data was analysed using non-parametric software (Smart-PLS). Findings The results indicate that entrepreneurs who possess “know-why”, “know-how” and “know-whom” can access the required resources and are doing well in their careers. It is suggested that these competencies were significantly related to entrepreneurial CS. Resource availability moderates the relationship of knowing-how, knowing-why competencies and CS, whilst creativity moderates only the link between knowing-whom and entrepreneurial CS. Research limitations/implications The results help us to comprehend better the nature of successful entrepreneurial careers and the prominent role of tripartite competencies in achieving a successful career. Also emphasised here is the prominence of a more holistic perspective of these components based on a mix of social, motivational and human capital. Practical implications These findings hinted that entrepreneurs should pay uniform consideration in fostering each CC. There are implications for career advisers, practitioners and entrepreneurship programmes. Originality/value To the authors’ best knowledge, this is first-of-its-kind research that used primary source data in understanding CC – “knowing-how, knowing-whom and knowing-why” – with entrepreneurs’ CS in Nigeria.
... The current study, on the other hand, believes that the mediation role of POS is more prevalent in the unique setting of this research, where varying nature of job conditions and characteristics can change employees' perceptions of job demands and, in turn, their perception of organizational support. Fulfillment of a demand presented by a shock can be viewed as an opportunity for personal growth, thereby enhancing employees' POS leading to positive organizational outcomes (Ayoobzadeh, 2021). Furthermore, our choice of POS was informed by its relationship with employee TI. ...
... POS is one of the main contextual resources that is uniquely capable of explaining the impact of changes in employees' perceptions of job demands on employee outcomes (Kim et al., 2019). Fulfillment of a job demand that is presenting learning or autonomy opportunity, when there is scarcity of resources, can enhance employees' POS and, in turn, lead to positive organizational and employee outcomes (Ayoobzadeh, 2021). More specifically, employees' perception of organizational support (POS) increases when they experience increased decision-making demand (JDDM), ultimately leading to reduced BU and TI. ...
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of accelerated job demands on employee outcomes during the COVID-19 crisis. An integrated model was developed to explore the relationships between different types of job demands (learning, decision-making, work intensification), employee turnover intention (TI) and burnout (BU). Design/methodology/approach Data were obtained from professionals whose work conditions were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. An online survey was distributed anonymously. A total of 566 questionnaires were included in the analysis. Structural equation modeling was employed to analyze the data. Findings The findings revealed that employees' perception of job demands impacts the significance and direction of the relationships between different forms of job demands and employee outcomes. Furthermore, the findings confirm that mediating role of perceived organizational support alleviates the adverse effects of job demands on employee outcomes. Finally, the present study supported the moderation effect of positive affectivity between work intensification and employee BU. Practical implications This study provides employers with insights about supporting employees to cope with increased job demands in conditions where rapid changes are inevitable. Originality/value The unique context of research (COVID-19) enabled this study to account for the acceleration of job demands that employees experience in rapidly changing situations. This study employed an instrument that allowed for the assessment of acceleration in job demands. Furthermore, the granular approach of the measurement model extended the perspectives of job demands and work intensification.
... In the context of a career, individuals with a PCO continuously adjust and change their career paths based on their own values and goals, rather than relying on traditional organizational career paths. In this context, PCO, as an individual attribute, becomes especially important (Ayoobzadeh, 2022;Ghosh, 2021;Zhang et al., 2023). ...
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This study aims to understand the sufficient, necessary, and critical factors of students’ perceived employability (PE). It employs an innovative combination of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), and Importance-Performance Matrix Analysis (IPMA). PE is conceptualized as five dimensions: human capital (HC), social capital (bonding social capital, BOSC, and bridging social capital, BRSC), career self-management behavior (CSMB), protean career orientation (PCO), and labor market condition (LMC). Participants were 1155 university students in China. The findings highlight the importance of HC as an essential and influential component of perceived employability. Furthermore, they demystify the nuanced roles of BOSC and BRSC and emphasize their complementary nature in fostering employability confidence. The study also reveals the necessity of considering LMCs, which often dictate the realistic prospects of employment. A noteworthy revelation is the interplay between CSMB, as a vital active ingredient, and PCO as the foundational mindset. Theoretically, this study pioneers the investigation of the determinants of PE by employing both sufficiency and necessity logics. Practically, combining these analytical approaches could lead to more effective and informed decision-making.
... Career success and the role of proactive behaviors in shaping job-related development have been central topics in vocational behavior research (Spurk, 2021). The key prerequisites for maintaining a successful career include, among other factors, one's strengths and core interests (Brown and Lent, 2016), career competencies (Presti et al., 2022;Ayoobzadeh, 2022;Francis-Smythe et al., 2012;Kong, 2010;Kuijpers and Scheerens, 2006), one's ability to Expanding career adaptability performance (Dries et al., 2008) and career adaptability behaviors (Haenggli and Hirschi, 2020;Zacher, 2014) as factors that interplay in the development of a successful career. Savickas and Porfeli's (2012) CAAS, a recognized antecedent for career success (Rudolph et al., 2017;Zacher, 2014), aligns with the focus on continuous individual activity in career development and success studies. ...
Article
Purpose Subjective career success has been widely researched by academics and researchers as it provides job and career satisfaction that can lead to the perceived life satisfaction of employees, as well as their engagement in organizations. This study demonstrates that subjective career success depends not merely on career adaptability but also on the connections people build throughout their professional lives. Design/methodology/approach The study was conducted in the socioeconomic context of Latvia with a sample size of 390 respondents. Interpersonal behavioral factors from the perception of career success measure and the influence of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) on subjective career success (two statements from Gaile et al. , 2020) were used. The constructed research model was tested using the SPSS 28 and WarpPLS 8.0 software tools. The primary data analysis method used was partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Then 12 moderators and their effects on the main relationships of the model were reviewed. Findings The study confirms that relationships at work have the most significant effect on subjective career success, followed by control behaviors and curiosity behaviors. Moreover, a list of significant and insightful moderation effects was found, most significantly the relationship between connections and subjective career success. Originality/value Until now, the CAAS was not integrated with the behaviors and attitudes that depict the social relationships of individuals at work. This study aims to narrow this gap by exploring whether (and, if so, how) career adaptability and interpersonal relationships in the workplace (i.e. professional connections) contribute to subjective career success.
... Gubler et al. (2014) redefine the protean career measure consisting of the concepts of protean career, protean career orientation, and protean career path. However, the often used measurement is the protean career attitude scale (Waters et al., 2014;Babalola & Bruning, 2015;Rahim & Siti-rohaida, 2015), which comprises dimensions driven by self-values and self-direction (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Oh & Koo, 2021) their strategies to navigate job search, especially in turbulent times, are unknown. To address this gap, the author hypothesized and examined a sequential mediation model whereby freelancer protean career orientation (PCO; Abessolo et al., 2017;Steiner et al., 2019) we found that the three approaches had the following similarities: (1) referring to the initial definition of the Protean Hall career in 1976; (2) use the exact two sizes, namely driven by self-value and self-direction, which is a cognitive component and behavior as a component forming attitude; ...
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Protean careers are understood and measured using different concepts. Apart from being confusing, it also causes divergences that result in limited operationalization of the protean career. O This study aims to develop a more comprehensive tool for measuring protean careers by examining the nomological network of ‘new’ protean career attitudes. Researchers added a measure of the affective component of love for work, in addition to dimensions driven by self-values and self-directed behavior. The results of the construct validity test through a nomological network involving 160 respondents showed two critical points. First, on the relationship between the dimensions, the dimensions of love for work and self-direction behavior are related to the harmonious passion variable and the proactive work behavior of career initiatives and personal initiatives. Second, the relationship within the dimension shows that the dimensions of love for work, driven by self-values, and self-directed behavior are interrelated. Additional validity tests, such as convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity tests, indicate that the question items are valid. Future research needs to pay more attention to the affective dimensions of love for work and harmonious passion.e.
... (Firrezqi, 2020). Profesi tersebut sering disebut sebagai pekerja lepas (freelancer) (Ayoobzadeh, 2022) yang akhir-akhir ini sedang banyak diminati oleh pekerja profesional yang biasa ditemukan pada situs web Freelance, Project, dan Sribulancer. Indonesia menempati peringkat ke-16 dalam daftar negara dengan perekonomian terbesar, dengan jumlah pekerja profesional sebanyak 55 juta orang. ...
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Abstract— In digitalization era, internet is at the center of all lines of community activity, just like the field of work. Currently, many platforms provide job vacancies, especially for freelancers. To obtain this information, users usually need to open several websites to find information about suitable job vacancies. Web scraping offers solution to overcome these problems. Based on research that has been done, the BeautifulSoup and Selenium libraries will be used to collect data. To search for data, vector space model method is used to find the level of data similarity between the query and the document. In exploring data, the average near-perfect recall value is 98%, while the average precision value is 56%. This is because data search uses three parameters, so the possibility of retrieving irrelevant data is more significant if the document contains a word in the user's query, even though the context does not match. Utilizing the Streamlit framework in Python can display the data processing results and help users navigate the web scraping process, data processing, and data search. This study aims to implement the web scraping method to retrieve data from freelance websites: Freelance, Project, and Sribulancer. By applying the vector space model method, users can search data from several websites without opening freelance websites one by one. Using data visualization in the form of a web application using the Streamlit framework, the web scraping results can also be processed to be presented in a more helpful form and save the user's time
... Self-understanding and career information knowledge in adolescents can be optimized through career planning training. Career planning training helps individuals develop skills such as career decision-making, job interviews, professional networking, and personal development (Ayoobzadeh, 2022;Kanar, 2020). With career planning training, adolescents can enhance their abilities in seeking suitable jobs based on their interests and skills, navigating career changes, and planning steps to achieve long-term career goals (Secundo et al., 2019). ...
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Adolescents must possess essential career planning skills to achieve career resilience and adaptability, especially during times of economic uncertainty. To develop these abilities effectively, appropriate training materials are crucial. This study focuses on the development and validation of a career planning training material through a massive open online course (MOOC) platform, supporting the resilience and career adaptability of adolescents. Employing a Research and Development (R&D) design with the ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation), the study produced MOOC content, including handouts, PowerPoint presentations, infographics, videos, motion graphics, and podcasts. Based on the concepts of resilience and career adaptability in adolescents, the material was divided into two parts: one for teachers and one for students. Expert validation of the MOOC product rated it as good to excellent. The validated product contributes by providing strategies and career planning training material through MOOC, offering novel findings that significantly benefit the development of adolescents' resilience and career adaptability.
... This research is particularly interested in what dictates the success of the freelancer from a human capital perspective (Hong and Pavlou 2017;Lehdonvirta et al. 2019;Ayoobzadeh 2022;Chauradia and Galande 2015;Galperin and Greppi 2017;Hudek et al. 2021;Kathuria et al. 2021;Lo Presti et al. 2018;Nawaz et al. 2020;Scaraboto and Figueiredo 2022;Van den Born and Witteloostuijn 2013;Žunac et al. 2021). Understanding how a freelancer secures a contract has implications for both platform design and the hiring of freelancers, as well as for the composition of contemporary work forces (Alvarez De La Vega et al. 2021;Hudek et al. 2021;Osterman 2022;Rodgers et al. 2014). ...
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Sharing economy online labor platforms play a critical role in bringing together freelancers and potential employers. This research is one of the few studies to address how freelancers’ characteristics impact the likelihood of being hired by employers using the theory of person–environment fit as a broad framework. Using Freelancer data, this research investigates if country of residence (of a freelancer and the employer), amount earned, and time since registered on the platform, are associated with the employment decision. The results indicate that country of residence does matter. Freelancers who tend to be from the same country as the employers are more likely to be hired. Likewise, high-income freelancers are less likely to be hired. Further, being longer on the platform influences the association between income level and likelihood of being hired. Greater efforts should be made to eliminate the asymmetric information between freelancers and employers and to provide more opportunities for both parties. The operators of online labor platforms should be encouraged to display information about freelancers that relates to country of origin, along with reviews, ratings, and rates earned in the same skill category, which would have strategic implications for freelance entrepreneurs on how to leverage themselves on a shared-economy-based online labor platform.
... All three of the essential qualities must be available for someone to be classified as a contract worker. These features involve: (1) proposal remuneration as opposed to a wage; (2) the transitory nature of the projects produced as opposed to a lifetime engagement to the employment; and (3) a certain level of flexibility in terms of the work hours, area or workplace, and volume of labor. In addition to the essential qualities needed. ...
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In my previous thesis research, the author used eight resource people from various workplaces to examine the phenomena of flexible working hours in the world of work for journalists under the title "Analysis of the Management of Flexible Working Hours of Online Media Journalists in Malang City." Flexible working hours have had both positive and negative effects on performance, workload, and self-efficacy, according to certain interviewee responses. The author's latest research, Freelancer, aims to outline some of the issues that have recently arisen as more and more people feel at ease working as freelancers across a range of professions. Submitted by katadata.co.id on May 6, 2022 According to the Indonesian Employers Association (Apindo), the COVID-19 epidemic has caused layoffs that have impacted 30% of the workforce. The number of people who lost their jobs across the country is almost thought to have reached 15 million. Even if the term "freelance" is not new, this freelancer is a short-term refuge for workers who are being laid off or are affected by layoffs and can exist by becoming independent contractors. The author's decision to address numerous issues and the reasons why some Freelancers are beginning to feel at ease working in accordance with goals and reducing their desire to sit in the office is due to the changes and interests of the workforce that have occurred widely in Indonesia.
... Among these factors, individual factors refer to personality traits (Van den Hee et al., 2020), individual abilities (Naderiadib Alpler et al., 2021), etc. Labor market factors include current employment policies and the supply and demand in the job market (Hulshof et al., 2020;Shahiri & Osman, 2014). The resource factor includes the individual's human capital, social resources, and career psychological resources (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Beggs & Hurlbert, 1997;Dalla Rosa et al., 2020;Ślebarska et al., 2009). The current studies focus more on the influence of individual or resource factors on JSO and do not consider their joint or even interactive effects (Guan et al., 2014). ...
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The study of college students’ job search and influencing factors has been an important topic in college students’ career development. The degree of satisfaction with the results of a college student’s perceived job search directly affects the sustainability of his or her future career. Although the importance of core self-evaluation in the job search process has been confirmed by a large body of literature, very little literature has focused on the mechanism of action between core self-evaluation and job search outcomes. Therefore, this study was conducted to analyze the impact of core self-evaluation on job search outcomes through a chain mediation model and to discuss the role of career exploration and career adaptability in this relationship. Two waves of survey data were utilized to test the research hypotheses on a sample of 310 college students facing employment in different regions of China. The results indicated that core self-evaluation positively impacted job search outcomes. In addition, career exploration and career adaptability moderated the relationship between core self-evaluation and job search outcomes, respectively. More importantly, core self-evaluation could also influence job search outcomes through the chain-mediating effects of career exploration and career adaptability.
... Gubler et al. (2014) redefine the protean career measure consisting of the concepts of protean career, protean career orientation, and protean career path. However, the often used measurement is the protean career attitude scale (Waters et al., 2014;Babalola & Bruning, 2015;Rahim & Siti-rohaida, 2015), which comprises dimensions driven by self-values and self-direction (Ayoobzadeh, 2021;Oh & Koo, 2021) their strategies to navigate job search, especially in turbulent times, are unknown. To address this gap, the author hypothesized and examined a sequential mediation model whereby freelancer protean career orientation (PCO; Abessolo et al., 2017;Steiner et al., 2019) we found that the three approaches had the following similarities: (1) referring to the initial definition of the Protean Hall career in 1976; (2) use the exact two sizes, namely driven by self-value and self-direction, which is a cognitive component and behavior as a component forming attitude; ...
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... Freelancers can be seen as one kind of worker who may significantly help companies adopt and reach the full potential of I40 technologies. Although such skilled contingent workers have been strongly put forward by practitioners, freelancers are not considered academic considerations [7,8]. Furthermore, freelancers are not studied in conjunction with I40 adoption. ...
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In this study, we debate the role of freelancers 4.0 as facilitators of the adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies (I40), under a socio-technical lens. I40 production can be seen as a complex socio-technical system that requires various change facilitators to be implemented. After a web search, we found that a considerable number of freelancers are involved in I40 adoption, and could be participating in the adoption process, thus acting as facilitators. We label these workers "freelancers 4.0". The socio-technical theory does not primarily consider such workers in the technology adoption, even more down the I40 transition. Hence, we suggest two main research avenues to explore freelancers 4.0 in conjunction with the I40 adoption, framed under the socio-technical perspective.
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Preprint
Purpose Recent studies on contingent workers highlight their boundaryless and protean nature, and depict them as free agents who reject organisational forms of career support. Going beyond such current view, this paper aims to shed light on the career support provided by labour market intermediaries (LMIs) to skilled contingent workers (SCWs), the latter known as freelancers and consulting firms' employees. Design/methodology/approach Using a qualitative stance and an inductive approach, the authors draw on 33 interviews to grasp SCWs' discourses on the career support offered by LMIs, and their account managers. The thematic analysis reveals two main themes: the career support delivered by LMIs to SCWs, and the expectations of SCWs regarding potential additional forms of career support from LMIs. Findings The authors show that SCWs are supported by LMIs in their career via a number of career management practices and operational support, and account managers a likely to play a key role in the careers of SCWs by providing transactional and relational career support. Moreover, the authors stress that SCWs are free agents, yet seeking for forms of support from LMIs. Originality/value The present paper addresses the roles of LMIs regarding non-standard population of workers through the lens of SCWs, what has barely been undertaken in recent research. This paper also enriches current debates on the organisational support SCWs are willing to accept and benefit from, despite the idiosyncratic nature of their careers.
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The covid-19 pandemic is a career shock for many people across the globe. In this article, we reflect on how insights from the literature on career shocks can help us understand the career consequences of the pandemic and offer suggestions for future research in this area. In particular, we offer three “key lessons”. The first lesson is that the implications of Covid-19 reflect the dynamic interplay between individual and contextual factors. Here, we argue that although the pandemic was difficult to predict and control, research shows that certain psychological resources – such as career competencies and resilience – could make this career shock more manageable. The second lesson is that the pandemic may have differential implications over time, as suggested by research that has shown the consequences of career shocks to differ between short-term vs. long-term time horizons, and across life- and career stages. The third lesson is that, even though the pandemic is clearly a negatively valenced shock for most people, further into the future it may allow for more positive outcomes. This lesson builds on research showing how negative career shocks have long-term positive consequences for some people. We hope that these insights will inspire both scholars and practitioners to study and understand the work and career implications of Covid-19 as a career shock, as well as to support people in dealing with its consequences.
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Even though networking has been identified as an important career self-management behavior, research to date has been limited to traditional channels of communication. With the advent of social media, networking opportunities have expanded to a new set of technology-based methods. However, very little is known about the benefits of using such social networking platforms, especially LinkedIn, which was designed for professional purposes. Integrating research on networking and careers with research on social networking sites, we introduce a model relating extraversion and protean career orientation via networking ability to social networking site usage (i.e., number of contacts and frequency of usage) and a variety of career benefits (e.g., career sponsorship). Using a mixed-mode survey, data were collected from 322 working professionals enrolled in business-related graduate programs, of which 133 used LinkedIn as their predominant professional networking tool. In addition, a subset of the sample using LinkedIn granted us permission to access their LinkedIn profile, which we coded for nine characteristics. In general, data from the survey responses as well as the LinkedIn profiles supported the proposed model. Results also showed that it was not the number of contacts one had, but the frequency of usage, that mattered for the receipt of career benefits.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the direct and indirect effects of protean career attitude on subjective and objective career success representing personal outcomes and task performance reflecting an organizational outcome. Drawing on the intelligent career framework, three knowing career competencies, i.e., career insight (knowing why), networking (knowing whom), and career/job-related skills (knowing how), were hypothesized as mediators linking protean career attitude with its personal and organizational outcomes. Participants of the study were 241 faculty members and matched supervisors from five large public sector universities in Islamabad, Pakistan. Data were collected in two waves through a personally administered questionnaire and analyzed through covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM). Results showed that protean career attitude has direct positive impacts on subjective career success, objective career success, and task performance. Further, the mediating role of three knowing career competencies was partially supported. We contribute to the literature by proposing and testing a research model linking protean career attitude with its personal and organizational outcomes directly and indirectly through three ways of knowing. A number of practical implications along with future research directions are also discussed.
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The post-school transition is a critical transition for adolescents and understanding when and how it results in beneficial outcomes is a pressing issue. We integrate career construction theory and social cognitive career theory and investigate a sequential model of predictors and outcomes at various stages in the post-school transition process. We focus on a protean career orientation as an important subjective transition outcome and whether adolescents continue with high school or vocational education and training (VET) as an important objective transition outcome. We propose that personal and contextual socio-cognitive factors during school (i.e., occupational self-efficacy beliefs and perceived career barriers) relate to the transition outcomes indirectly through their effects on vocational identity clarity. We tested our hypotheses among a sample of 819 Swiss adolescents, based on a time-lagged study with three waves over a period of three years. Results of structural equation modeling showed that occupational self-efficacy beliefs positively, and perceived career barriers negatively related to vocational identity clarity. A clear vocational identity in turn predicted a higher probability of VET enrollment compared to high school enrollment after school. Unexpectedly, a clearer vocational identity related to a weaker protean career orientation. Implications for post-school transition research and the protean career literature are discussed.
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How do self-direction and personal values influence career outcomes? Such questions have been central in research on the protean career—a career process characterized by the exercise of self-direction and an intrinsic values orientation in the pursuit of psychological success. This article provides an integrative review, with a focus on three empirically supported protean processes—identity awareness, adaptability, and agency. In addition, we discuss the role of protean careers in the contemporary work environment, clarify definitional and measurement issues, recommend research directions, and provide practical implications for organizations. Our underlying assumption throughout this discussion is that the elements of a protean career orientation (PCO) are basic elements of human needs for growth and meaning. In addition, we discuss how protean careers can be beneficial for organizations. In particular, we identify the “Protean Paradox” as a phenomenon that merits further investigation. More specifically, the protean paradox is a process by which greater levels of individual self-direction and values orientation, thus serving their own purpose and interests, can also have a positive influence on the groups and organizations in which they work. Our recommendations for future research and practice promote these qualities in the contemporary world of work. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Volume 5 is January 21, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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The accelerating digitization and automation of work, known as the fourth industrial revolution, will have an enormous impact on individuals’ career experiences. Yet the academic literature in vocational psychology and careers research has been remarkably silent on this trend so far. This paper summarizes some of the most important issues of the fourth industrial revolution as they pertain to career development. It then critically reviews how current models and frameworks of career development are suitable for addressing these emerging issues. Opportunities for future career development research and practice are outlined.
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There is a large interest in how people can be more protean in their career development, exhibiting a self-directed striving for personally valued career outcomes. However, existing research on the protean career needs to better address issues of antecedents and outcomes as well as unique effects of a protean career orientation (PCO). We present two studies investigating how PCO is related to vocational identity clarity and occupational self-efficacy. Study 1 reports a 1-year, three-wave cross-lagged study among 563 university students and established that PCO preceded changes in identity and self-efficacy—but not the other way around. A 6-month longitudinal study of 202 employees, Study 2 showed that identity clarity and self-efficacy mediated the effects of PCO on career satisfaction and proactive career behaviours. PCO only possessed incremental predictive validity regarding proactive career behaviours. However, we could not confirm specific direct or mediated effects of PCO on job satisfaction. These results imply that PCO is closely related to vocational identity clarity and self-efficacy because it enhances these career attitudes. Moreover, identity and self-efficacy mediate some, but not all of the effects of PCO on important career outcomes.
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Self-determination theory (SDT) conceptualizes basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as innate and essential for ongoing psychological growth, internalization, and well-being. We broadly review the literature on basic psychological need satisfaction at work with three more specific aims: to test SDT’s requirement that each basic psychological need should uniquely predict psychological growth, internalization, and well-being; to test whether use of an overall need satisfaction measure is appropriate; and to test whether the scale used to assess basic psychological needs influenced our results. To this end, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 99 studies with 119 distinct samples examining the antecedents and consequences of basic need satisfaction. We conclude with recommendations for addressing issues arising from our review and also identify points for future research, including the study of need frustration and culture, integrating the basic needs with other motivation theories, and a caution regarding the measures and methods used.
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Sport Management provides an insightful overview of the sport management discipline. The collection includes influential articles and chapters from leading scholars in the field, covering a wide array of issues. In adopting a multilevel approach, this volume explores this topical field and addresses sport management issues at the societal, organisational and individual level. Along with a new and original introduction, this essential single volume is an indispensable tool for scholars and practitioners alike.
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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to develop a comprehensive account for careers within the Greek academic system. Historical, cultural and geographical features of the country have created a unique context that has shaped the way academic careers evolve. Design/methodology/approach - The primary methods of data collection were retrospective participant observation and discussions in interview form with individuals who have had various types of experience with the Greek Higher Education system. Findings - The major factor that shapes careers in Greek academia is social capital or know-whom that operates within a broader cultural environment where institutional collectivism is extremely low, the in-group - out-group distinction is a major element, and political party affiliation plays a key role in everyday affairs. As a result academic careers in Greece are almost exclusively determined by membership, a priory or earned, to an "in-group" that is linked via blood, family friendship, business and political party ties. This "in-group" uses its social capital to control academic careers across all stages for the benefit of its members. Research limitations/implications - There are method limitations, but relevant concerns were largely alleviated by precautionary measures and the way data were utilized. Ethnography may be the most appropriate method to disentangle the way networks and social capital impact careers. Practical implications - Achieving substantive change, such as increasing meritocracy, within a sector may be impossible without considering the broader cultural context that encapsulates it. Originality/value - The study is among the very first to unveil the "dark side" of social capital, and show how social capital may benefit the interests of in-groups at the expense of the collective.
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Self-determination theory proposes a multidimensional conceptualization of motivation comprising autonomous and controlled forms. Whereas autonomous motivation relates positively to individuals’ optimal functioning (e.g., well-being, performance), controlled motivation is less beneficial. To be able to use self-determination theory in the field of organizational behaviour, the Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale was developed and tested using data from 3435 workers in seven languages and nine countries. Factorial analyses indicated that the 19-item scale has the same factor structure across the seven languages. Convergent and discriminant validity tests across the countries also indicate that the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as well as the theoretically derived antecedents to work motivation (e.g., leadership and job design) are predictably related to the different forms of motivation, which in turn are predictably related to important work outcomes (e.g., well-being, commitment, performance, and turnover intentions). Implications for the development of organizational research based on self-determination theory are discussed.
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We explore the structure and content of developmental networks depicted in 62 National Baseball Hall of Fame induction speeches to identify which developers and what support mattered most to inductees’ career achievement. Our analysis illustrates two new support subfunctions (“freedom and opportunity for skill development” and “inspiration and motivation”) and shows that first-ballot inductees had larger, more diverse developmental networks featuring greater multiplexity and more single-function ties, plus greater supplementary psychosocial and complementary career support from a wider range of core and peripheral career communities, than later-ballot inductees. We conclude with a theoretical model of extraordinary career achievement.
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•This study is very interesting to me because it demonstrated that protean attitudes can be dynamic, rising and lowering according to necessity of the employment condition. This opens the door to more studies regarding whether protean orientation, attitudes, etc. are traits or states. The paper presents a longitudinal test of protean career attitude (PCA) during unemployment (N = 460)•Panel analysis of changes from unemployment and reemployment•PCA was significantly associated with increased self-esteem and job search activity•PCA significantly predicted reemployment•PCA decreased upon reemployment demonstrating a dynamic nature.
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Both theoretical models of job search and empirical research findings suggest that job search behavior is not a unidimensional construct. This chapter addresses the multidimensionality of job search behavior and provides a systematic review of the different job search behaviors and sources studied in the job search literature and their relationships with antecedent variables and employment outcomes. Organized within three major dimensions (effort-intensity, content-direction, temporal-persistence), job search effort and intensity, job search strategies, preparatory and active job search behaviors, formal and informal job sources, specific job search behaviors, job search quality, job search dynamics, and job search persistence are discussed. This review strongly suggests that considering all the dimensions of job search behavior is essential for understanding job search success in both practice and research, resulting in a number of key implications for job seekers and employment counselors as well as crucial directions for future research.
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Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) currently consists of 4 overlapping, segmental models aimed at understanding educational and occupational interest development, choice-making, performance and persistence, and satisfaction/well-being. To this point, the theory has emphasized content aspects of career behavior, for instance, prediction of the types of activities, school subjects, or career fields that form the basis for people's educational/vocational interests and choice paths. However, SCCT may also lend itself to study of many process aspects of career behavior, including such issues as how people manage normative tasks and cope with the myriad challenges involved in career preparation, entry, adjustment, and change, regardless of the specific educational and occupational fields they inhabit. Such a process focus can augment and considerably expand the range of the dependent variables for which SCCT was initially designed. Building on SCCT's existing models, we present a social cognitive model of career self-management and offer examples of the adaptive, process behaviors to which it can be applied (e.g., career decision making/exploration, job searching, career advancement, negotiation of work transitions and multiple roles). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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Job seeking is an important aspect throughout people’s careers. Extant theory and research has focused on one particular dimension of job search, that is, intensity/effort (i.e., job search quantity), posing that intensity/effort importantly affects employment success. The present conceptual paper extends job search theory by arguing for the importance of job search quality in explaining job search and employment success. We conceptualize job search quality as consisting of process quality and product/behavior quality, and propose that high-quality job search products/behaviors are more likely with a high-quality job search process. A four-phased cyclical self-regulatory model is presented, specifying the components of job search process quality. We build theory regarding the interrelations between quality components, the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. This theory offers new and more detailed explanations for previous findings, directions for future research, and practical guidelines regarding (re)employment success and services.
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86 college students completed measures of both global (the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory) and specific (a specially constructed 10-item scale) self-esteem components before beginning a job search. Four months later, at the time of graduation, self-esteem predicted (a) the sources Ss used to find jobs, (b) interview evaluations received from organizational recruiters, (c) satisfaction with job search, (d) number of offers received, (e) acceptance of a job before graduation, and (f) length of intended tenure. Global self-esteem proved a better predictor of search outcomes dependent on Ss' social skills, whereas task-specific self-esteem was more strongly related to search motivation and satisfaction. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This article presents a social cognitive framework for understanding three intricately linked aspects of career development: (a) the formation and elaboration of career-relevant interests, (b) selection of academic and career choice options, and (c) performance and persistence in educational and occupational pursuits. The framework, derived primarily from Bandura's (1986) general social cognitive theory, emphasizes the means by which individuals exercise personal agency in the career development process, as well as extra-personal factors that enhance or constrain agency. In particular, we focus on self-efficacy, expected outcome, and goal mechanisms and how they may interrelate with other person (e.g., gender), contextual (e.g., support system), and experiential/learning factors. Twelve sets of propositions are offered to organize existing findings and guide future research on the theory. We also present a meta-analysis of relevant findings and suggest specific directions for future empirical and theory-extension activity.
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Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) was introduced 25 years ago. The theory originally included three interrelated models of (a) career and academic interest development, (b) choice-making, and (c) performance. It was later expanded to include two additional models, one focusing on educational and occupational satisfaction, or well-being, and the other emphasizing the process of career self-management over the life span. On this, the silver anniversary of SCCT, we consider the progress made in studying these two most recent models. In addition to reviewing existing findings, we cite promising directions for future research and application. Examples include additional study of model combinations that may shed greater light on choice persistence, possibilities for using the self-management model to study aspects of career development that are relevant to other theories, and the importance of theory-guided applications to aid preparation for, and coping with, uncertainties in the future world of work.
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With the aim of portraying the future of the field, HRM scholars have repeatedly proposed new research domains and perspectives. Unusual forms of organization do not, however, play a major role in these proposals, even if they have gained some importance in practice. A case in point relates to temporary forms of organization in general and project-based organizations in particular. In this paper, after outlining the evolution of HRM as a discipline, we will systematically review top-tier HRM journals as well as other management journals over a period of two decades. Findings reveal that HRM research concentrates mostly on only one dimension of temporary organizing, i.e. temporary employment, and adheres otherwise to the assumption of the permanency or at least longevity of organizations. We argue that theorizing HRM beyond the permanency assumption is not only urgently needed in face of spreading forms of project-based organizing, but also offers unique potentials to study HRM problems, including those of international HRM.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between general self-efficacy (GSE), job search self-efficacy (JSSE), extraversion and job search success within a sample of new entrants in the labour market. It is hypothesised that JSSE acts as a mediator between GSE and job search success. Evaluation of the hireability – made by expert interviewers – of new entrants involved in a job interview simulation is proposed as a job search success criterion. Moreover, the moderating role of extraversion on the relationship between JSSE and job search success is explored. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected on 177 graduates from an Italian university. Participants were involved in a simulation of an interview conducted by experts of the personnel selection process, who gave an evaluation. Macro PROCESS for SPSS was used to test the hypotheses. Findings GSE has an indirect effect on job search success via JSSE. Moreover, extraversion has a moderating effect on the JSSE–job search success relationship for more extraverted job seekers. Practical implications Job search and counselling practitioners should consider extraversion and personal differences to improve the effectiveness of interventions aimed at fostering new entrants' self-regulatory resources and behaviours during the job search. Originality/value This study contributes to the existing research about the job search process by testing a new and important job search success criterion, showing that GSE could help new graduates in establishing a specific self-efficacy, such as JSSE, and demonstrating that extraversion interacts with JSSE.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to develop and test a career-orientation and employability-focused model in the Indian context in order to understand: factors influencing employability of graduates factors influencing expected salary gain. Design/methodology/approach The researchers adopted a quantitative method using a two-wave survey with a sample of MBA graduates from two prominent business schools in India. The total sample size for Wave I was 250, while for Wave II it was 161. The model was tested via hierarchical regression with MBA contribution as a moderator. Findings Results indicate the relevance of protean career orientation (PCO) to reaching career outcomes such as employability, with MBA contribution as a moderator. Practical implications The study provides a new perspective that would enhance graduates’ employability. This makes it relevant for both individuals and higher education institutions as it will help both individuals and higher education institutions to attain competitiveness at the national level. Originality/value The career theory was extended to the diverse socio-cultural and economic context of India, representing the BRICS economy.
Article
free access available until March 13th, 2019 (copy the link below): https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1YROM_2l0R82a This study used a meta-analysis to gain a clearer understanding of the relationships between behavioral job search self-efficacy (JSSE) and its relevant variables. Study variables were selected based on the career self-management model of the social cognitive career theory, which comprehensively includes sources and outcomes of JSSE. In addition, moderators that reflect various sample characteristics and the studies' research designs were included to clarify the hitherto inconsistent results between JSSE and related variables. Based on the analysis on 80 independent samples from 74 articles, results showed that supports and proactive personality (—the antecedent variables) and emotional wellbeing (—the consequence variable) had consistently strong relations with JSSE. Moderator analyses showed that sample type (undergraduates, laidoff), cultural value (individualism, collectivism), length of unemployment (over 6 months, under 6 months), and research design (cross-sectional, longitudinal) moderated the links between JSSE and two consequence variables, job search action, and job-search-related outcome. These results indicate that it is important to consider the agents of job search, their job search contexts, and methodological issues in conducting future research and interventions. Implications of the results are discussed and future research and practice are considered.
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This meta-analysis examined the structure of the four theoretical sources of self-efficacy (mastery experience, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and affective state) and their relations to efficacy beliefs in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Data were derived from 104 studies (including 141 independent samples) conducted across a 37-year period (1977–2013). Based on analysis of all samples, the omnibus test offered support for a two-source factor model of the efficacy sources: direct personal experiences (comprised of prior mastery experience, verbal persuasion, and affective state) and vicarious learning. Both sources were predictive of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Moderator analyses supported the validity of the two-source model and accounted for substantial amounts of the variance in self-efficacy by gender, race/ethnicity, age group, and type of mastery experience (subjective vs. objective) measurement. Across all moderating conditions, the direct experiences factor was highly correlated with vicarious learning and produced large positive paths to self-efficacy. Vicarious learning yielded small yet negative paths to self-efficacy, which likely resulted from statistical suppression. A greater portion of the variance in self-efficacy was explained when mastery experience was assessed subjectively than objectively. We discuss practical implications of gender and racial/ethnic differences in the model tests along with the implications of the findings for theory and future research.
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The concept of boundaryless careers characterizes emerging career patterns that are less dependent on traditional organizational career management. Based on an evidence-based review of literature on the relationship between career boundarylessness and career success published from 1994 to 2018, we found that boundaryless careers have mixed effects on the various indictors of career success, and these effects depend on the operationalization of career boundarylessness, the motives (voluntary vs. involuntary), career competencies, adaptive capabilities and career resources held by individuals, as well as the structural constraints and institutional support for boundary-crossing behaviors. In addition, career success was also found to predict subsequent career mobility. Based on these findings, we develop an integrative model to understand the complicated and dynamic relationship between boundaryless careers and career success. This review serves as an important step to integrate theories and research on boundaryless careers and career success, and more interdisciplinary work should be done in the future to examine this question.
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Although scholars are beginning to examine the experience of crowdsourced work, the extant literature and popular accounts paint an undersocialized picture of the labor process. This study explores how crowdsourced work remains socially embedded in the structure of an occupational community that exists exclusively online and in relation to a focal firm. The findings draw on interviews and observation of creative freelancers who designed, developed, and distributed digital goods in a crowdsourced work arrangement with an entertainment publisher. The online meeting places of an occupational community supported workers in their responses to three challenges of contingency: limited communication with the firm, sporadic and unpredictable compensation for their work, and unclear career trajectory. Within the community, freelancers found direction and meaning for their work, built collective strategies to smooth compensation, and illuminated a pathway from amateur to expert. As an occupational institution, the community also structured collaborations that transferred knowledge of industry standard practice and coordinated work in the absence of bureaucratic organization.
Article
[Accepted for publication] Recent economic and organizational changes have fostered an increasing diversification of the workforce, among whom freelancers are an underrepresented population in the literature. This study aimed at examining the role of protean and boundaryless career, professional commitment, and employability activities in fostering freelancers’ subjective career success. Data were collected via an online survey among a sample of 425 Italian freelancers, and analysed through structural equation modeling. Results partially confirmed several hypotheses: higher self-directed career management and boundaryless mindset predicted higher employability activities and professional commitment; moreover, employability and professional commitment acted as mediators between career attitudes and subjective career success. The study provides support for the importance of such variables to freelancers’ career success, as well as for the significance of protean and boundaryless careers among non-traditional occupational groups. Interventions aimed at fostering such attitudes could support freelancers in improving their attainment of professional progress and perception of career success.
Book
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Article
Alternative work arrangements continue to increase in number and variety. We review the literature on alternative work arrangements published since the most recent major review of nonstandard work by Ashford et al. (2007). We look across the research findings to identify three dimensions of flexibility that undergird alternative work arrangements: (a) flexibility in the employment relationship, (b) flexibility in the scheduling of work, and (c) flexibility in where work is accomplished. We identify two images of the new world of work—one for high-skill workers who choose alternative work arrangements and the other for low-skill workers who struggle to make a living and are beholden to the needs of the organization. We close with future directions for research and practice for tending to the first image and moving away from the second image of the new world of work.
Article
In an application of the social cognitive model of career self-management (Lent & Brown, 2013), we assessed the primary experiential sources of self-efficacy and outcome expectations relative to career exploration and decision-making activities. These sources included personal mastery, verbal persuasion, vicarious learning, and affect (both positive and negative) experienced in relation to career exploration and decision-making. Participants were 324 college students, who completed an experiential sources measure along with domain-correspondent measures of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, and level of career decidedness. A confirmatory factor analysis offered support for a 5-factor representation of the experiential sources, though the personal mastery and verbal persuasion sources were substantially interrelated. As a set, the source variables accounted for a larger portion of the variance in self-efficacy than outcome expectations, with much of their relation to outcome expectations being mediated by self-efficacy. Good support was also found for a path model including the source variables in the prediction of career exploration goals and level of career decidedness. Though the sources were generally linked to goals indirectly, mastery and positive affect both produced significant direct paths to level of decidedness. The findings are interpreted in light of social cognitive career theory and their implications for further research and practice are discussed.
Article
The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS) is commonly used to validate other self-report measures within social and health research. Concerns over the scale's length (33 items) have repeatedly been raised. Nevertheless, prior efforts to develop psychometrically sound short forms of the MCSDS have not led to consistent findings. The purpose of this study was to develop a short form of the MCSDS, in accordance with guidelines for best practices in short form and scale development. Information on item properties, obtained with item response theory (IRT) and cognitive interviews (CogI), were used to eliminate items with poor properties and select items for a short form to be administered via the Internet. The IRT analyses were based on responses from 536 Internet panel members and the CogI sample consisted of 40 interviewees. Ten items were dropped due to poor psychometric properties and out of the 23 remaining items a ten item short form was developed.
Article
Stress-based work–nonwork interference, or negative spillover, is associated with transference of negative emotions from the work to the nonwork domain. It is argued that work–nonwork interference resulting from high work demands does not necessarily entail the reproduction of any affective states. First, calmness can result in lower work–nonwork interference and enthusiasm in higher levels. Second, hindrance stressors can be negatively related to enthusiasm and calmness, while challenge stressors are positively associated with them. Hypotheses about the relationship between stressors and interference that reflect this rationality are developed and tested using longitudinal data from a six-month diary study of portfolio workers. The results offer some support for them and indicate that both challenge and hindrance stressors are positively related to interference. However for hindrance stressors the indirect effect is positive when mediated by calmness and negative for enthusiasm. In contrast, for challenge stressors the indirect effect is negative when mediated by calmness and positive when mediated by enthusiasm. The mediation paths are significant only for transient effects. Thus there are indications that well-being can both increase or decrease interference depending on the nature of the stressor and whether it is mediated by calmness or enthusiasm.
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In this perspective, we advocate that the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) can play a significant role in pioneering and promoting vocational Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). To do so, we introduce Coursera, an online educational portal that provides a variety of MOOCs for free and serves adult learners, as an example. In addition, we discuss lessons AHRD can learn from Coursera’s experience. We also explore the benefits of leading vocational MOOCs for the academy. This paper has implications for the Human Resource Development scholarly and practitioner communities.
Article
The use of control variables plays a central role in organizational research due to practical difficulties associated with the implementation of experimental and quasi-experimental designs. As such, we conducted an in-depth review and content analysis of what variables and why such variables are controlled for in ten of the most popular research domains (task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, turnover, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, employee burnout, personality, leader-member exchange, organizational justice, and affect) in organizational behavior/human resource management (OB/HRM) and applied psychology. Specifically, we examined 580 articles published from 2003 to 2012 in AMJ, ASQ, JAP, JOM, and PPsyc. Results indicate that, across research domains with clearly distinct theoretical bases, the overwhelming majority of the more than 3,500 controls identified in our review converge around the same simple demographic factors (i.e., gender, age, tenure), very little effort is made to explain why and how controls relate to focal variables of interest, and control variable practices have not changed much over the past decade. To address these results, we offer best-practice recommendations in the form of a sequence of questions and subsequent steps that can be followed to make decisions on the appropriateness of including a specific control variable within a particular theoretical framework, research domain, and empirical study. Our recommendations can be used by authors as well as journal editors and reviewers to improve the transparency and appropriateness of practices regarding control variable usage.
Article
Contemporary careers systems are characterized by a boundaryless career environment and dynamic labor markets. New career attitudes and orientations emerge, and their evaluation is challenging. This manuscript reports on two sets of studies that utilized nine various samples (N = 2287) to construct and validate a measure of a prominent contemporary career orientation - the protean career. We tested the measure for its validation in the USA, Europe, Asia and Oceania. Evidence of strong face-, content-, construct-and discriminant-validity was obtained. The design of the final scale of seven items provides future academic scholars, HR managers and consultants, with a rigorous, practical and concise measure.
Article
Recent evidence shows that the frequently proclaimed collapse of the traditional career model is actually not supported by job tenure data. This paper argues that the observed stability of job tenure might be explained by an increasing number of shamrock organizations. This organizational form has three types of workers: core employees, professional freelancers, and routine workers. In such an organization, two very different career models coexist. The organization largely determines the career of the core employee, whereas the individual essentially shapes that of the professional freelancer. This paper studies extensively the career of this second group: the professional freelancer, a growing phenomenon in many developed countries but not yet the focus of many career studies. We develop a freelance career success model on basis of the intelligent career framework augmented by insights from literature on entrepreneurship. Data are from a web survey with responses from about 1600 independent professionals in the Netherlands, in combination with 51 in-depth interviews. We provide two main contributions. First, we report findings from the first large-scale quantitative study into freelance career success. Second, this study enhances our understanding of the success of the modern career by building bridges between career and entrepreneurship literatures. We conclude that the external environment in which an individual freelancer operates is the most important factor determining career success. The study therefore suggests that more work needs to be performed on the relationship between the environment and individual career success. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
This article describes the development and validation of the Career Competencies Indicator (CCI); a 43-item measure to assess career competencies (CCs). Following an extensive literature review, a comprehensive item generation process involving consultation with subject matter experts, a pilot study and a factor analytic study on a large sample yielded a seven-factor structure; goal setting and career planning, self-knowledge, job performance, career-related skills, knowledge of (office) politics, career guidance and networking, and feedback seeking and self-presentation. Coefficient α reliabilities of the seven dimensions ranged from .93 to .81. Convergent validity was established by showing that all 7-CCs loaded substantially onto a single second-order factor representing the general CC construct. Discriminant validity was established by showing less than chance similarity between the 7-CCI subscales and the Big Five personality scales. The results also suggested criterion-related validity of the CCI, since CCs were found to jointly predict objective and subjective career success.
Article
In this paper, we utilize a sample of working adults (N = 362) in the context of the recent economic recession to explore the coping mechanisms associated with different career attitudes and their subsequent impact on important individual work outcomes. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that boundaryless mindset and self-directed protean career attitudes were differentially correlated with external support seeking, active coping, and identity awareness, which in turn were differentially correlated with individual work outcomes of job search behavior, performance, career success, and psychological well-being. Evidence for both full and partial mediation within the model tested is presented, as well as the potential implications of these findings and suggested avenues for future research.
Article
Purpose – Seeks to explore how individuals talk about learning when asked about career. Design/methodology/approach – Brings together three qualitative research studies, based in the UK and New Zealand on how individuals make sense of career; one focused on people in organizational employment and two on “portfolio” workers operating as freelance workers on a variety of contracts with organizations. The debate on the changing nature of careers and the imperative to life‐long learning resonates in the studies and the extent of change that has occurred is questioned. Findings – The findings of the studies suggest that there is less learning activity (in terms of education, training or self‐development activities) being undertaken by these participants than may be expected. While participants generally believe that they should take charge of their own learning and career development, they are less sure what actions to take. Signals from the organization are still an important prompt for learning for those in employment; for those outside the lack of support and specific reasons to learn leads to a lack of formal or structured learning activity and a tendency to rely on previously learned skills. Originality/value – The paper is offered in a spirit of exploration, based on signals from these specific data. In that vein, it makes tentative suggestions as to the implications of such data for human resource management.
Article
The present study examines three classes of career competencies proposed as important predictors of success in the boundaryless career. Three criteria of career success were examined: perceived career satisfaction, perceived internal marketability, and perceived external marketability. Using data from 458 alumni from a large southeastern university, predictions were tested using partial correlations and dominance analysis. The results found support for the importance of 'knowing why', 'knowing whom', and 'knowing how' as suggested by previous theoretical work. The findings are discussed in reference to future research and theorizing on the boundaryless career. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)