Analysis of Microbial Degradation of Pesticides

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Irish Interdisciplinary Journal of Science & Research (IIJSR)
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Analysis of Microbial Degradation of Pesticides
Muhammad Arif Saleem1*, Sana Nayyab1, Sana Nisar1, Iram Taalay1 & Mahrukh Sharif 1
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan.
Article Received: 04 May 2019 Article Accepted: 05 August 2019 Article Published: 18 October 2019
INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are the chemical compounds that use to kill pests including fungi, insect, and weeds. Pesticides are of
many types such as bactericides, fungicides, insecticides, rodenticides, larvicides, virucides, nematicides.
Pesticides are being used worldwide to protect food and commercial products. 1It is also being used in agriculture
sites to control unwanted plants and preventing the plants from an attack of fungi, insects, rodents. The loss of food
has been decreased largely by the use of pesticides.2 They are also being used in public health to control the
mosquitoes that cause diseases like malaria and typhus.3 Two million tons of pesticides are using worldwide each
year. Recently almost over 500 pesticides have been registered to use worldwide. Pesticides should kill pests only
but unfortunately, they are lethal to non-target species also. 4Due to their unplanned and undetermined target, only
10% of pesticides reach to their target and remaining effect on soil, water, sediments. we cannot ignore the
hazardous effects that these pesticides cause on the environment including soil and water, on humans and even on
the animals. In humans, it causes acute cancer, neurological disorder, and immunodeficiency and also causes
estrogenic activity. Some of the pesticides are water-insoluble and they cannot be degraded5. These pesticides
remain in soil and water and act as toxic chemical residue. This toxic chemical residue becomes a major cause of
pollution and also affects the health of organisms by reaching in drinking water and food resources. Therefore
degradation of these pesticides becomes necessary. Instead of applying the chemical and physical methods to
degrade the pesticides, the best way is to biodegrade them. Because the method of biodegradation of pesticides is
cost-effective, environment-friendly and reliable.6 Degradation of pesticides depends upon the micronutrients
present in the soil, temperature, pH, moisture content and number of microbes present in the soil. The microbes that
we can use in biodegradation could be bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes.7 The enzymatic activity of these bacteria
causes degradation of toxic compounds and their use is economically and environment-friendly Because bacteria
are capable of producing mutant strains and they can adapt themselves rapidly according to the changes in the
environment and it doesn’t form secondary pollutants. Studies on microbial degradation of pesticides were firstly
ABSTRACT
The use of pesticides has been increased and it is hazardous to the environment, it affects the fertility of the soil and is toxic for the living things.
Excessive use of pesticides destroys the natural flora of the soil. The chemicals present in the pesticides remain in the soil and cause pollution.
Different methods of physical, biological and chemicals are used to remove these pesticides. Microbial pesticide degradation is the best method that
is being used as it is cost-effective and does not disturb the indigenous microbes. Different techniques of microbial degradation are used which
include biodegradation, biostimulation, phytoremediation, and bioaugmentation. Different strains from bacteria are used for the degradation of
these pollutants. Fungi and plants are also used for the degradation of pesticides. Microbes, bacteria, fungi, and plants have been found to help in the
degradation of organophosphorus, organochlorine, chloroacetanilide, triazine, and many other pesticides. Genetically modified organisms have
also been used. Microbes used these pesticides as the sole source of carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus under favorable conditions for growth. This
review provides descriptive information on the strain of bacteria and fungi from various microorganisms and plants are involved in the degradation
of different toxins. They degrade these pesticides into different compounds. Some metabolites are produced during degradation.
Keywords: Organophosphate, Organochlorine, Bioaugmentation, Biostimulation, Phytoremediation, DDT.

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started in the 1940s. Today biotechnology is emphasizing the use of genetically modified organisms for
bioremediation.8 The treatment of these pesticides should be done this way that the degradation of the compound
will not generate intermediates. The existing technologies are using physical or chemical ways to treat the
pesticides, and according to FAO, they could cost up to 3000-4000 USD/tons. So these methods are not
cost-effective, environment- friendly, and have many other disadvantages. So there is a need to develop biological
treatment over these conventional methods. The objective of this review article is to research the literature and
finding out different methods of biological degradation of pesticides and to find out different types of
microorganisms that we can use for the removal of these toxic pesticides from our environment.9
PHYTOREMEDIATION
The phytoremediation method is effective for degradation because it does not affect the topsoil. It can convert
complex toxic organic compounds into a non-toxic simpler form by synergistic relationship with microbes.7 A
Suitable combination of plants and the endophytes present in them can increase the rate of degradation of
compounds. According to earlier studies, Kochia sp tends to degrade atrazine, metolachlor, and trifluralin. Poplar
tree also tends to remediate the nitrate, atrazine, alachlor present in contaminated groundwater.10 Phytoremediation
can be divided into the following process.
Phytoaccumulation is the process that extracts the contaminants from soil and accumulates them into plant organs.
Phytodegradation is the degradation of organic compounds. Phytovolatilization in which Plants volatile the
organic compounds and Phytostabilization is the process in which Plants convert the molecule into non-toxic or
less toxic substances.11
But the process of phytoremediation is slow and some of its techniques such as phytoaccumulation does not
degrade the substances but stores these toxic substances into its organ, in leaves, stem... Whenever herbivores eat
these plants, the pesticidalorganic compound can move into their body and can affect them.12
BIOSTIMULATION
In biostimulation, we provide nutrients to the indigenous microbes and enhance their ability to degrade certain
harmful chemicals. Microbes are the native flora of the area and are well suited so it is very eco-friendly,3 but they
need certain nutrients for their growth. Different bacterial strains degrade different compounds. Some fungi also
degrade the harmful compounds. Nutrients we provide to the microbes may be carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, and
nitrogen. Some may also need inorganic compounds as well. As it stimulates microbes to form enzymes that
breakdown contaminants.7 Oxygen supply affects the rate of stimulation. Mostly the carbon to nitrogen is 10:1 and
carbon to phosphorus ratio is 30:1. Various species of bacteria do degradation by forming metabolites. Some fungi
also do degradation as candida sp. degrade lindane by the process of biostimulation.
BIOAUGMENTATION
The soil is polluted with different aromatic compounds which include halogenated aromatic compounds,
polycyclic aromatic compounds, benzene, ethylbenzene and toluene which are toxic and carcinogenic. The
presence of these chemicals in the environment affect human health.13 Most of the chemicals compounds are

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recalcitrant and persistent they remain in the environment for a long period. They cause pollution in the
environment so their degradation from the environment is necessary. Different techniques are used for the
degradation of these chemicals from the environment one is bioaugmentation it is the type in-situ bioremediation.14
In bioaugmentation, different microorganisms and consortia of microorganisms are introduced at the site of
contamination. Genetically engineered microorganism is also used. In bioaugmentation growth of indigenous
microbes is enhance by adding nutrients to the contaminated site. The microorganism is selected for
bioaugmentation. Bacteria are isolated from the contaminated soil and culture in the laboratory under optimized
conditions the optimal conditions. Different bacteria are used for the process of bioaugmentation. The use of
consortia of microorganisms for the degradation of aromatic compounds is more effective as compared by using the
single strain of bacteria. Not only bacteria fungi are also used in bioaugmentation.
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF CHLORPYRIFOS AND PHORATE
Organophosphate pesticides are a class of organophosphorus compounds and are used as insecticides for killing
insects. Organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos has been used for pest control.15 But it is toxic and causes
environmental pollution; therefore, bacterial strains are used to degrade pesticides.3 Two bacterial strains that are
present in soil are used to degrade chlorpyrifos. One strain JCp4 which is identified as Achromobacter xylosoxidans
and the other strain FCp1 identified as Ochrobactrum sp.3 They can degrade pesticides in liquid media and as well
as in soil. These bacteria can degrade the pesticides in sterile as well as nonsterile soil and they can degrade
chlorpyrifos 93-100% off within 42 days. Chlorpyrifos affects plant growth. 16The bacterial strain used for the
degradation of chlorpyrifos enhances the growth of the plant. Different colonies were isolated and grown in a
nutrient-containing media with chlorpyrifos supplement. These bacteria used the chlorpyrifos as the source of
carbon.2
Two organophosphate pesticides chlorpyrifos and phorate were detected in the corn and they cause pollution in
processed food.2 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is used in silage it is an important microorganism that is present in
food. LAB can degrade organophosphate pesticides. L. Plantarum present in the silage can accelerate
organophosphorus degradation.17 Three strains of LAB including L. Plantarum 1.0622, L. Plantarum 1.0315 and L.
Plantarum 1.0624 was used for the degradation of chlorpyrifos and phorate which are obtained from LAB in the
laboratory. Three strains of bacteria were inoculated in fresh whole corn silage and the degradation of
organophosphate was observed.
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF DIAZINON
This diazinon is an organophosphate insecticide used in agriculture. It is contact insecticide it kills the insect by
inhibiting the action of an enzyme in the nervous system. It is applied directly on the soil to kill insect pest but it
remains in the soil and becomes a pollutant. It also causes water pollution because from the soil they can be washed
off into nearby streams. Most of the pesticides are toxic and they inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase which is
involved in neurotransmission in the form of acetylcholine. 18Four bacteria that can degrade the diazinon were
isolated from the soil. By 16S rDNA sequencing, it is indicated that the bacterial strain D1101 which belongs to
Serratia marcesans group can degrade diazinon they used the diazinon as the sole source of carbon and

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phosphorous. This strain can degrade diazinon completely within four days in MSM media. The diazinon was
degraded in sterilized and unsterilized soil within 14 and 16 days.
Fig 1: Degradation of diazinon by Ralstonia sp. The compound 2-iso-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine is obtained
by degradation of diazinon which is less toxic. This strain of bacteria belongs to the Serratia marcesans group.19
Another bacterial strain Ralstonia sp. D1-3 which is present in agricultural soil can degrade diazinon. Its
degradation rate is higher and it is not spore-forming bacteria. The bacteria used the diazinon as a source of carbon
for growth. The compound obtained by the degradation of diazinon is 2-iso-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine
(IMHP) it is a persistent and less toxic product.2015
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF QUINALPHOS
Quinalphos is an organophosphate pesticide used for controlling the pest. Quinalphos affect the activity of a
testicular steroidogenic enzyme which results in the degeneration of germ cells. The degradation of quinalphos is
done by using bacteria. An Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM can degrade quinalphos (QS) and identify its metabolite.
This bacterial strain was isolated and identified in the laboratory from contaminated soil.3 The bacteria used this as
a source of carbon for growth and it was determined by Seubert’s mineral salt medium (MSM) which contains
2mmol 1- of quinalphos as a source of carbon. Two metabolite products are obtained from the degradation of
quinalphos one is 2-hydroxyquinoline and the other is diethyl phosphate which is further used as a carbon source.
Another bacteria which can degrade quinalphos was isolated from the soil. By rRNA gene sequence analysis the
bacteria were identified as Bacillus thuringiensis. The quinalphos degrade at the optimum condition at temperature
35-37 and pH 6.5-7.5. MSM media containing 20g mL- of quinalphos.
Fig 2: Degradation of quinalphos by Ocrabactrum sp. Strain HZM the Quinalphos is degraded into 2-
hydroxyquinoline by Ocrabactrum sp. And further converted into water CO2 and NO2-

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Sodium acetate is added additionally as carbon source and yeast is added as a nitrogen source in culture medium for
bacterial growth. Bacillus thuringiensis is the best source of quinalphos degradation.21
ORGANOCHLORINE
It includes DDT, Methoxychlor, dieldrin, chlordane, toxaphene, kepone, polychlorophenol, lindane. In the 20th
century, organochlorine pesticides were used widely during the second world war to control the mosquito that
spread malaria and typhus, but now they are banned in most of countries due to their high toxicity and persistence in
the environment.22 If the soil gets treated by pesticides, their residue remains in the soil and they become hazardous
for the environment as well as for health. Therefore effective methods are required for the removal of these
contaminants from the environment.23
PENTACHLOROPHENOL
Pentachlorophenol used as a preservative of leather and wood. But it is highly toxic to all kinds of life and also
causes mutations and different types of diseases in humans. But it is a recalcitrant organic pesticide that cannot be
degraded because it has a highly stable aromatic ring and high content of chlorine.24
Martin et al. stated that janibacter sp. strains isolated from the saline and arid environment can be used for the
biodegradation of pentachlorophenol. PCP is a hydrophobic compound and therefore has low bioavailability and
low solubility. But they used tween (80) that act as a surfactant and it increased bioavailability and solubility of
PCP in water.21
LINDANE, CHLORDANE, METHOXYCHLOR
Lindane, Chlordane, and methoxychlorane are also organochlorine pesticides that are persistent in the environment
and their half-life is 980, 365, 120 days respectively. All of these are insecticides and they are affecting the water
floating bodies and agricultural soil. These were observed in the edible fish of Arginteen Patagonian. Due to an
increase in biomass by glucose that provides them NADH+, the removal of PCP increases.25
Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria can be used for removal of these pesticides because they have mycelial
growth, ability to colonize the semi-solid substrate and also produce surfactants that increase the solubility and
bioavailability of pesticides.3
Determining factors that affected the degradation rate of Lindane, Methoxychlor, Chlordane is the texture of the
soil, assay conditions (sterility, slurry formation), moisture, availability of micro-organisms, pH, temperature,
O2availabilty, the concentration of pesticides, and micronutrient content.26 For treating the Lindane, methoxychlor,
and Chlordane effectively, different strains of Streptomyces consortium have been used in different soil systems.
A2, A5, A11, M7 of Streptomyces sp. as actinobacterium consortium. The experiment was done for the removal of
mixed Pesticides, by adding the isolated Streptomyces strain on different soil systems such as in liquid medium, in
sterile soil microcosm, in non-sterile silty clay loam soil microcosms, in a slurry system. Consortium growth was
observed with no significant difference. The order of removal of the OPs was methoxychlor 26% lindane 12.5%
chlordane 10%.27

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DDT
DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane) used in 2nd world war. It has also been used to control the
insects in agriculture. But it causes various diseases like cancer, endocrine disruption. There are many species have
been identified that can be used to degrade the DDT such as Sphingobacterium sp. D6, Clostridium sp. Alcaligenes
sp. Bacillus sp. White rot fungus, serretiamarcescenes. DDT also can be degraded by Pleuro ostreatus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Therefore, P.aeuroginosa is used along with white-rot fungus, which is acting as
biosurfactant.7
Name of pesticide Strains of microbes that degrades pesticides Structures
Chlorpyrifos Achromabacter xylosoxidans JCp4’
Strains of Ochrobacterum Sp. FCp1
Phorate Lactic acid bacteria strains
L.plantrum 1.0622, L.plantrum 1.6024
L.plantrum 1.0315
Diazinone Strain of Ralstonia sp.D1-3
Strain of Serretia Marcesans D1101
Quinalfos Strain of Ocrabacterum sp. HZM
Bacillus thuringiensis
Lindane Strains of Streptomyces consortium A2, A5, A11, M7
Methoxychlor Strains of Streptomyces consortium
DDT Streptomyces consortium
Chlordane P.ostratus P aeuroginosa.
PCP Strain of Janibacter sp. FA523

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Bacteria can degrade the DDT aerobically or anaerobically. If we degrade DDT anaerobically by P.aeruginosa
several metabolic products such as DDMU, DDMS, DDOH, DDA, 2-Chlorobiphenyl, 4-chlorophenyl,
4-Chlorobenzoic acid Catchecol, and hydroquinone. On aerobic degradation, by providing O2, DDE is detected as
the end product of DDT.whileP.ostreatus transform the DDE to further metabolic products such as DDD, DDMU,
DDA, DDMS.28
When P.aeruginosa and P. ostreatus used in a mixed culture they degraded DDT to DDE, DD, DDMU. In aerobic
conditions, Oxygenase and peroxidase play an important role. While white-rot fungus produces oxidative lipolytic
enzymes such as MnP, LiP that degrades lignin and other pollutants. But an intracellular enzyme also produces
named as Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase that causes dehalogenation, dehydrogenation, hydroxylation,
reduction, oxidation of organic pesticides.
When P.aeruginosa and P.ostreatus used in the mixture, the degradation rate of DDT was higher as compared to
when both of them were used for degradation, individually.
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF HERBICIDES
Herbicides are used to kill unwanted weeds and protect or keep our desired plant unharmed but some herbicides are
very toxic and persistent .as they persist in soil and also move to an aquatic system and also harm it.to remove this
persistent herbicides microbial degradation is being used nowadays.29
Atrazine Arthrobacter histidinolovorans
Glyphosate Bacillus cereus CB4
Chlorimuron ethyl Pseudomonas sp. LWS Aspergillus niger
Alachlor Actinomycetes, Pseudomonas sp. strains
Tricyclazole Blue-green Algae sp.
Metalaxyl Brevibacillus brevis sp.
Furalaxyl Brevibasillus brevis sp.
Carbendazim Actinobacterum Rhodococcus sp.

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One of the herbicides as atrazine is being degraded by microbes. A KU001 strain of bacterium was isolated from a
sugarcane field which was degrading atrazine. Biolog carbon source analysis shows that that the isolated bacterium
was Arthrobacter histidinolovorans .the pathway used by the strain of bacteria for the degradation of atrazine
consists of catabolic genes as trim,atzB, and atzC .the bacterial strain was using the atrazine as its only nitrogen
source .the strain KU001 was degrading atrazine at a rate 4-5 fold faster than indigenous microbial community.30
Glyphosate is itself not an herbicide but a toxic ingredient of herbicide produced by China. During the preparation
of herbicide, the wastewater containing glyphosate is discharged. It is very toxic so it should be treated before its
release. So microbes are now being used for its degradation. 31 There are two pathways for its degradation one
involves breakage of C-N bond while the second pathway involves the breakage of the C-P bond. It is being
degraded by the bacterial strain CB4 (Bacillus cereus ). CB4 is gram-positive and rod-shaped. The optimal
conditions for the degradation of glyphosate were PH 6, incubation temperature 35 and 6 gL concentration. In 5
days CB4 utilizes 94.47% of the glyphosate. But the growth rate of microbes was affected by its concentration due
to its toxicity.
Sulfonylurea is being throughout the world against weeds in rice, barley, cotton, potato, corn, and wheat. Bacteria
were isolated and identified by the rRNA gene sequence as pseudomonas sp.it was used by Pseudomonas sp. As the
sole nitrogen source. The rate of degradation was 81% in 7 days. The strain LW3 was degrading at optimal
temperature 30 and PH 6.5. by using metabolic32
Chlorimuron-ethyl is primarily degraded by the ph and temperature-dependent chemical hydrolysis but the
microbial is also being done. The hydrolysis was faster in the moist soil than the dry soil. Some fungi such as
Alternaria and Fusarium were unable to survive in media as chlorimuron ethyl can show drastic effects on some
species and inhibit their growth. Aspergillus niger survived in it, at 25 and in dark this fungi can degrade
chlorimuron ethyl. Aspergillus niger degrades it by releasing the intracellular enzymes which convert it into simple
forms which could be used by the microbes as an energy source. 33
Alachlor another toxic and mobile herbicide its persistence is also high in the soil. It is a carcinogen and causing
some serious threats.it could be degraded by nature as by precipitation and volatilization .though many studies
show that degradation of alachlor could be done better on aerobic conditions. From a cornfield, a bacterial
consortium was separated which could degrade alachlor. In early cultures, the degradation rate of alachlor was less.
due to the toxicity of alachlor, the growth rate of microbes was effected. Later repeated subculturing increases the
rate of degradation. Optimal pH for degradation is 7.5. in the inoculated media the rate of degradation was also
high.34
DEGRADATION OF FUNGICIDES
The Agricultural product has a forcible contact with surrounding as fungicides contaminate the soil and it tending
to cause harm all around surrounding by affecting soil makeup. There are factors such as humidity, light, the
intensity of heat that makes easier the process of degrading the harmful residue.35

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In India, rice is known by many people because its harvest rate all over the world is high but a disease “BLAST”
caused by “Pyricularia oryzae Savara" deteriorates rice crop especially from the seedling stage but symptoms
produced on all section of plants. After a prolonged period of
study, it was found that fungicide ”Tricyclazole” can be used to make rice crop resist against “BLAST” because
this fungicide introduces rice crop in a superior position effectively than other fungicides as this fungicide
engrossed by the root to all other parts of the plant. Tricyclazole can be drawn by a person to function by its
continuous usage without interruption but a microbial species that is Blue-green algae that are used to convert this
Tricyclazole in a non-toxic form.
Fig 3: (a)Tricyclazole (b)Hydrazinyl-4-methyl-1,3-benzothiazole(c)Metabolite(d) Tricyclazole alcohol
The effects of organic matter which bar into all-around places should be immune. We have to confer our full
attention and all probable way for pesticides remediation. Many distinct categories of organic matter can be used to
engross and deteriorate harmful substances residue. six different types of fungicides that we put on the surface of
the vineyard during trials and outcome proved that this fungicides mixture has enough power to deteriorate harmful
residue.
Two other types of fungicides (metalaxyl and furalaxyl) are also helpful to alienate many disorders of structure and
function in plants i.e mildews, late blight, etc. This state of confusion caused by Albugo Candida, Fusarium Solani,
Peronospora parasitica, Phytophthora sp. And pythium sp. The destiny of both racemic metalaxyl and racemic
furalaxyl rely on many distinct measurable factors such as pH, humidity, the intensity of heat, etc and the
deterioration rate of harmful substances residue are different in different soil. There is Brevibacillus brevis sp. that
is also used to degrade these two fungicides34
Carbendazim(MBC) is another fungicide which also helps to eliminate many fungal disorder structurally and
functionally in many plants but after elimination the state of confusion MBC remaining attached instead of falling
off in the environment and hurts the many parts of plants of animals even at a small amount. There are different
microbes which accountable to eliminate this residue gently through different processes as the growth rate of
microbes i.e Actinobacterium Rhodococcus sp. is highly affected to this fungicides

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Fig 4: Proposed degradation pathway of MBC by strain djl-6-2. Carbendazim converts into 2-aminobenzimidazole
which on further degradation form dihydroxybenzimidazole and at the end, it converts into a metabolite.
CONCLUSION
This Review highlights the mechanism by which ,different strain of different types of microbes to degrade the
different types of pesticides, fungicides, herbicides as strain of Agrobacterium sp. as well as acetobacter
xylosoxidans JCp4 used to degrade chlorpyrifos, lactic acid bacterial strains, L.plantrum1.0622, L.plantrum
1.6024 and L. Plantarum 1.0315 converts phorate into simplest form that is immune to environment. Strain of
Ralstonia sp.D1-3 and strain of Serratia marcesans D1101 degrades diazinon, strain of Ocrabacterium sp.HZM,
as well as Bacillus thuringiensis used to convert to quinaphlos into harmless compound, strain of Streptomyces
consortium A2, A5, A11.M7, degrade Lindane, methoxychlor, and chlordane. Blue-green algae sp. also help to
breakdown tricyclazole into simpler one, Brevibacillus brevis sp. degrades fungicides like metalaxyl and furalaxyl.
Actinobacterium Rhodococcus sp. Helps to make the environment safe by regarding harmful fungicides like
carbendazim and pseudomonas sp. helps to convert chlorimuron ethyl that is hazardous for all living organisms.
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