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Internet-Based Studies
... Online research methods (ORMs) and Internet research are new ways in which researchers can collect data via the Internet and practices of using Internet information, based on new tools like web search engines, meta-search engines, web directories, search services etc [17]. New online research means also to use other new online sources like Digital Researcher, Inquisitive Learning, Internet Archive, Seventh Framework Programme, Internet Research Journal, Source Evaluation, Web Literacy, Reliable Sources etc. [18][19]. A new and evolving field of research is the field of online research methods. ...
The well-known www (world wide web) or Internet and the history of education and research specific flows in the academic universe, multidisciplinarity and online research interactions are the most important topics for this paper. After a brief interrogative introduction, a conceptual section follows and defines the Internet and online research paradigm, together with a brief conceptualization of multidisciplinarity. Some usual classical types and the modern typology of the scientific research are generally confronted, inside the second and the third major sections. A brief example based on crowd research and some final remarks underline the future of online scientific research, concluding this article, as a paper designed to open the workshop entitled ARFYT VII.
... Online survey make longitudinal research easier, since it eliminates most of the costs related to administration of the questionnaires. However, when planning longitudinal online research, to ensure adequate number of participants in later waves, researchers should aim to recruit large number of participants because of higher likelihood for attrition in online surveys (Reips, 2013). ...
The aim of this report was to analyse positive and negative aspects of online administration of longitudinal well-being survey and to provide suggestions and guidelines for future research. The aim of CRO-WELL (Croatian Longitudinal Well-being Study) research was to follow well-being indicators longitudinally, on a large sample (N>5 000).
For the purpose of the research we developed online platform with integrated questionnaire to assess various variables related to well-being. Participants could assess the application via various browsers, and it was also adjusted for smart phones. “Friendly use” of the online application, understanding of questions and answering method, as well as ethical concerns, was tested using focus groups and individual trials. To enable matching the participants from two waves, every participant had to log in to the web page using his/her e-mail address. While e-mail address was protected by data-base, special computer-programme created token associated with each participant. A year after completing the initial questionnaire, participants were automatically invited to complete the follow-up. This paper brings review of designing and conducting a longitudinal research having in mind advantages and disadvantages of online survey.
The present article reviews web-based research in psychology. It captures principles, learnings, and trends in several types of web-based research that show similar developments related to web technology and its major shifts (e.g., appearance of search engines, browser wars, deep web, commercialization, web services, HTML5…) as well as distinct challenges. The types of web-based research discussed are web surveys and questionnaire research, web-based tests, web experiments, Mobile Experience Sampling, and non-reactive web research, including big data. A number of web-based methods are presented and discussed that turned out to become important in research methodology. These are one-item-one-screen design, seriousness check, instruction manipulation and other attention checks, multiple site entry technique, subsampling technique, warm-up technique, and web-based measurement. Pitfalls and best practices are described then, especially regarding dropout and other non-response, recruitment of participants, and interaction between technology and psychological factors. The review concludes with a discussion of important concepts that have developed over 25 years and an outlook on future developments in web-based research.
Two studies demonstrate the usefulness of a newly developed, direct assessment method of subjective conceptualizations of development across adulthood. Results of Study 1 (N = 234, 18–83 years) suggest that older adults anticipate stronger decline in four domains of functioning (subjective well-being, social relationships, cognition, physical functioning) than younger and middle-aged adults. Study 2 (N = 166, 20–85 years) showed that older adults’ conceptualizations show less differentiation across domains than those of younger and middle-aged adults’. Results of both studies confirm lifespan notions of multidirectionality (expectations of gains and losses) but also show age-related differences in multidimensionality of developmental conceptions (i.e., differences in expected trajectories between domains). Moreover, results provide evidence that favorable conceptions impact perceived controllability and actual subjective well-being.
The Google Books Ngram Viewer (Google Ngram) is a search engine that charts word frequencies from a large corpus of books and thereby allows for the examination of cultural change as it is reflected in books. While the tool’s massive corpus of data (about 8 million books or 6% of all books ever published) has been used in various scientific studies, concerns about the accuracy of results have simultaneously emerged. This paper reviews the literature and serves as a guideline for improving Google Ngram studies by suggesting five methodological procedures suited to increase the reliability of results. In particular, we recommend the use of (I) different language corpora, (II) cross-checks on different corpora from the same language, (III) word inflections, (IV) synonyms, and (V) a standardization procedure that accounts for both the influx of data and unequal weights of word frequencies. Further, we outline how to combine these procedures and address the risk of potential biases arising from censorship and propaganda. As an example of the proposed procedures, we examine the cross-cultural expression of religion via religious terms for the years 1900 to 2000. Special emphasis is placed on the situation during World War II. In line with the strand of literature that emphasizes the decline of collectivistic values, our results suggest an overall decrease of religion’s importance. However, religion re-gains importance during times of crisis such as World War II. By comparing the results obtained through the different methods, we illustrate that applying and particularly combining our suggested procedures increase the reliability of results and prevents authors from deriving wrong assumptions.
The Spatial–Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect (i.e., faster reactions to small/large numbers on the left-/right-hand side) is usually observed along with the linguistic Markedness of Response Codes (MARC) effect—that is, faster left-/right-hand responses to odd/even numbers. The SNARC effect is one of the most thoroughly investigated phenomena in numerical cognition. However, almost all SNARC and MARC studies to date were conducted with sample sizes smaller than 100. Here we report on a study with 1,156 participants from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds performing a typical parity judgment task. We investigated whether (1) the SNARC and MARC effects can be observed in an online setup, (2) the properties of these effects observed online are similar to those observed in laboratory setups, (3) the effects are reliable, and (4) they are valid. We found robust SNARC and MARC effects. Their magnitude and reliabilities were comparable to values previously reported in in-lab studies. Furthermore, we reproduced commonly observed validity correlations of the SNARC and MARC effects. Namely, SNARC and MARC correlated with mean reaction times and intraindividual variability in reaction times. Additionally, we found interindividual differences in the SNARC and MARC effects (e.g., finger-counting routines for the SNARC and handedness for the MARC). Large-scale testing via web-based data acquisition not only produces SNARC and MARC effects and validity correlations similar to those from small, in-lab studies, but also reveals substantial insights with regard to interindividual differences that usually cannot be revealed in the offline laboratory, due to power considerations.
The Web is a prominent platform for behavioral experiments, for many reasons (relative simplicity, ubiquity, and accessibility, among others). Over the last few years, many behavioral and social scientists have conducted Internet-based experiments using standard web technologies, both in native JavaScript and using research-oriented frameworks. At the same time, vendors of widely used web browsers have been working hard to improve the performance of their software. However, the goals of browser vendors do not always coincide with behavioral researchers’ needs. Whereas vendors want high-performance browsers to respond almost instantly and to trade off accuracy for speed, researchers have the opposite trade-off goal, wanting their browser-based experiments to exactly match the experimental design and procedure. In this article, we review and test some of the best practices suggested by web-browser vendors, based on the features provided by new web standards, in order to optimize animations for browser-based behavioral experiments with high-resolution timing requirements. Using specialized hardware, we conducted four studies to determine the accuracy and precision of two different methods. The results using CSS animations in web browsers (Method 1) with GPU acceleration turned off showed biases that depend on the combination of browser and operating system. The results of tests on the latest versions of GPU-accelerated web browsers showed no frame loss in CSS animations. The same happened in many, but not all, of the tests conducted using requestAnimationFrame (Method 2) instead of CSS animations. Unbeknownst to many researchers, vendors of web browsers implement complex technologies that result in reduced quality of timing. Therefore, behavioral researchers interested in timing-dependent procedures should be cautious when developing browser-based experiments and should test the accuracy and precision of the whole experimental setup (web application, web browser, operating system, and hardware).
The first papers that reported on conducting psychological research on the web were presented at the Society for Computers in Psychology conference 20 years ago, in 1996. Since that time, there has been an explosive increase in the number of studies that use the web for data collection. As such, it seems a good time, 20 years on, to examine the health and adoption of sound practices of research on the web. The number of studies conducted online has increased dramatically. Overall, it seems that the web can be a method for conducting valid psychological studies. However, it is less clear that students and researchers are aware of the nature of web research. While many studies are well conducted, there is also a certain laxness appearing regarding the design and conduct of online studies. This laxness appears both anecdotally to the authors as managers of large sites for posting links to online studies, and in a survey of current researchers. One of the deficiencies discovered is that there is no coherent approach to educating researchers as to the unique features of web research.
Social networking has surpassed e-mail and instant messaging as the dominant form of online communication (Meeker, Devitt, & Wu, 2010). Currently, all large social networks are proprietary, making it difficult to impossible for researchers to make changes to such networks for the purpose of study design and access to user-generated data from the networks. To address this issue, the authors have developed and present Social Lab, an Internet-based free and open-source social network software system available from http://www.sociallab.es . Having full availability of navigation and communication data in Social Lab allows researchers to investigate behavior in social media on an individual and group level. Automated artificial users ("bots") are available to the researcher to simulate and stimulate social networking situations. These bots respond dynamically to situations as they unfold. The bots can easily be configured with scripts and can be used to experimentally manipulate social networking situations in Social Lab. Examples for setting up, configuring, and using Social Lab as a tool for research in social media are provided.
This paper examined whether different types of screen names offer advantages when it comes to attracting a partner on dating sites. In the pilot study, we conducted a content analysis of real screen names to develop a typology of screen names. In the main study, we explored whether the typology predicted online daters' ratings of names, and compared the types of names that appealed to men and to women. Men more than women were attracted to screen names that indicated physical attractiveness, and women more than men were attracted to screen names that indicated intelligence or were neutral. Similarly, men more than women were motivated to contact screen names which indicated physical attractiveness and women more than men were more motivated to contact screen names which indicated intellectual characteristics or were neutral. These findings indicate that different types of screen names may elicit different reactions.
The World-Wide Web presents survey researchers with an unprecedented tool for the collection of data. The costs in terms of
both time and money for publishing a survey on the Web are low compared with costs associated with conventional surveying
methods. The data entry stage is eliminated for the survey administrator, and software can ensure that the data acquired from
participants is free from common entry errors. Importantly, Web surveys can interactively provide participants with customized
feedback. These features come at a price—ensuring that appropriately written software manages the data collection process.
Although the potential for missing data, unacceptable responses, duplicate submissions, and Web abuse exist, one can take
measures when creating the survey software to minimize the frequency and negative consequences of such incidents.
Internet-based health information may be easier for people to access than traditional sources, in part because it can be found more privately. However there are threats to this privacy. Awareness of this, and loss of trust in Internet search technology, may reduce willingness to look for information online.
Despite increased concern about the privacy threat posed by new technology and the Internet, there is relatively little evidence that people's privacy concerns translate to privacy-enhancing behaviors while online. In Study 1, measures of privacy concern are collected, followed 6 weeks later by a request for intrusive personal information alongside measures of trust in the requestor and perceived privacy related to the specific request (n = 759). Participants' dispositional privacy concerns, as well as their level of trust in the requestor and perceived privacy during the interaction, predicted whether they acceded to the request for personal information, although the impact of perceived privacy was mediated by trust. In Study 2, privacy and trust were experimentally manipulated and disclosure measured (n = 180). The results indicated that privacy and trust at a situational level interact such that high trust compensates for low privacy, and vice versa. Implications for understanding the links between privacy attitudes, trust, design, and actual behavior are discussed.
This article discusses methods and techniques, procedures and tools that have been found to be necessary or useful in Internet-based experimenting. While the focus is on experiments, many of the methods apply to other types of Internet-based research as well. The article is structured in a step-by-step fashion, guiding the reader through the various stages of setting up and conducting a web experiment. Apart from general issues, the relevant steps begin with planning, generating, and pre-testing an experiment. They continue with recruitment and monitoring, then analysis and archiving.
WEXTOR is a Javascript-based experiment generator and teaching tool on the World-Wide Web that can be used to design laboratory and Web experiments in a guided step-by-step process. It dynamically creates the customized Web pages and Javascripts needed for the experimental procedure and provides experimenters with a print-ready visual display of their experimental design. WEXTOR flexibly supports complete and incomplete factorial designs with between-subjects, within-subjects, and quasiexperimental factors, as well as mixed designs. The software implements client-side response time measurement
and contains a content wizard for creating interactive materials, as well as dependent measures (graphical scales, multiple-choice items, etc.), on the experiment pages. However, it does not aim to replace a full-fledged HTML editor. Several methodological features specifically needed in Web experimental design have been implemented in the Web-based tool and are described in this paper. WEXTOR
is platform independent. The created Web pages can be uploaded to any type of Web server in which data may be recorded in logfiles or via a database. The current version of WEXTOR is freely available for educational and noncommercial purposes. Its Web address is http://www.genpsylab.unizh.ch/wextor/index.html.
In recent years, a small, but growing number of researchers has begun to use the world wide web as a medium for experimental research. To learn more about the circumstances and results of the first web experiments, we conducted a WWW-based online survey directed to researchers
currently engaged in web experimenting. We hoped to get an impression of the experiences of the pioneering generation of web researchers. We summarize the results of this survey which showed that an increasing number of web experiments with promising results is now being conducted, and give a brief overview on the short history of web experiments.
The use of online questionnaires is rapidly increasing. Contrary to manifold advantages, not much is known about user behavior that can be measured outside the boundaries set by standard web technologies like HTML form elements. To show how the lack of knowledge about the user setting in web studies can be accounted for, we present a tool called UserActionTracer, with which it is possible to collect more behavior information than with any other paradata gathering tool, in order to (1) gather additional data unobtrusively from the process of answering questions and (2) to visualize individual user behavior on web pages. In an empirical study on a large web sample (N = 1046) we observed and analysed online behaviors (e.g., clicking through). We found that only 10.5% of participants showed more than five single behaviors with highly negative influence on data quality in the whole online questionnaire (out of 132 possible single behavior judgments). Furthermore, results were validated by comparison with data from online address books. With the UserActionTracer it is possible to gain further insight into the process of answering online questionnaires.
Over the last few years, microblogging has gained prominence as a form of personal broadcasting media where information and opinion are mixed together without an established order, usually tightly linked with current reality. Location awareness and promptness provide researchers using the Internet with the opportunity to create "psychological landscapes"--that is, to detect differences and changes in voiced (twittered) emotions, cognitions, and behaviors. In our article, we present iScience Maps, a free Web service for researchers, available from http://maps.iscience.deusto.es/ and http://tweetminer.eu/ . Technologically, the service is based on Twitter's streaming and search application programming interfaces (APIs), accessed through several PHP libraries, and a JavaScript frontend. This service allows researchers to assess via Twitter the effect of specific events in different places as they are happening and to make comparisons between cities, regions, or countries regarding psychological states and their evolution in the course of an event. In a step-by-step example, it is shown how to replicate a study on affective and personality characteristics inferred from first names (Mehrabian & Piercy, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 755-758 1993) by mining Twitter data with iScience Maps.Results from the original study are replicated in both world regions we tested (the western U.S. and the U.K./Ireland); we also discover base rate of names to be a confound that needs to be controlled for in future research.
We constructed a corpus of digitized texts containing about 4% of all books ever printed. Analysis of this corpus enables
us to investigate cultural trends quantitatively. We survey the vast terrain of ‘culturomics,’ focusing on linguistic and
cultural phenomena that were reflected in the English language between 1800 and 2000. We show how this approach can provide
insights about fields as diverse as lexicography, the evolution of grammar, collective memory, the adoption of technology,
the pursuit of fame, censorship, and historical epidemiology. Culturomics extends the boundaries of rigorous quantitative
inquiry to a wide array of new phenomena spanning the social sciences and the humanities.
The present article describes VAS Generator (www.vasgenerator.net), a free Web service for creating a wide range of visual analogue scales that can be used as measurement devices in Web surveys and Web experimenta-
tion, as well as for local computerized assessment. A step-by-step example for creating and implementing a vi-
sual analogue scale with visual feedback is given. VAS Generator and the scales it generates work independently
of platforms and use the underlying languages HTML and JavaScript. Results from a validation study with 355
participants are reported and show that the scales generated with VAS Generator approximate an interval-scale
level. In light of previous research on visual analogue versus categorical (e.g., radio button) scales in Internet-
based research, we conclude that categorical scales only reach ordinal-scale level, and thus visual analogue
scales are to be preferred whenever possible.
This article summarizes expertise gleaned from the first years of Internet-based experimental research and presents recommendations on: (1) ideal circumstances for conducting a study on the Internet; (2) what precautions have to be undertaken in Web experimental design; (3) which techniques have proven useful in Web experimenting; (4) which frequent errors and misconceptions need to be avoided; and (5) what should be reported. Procedures and solutions for typical challenges in Web experimenting are discussed. Topics covered include randomization, recruitment of samples, generalizability, dropout, experimental control, identity checks, multiple submissions, configuration errors, control of motivational confounding, and pre-testing. Several techniques are explained, including "warm-up," "high hurdle," password methods, "multiple site entry," randomization, and the use of incentives. The article concludes by proposing sixteen standards for Internet-based experimenting.
Advantages and disadvantages of Web and lab research are reviewed. Via the World Wide Web, one can efficiently recruit large, heterogeneous samples quickly, recruit specialized samples (people with rare characteristics), and standardize procedures, making studies easy to replicate. Alternative programming techniques (procedures for data collection) are compared, including client-side as opposed to server-side programming. Web studies have methodological problems; for example, higher rates of drop out and of repeated participation. Web studies must be thoroughly analyzed and tested before launching on-line. Many studies compared data obtained in Web versus lab. These two methods usually reach the same conclusions; however, there are significant differences between college students tested in the lab and people recruited and tested via the Internet. Reasons that Web researchers are enthusiastic about the potential of the new methods are discussed.
The Web Experiment List (http://genpsylab-wexlist.unizh.ch/), a free Web-based service for the recruitment of participants in Internet-based experiments, is presented. The Web Experiment List also serves as a searchable archive for the research community. It lists more than 250 links to and descriptions of current and past Web experiments. Searches can be conducted by area of research, language, type of study, date, and status (active vs. archived). Data from log file analyses reveal an increasing use of the Web Experiment List and provide a picture of the distribution of the use of the Web experiment method across disciplines. On a general theoretical note, Web services are discussed as a viable software alternative to the traditional program format.
One major advantage of Web-based research lies in its ability to reach and study people who have rare conditions
of interest. Another advantage is that, due to the anonymity of the survey situation, the Internet is particularly
suited for surveys on sensitive topics. Sexsomnia is a newly identified medical condition whose sufferers
engage in sexual behavior during their sleep. Problematic cases are highly distressing and have forensic implications.
The consensus among opinion leaders in sleep medicine is that sexsomnia may be quite common but
that it often goes unreported because of shame and embarrassment. Thus, little is known about this condition’s
demographics and clinical features. This article reports findings from a sample analysis of 20 years of research
on sexsomnia and discusses the results, strengths, and weaknesses of a recent Web-based survey conducted on
the difficult-to-reach clinical population that suffers from sexsomnia.
The present research examined how narcissism is manifested on a social networking Web site (i.e., Facebook.com). Narcissistic personality self-reports were collected from social networking Web page owners. Then their Web pages were coded for both objective and subjective content features. Finally, strangers viewed the Web pages and rated their impression of the owner on agentic traits, communal traits, and narcissism. Narcissism predicted (a) higher levels of social activity in the online community and (b) more self-promoting content in several aspects of the social networking Web pages. Strangers who viewed the Web pages judged more narcissistic Web page owners to be more narcissistic. Finally, mediational analyses revealed several Web page content features that were influential in raters' narcissistic impressions of the owners, including quantity of social interaction, main photo self-promotion, and main photo attractiveness. Implications of the expression of narcissism in social networking communities are discussed.
This article introduces some of the rudimentary underlying concepts of how the Internet works and points out a number of caveats that can influence the quality of collected data. Topics covered include Internet basics, technical problems, programming for the lowest common technology, client configuration issues, server side and data security issues, and the limits of precision. It is hoped that after becoming familiar with the information herein, researchers will be capable of determining whether the research application they are interested in pursuing is fit for the Internet medium, or whether technical issues will pose problems which threaten the validity of the work.
Objective To compile and evaluate the evidence on the effects on health and social outcomes of computer based peer to peer communities and electronic self support groups, used by people to discuss health related issues remotely.
Design and data sources Analysis of studies identified from Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Evidence Based Medicine Reviews, Electronics and Communications Abstracts, Computer and Information Systems Abstracts, ERIC, LISA, ProQuest Digital Dissertations, Web of Science.
Selection of studies We searched for before and after studies, interrupted time series, cohort studies, or studies with control groups; evaluating health or social outcomes of virtual peer to peer communities, either as stand alone interventions or in the context of more complex systems with peer to peer components.
Main outcome measures Peer to peer interventions and co-interventions studied, general characteristics of studies, outcome measures used, and study results.
Results 45 publications describing 38 distinct studies met our inclusion criteria: 20 randomised trials, three meta-analyses of n of 1 trials, three non-randomised controlled trials, one cohort study, and 11 before and after studies. Only six of these evaluated “pure” peer to peer communities, and one had a factorial design with a “peer to peer only” arm, whereas 31 studies evaluated complex interventions, which often included psychoeducational programmes or one to one communication with healthcare professionals, making it impossible to attribute intervention effects to the peer to peer community component. The outcomes measured most often were depression and social support measures; most studies did not show an effect. We found no evidence to support concerns over virtual communities harming people.
Conclusions No robust evidence exists of consumer led peer to peer communities, partly because most peer to peer communities have been evaluated only in conjunction with more complex interventions or involvement with health professionals. Given the abundance of unmoderated peer to peer groups on the internet, research is required to evaluate under which conditions and for whom electronic support groups are effective and how effectiveness in delivering social support electronically can be maximised.
The Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology brings together many researchers in what can be termed Internet Psychology. Though a very new area of research, Internet Psychology is a fast-growing one. In addition to well-studied areas of investigation, such as social identity theory, computer-mediated communication, and virtual communities, the book also includes articles on topics as diverse as deception and misrepresentation, attitude change and persuasion online, Internet addiction, online relationships, privacy and trust, health and leisure use of the Internet, and the nature of interactivity. With over thirty articles written by experts in the field, it serves to define this emerging area of research. This content is supported by a section covering the use of the Internet as a research tool, including qualitative and quantitative methods, online survey design, personality testing, ethics, and technological and design issues. While it is likely to be a popular research resource to be "dipped into", as a whole book it is coherent enough to act as a single textbook.
As the Internet has changed communication, commerce, and the distribution of information, so too it is changing psychological research. Psychologists can observe new or rare phenomena online and can do research on traditional psychological topics more efficiently, enabling them to expand the scale and scope of their research. Yet these opportunities entail risk both to research quality and to human subjects. Internet research is inherently no more risky than traditional observational, survey, or experimental methods. Yet the risks and safeguards against them will differ from those characterizing traditional research and will themselves change over time. This article describes some benefits and challenges of conducting psychological research via the Internet and offers recommendations to both researchers and institutional review boards for dealing with them. ((c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)
Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology
- U.-D Reips
Reips, U.-D. (2006). Web-based methods. In M. Eid &
E. Diener (Eds.), Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology (pp. 73-85). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.