A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy
... Renqing is 'humanized obligations' such as gifts or favors Yen et al., 2011Yen et al., , 2017. People can give or receive this Chinese version of reciprocity during a transaction (Chan, 1963;Qian et al., 2007). Often assessed in Chinese ethics scales, renqing is a crucial and core element of Confucianism (Chan, 1963;Monkhouse et al., 2013;Wu et al., 2021). ...
... People can give or receive this Chinese version of reciprocity during a transaction (Chan, 1963;Qian et al., 2007). Often assessed in Chinese ethics scales, renqing is a crucial and core element of Confucianism (Chan, 1963;Monkhouse et al., 2013;Wu et al., 2021). Under renqing, people exchange beneficence for all parties' mutual long-term good. ...
China is now a world-leading e-commerce market. As a result, studies to deconstruct online relationships in China can inform marketing scholarship and practice. Hence, our primary goal is to create an improved e-tailing-centric e-guanxi scale to assess guanxi in online B2C and C2C commerce contexts. We also explore and confirm the factors contributing to and stemming from e-guanxi. Two survey-based online studies of Chinese university students were used to test a PLS-SEM model with e-guanxi as the central construct, online communication as the antecedent, and buyer satisfaction, word-of-mouth, and repurchase intention as the consequents. By informing e-guanxi-enhancing strategies, this research can provide insights into e-guanxi’s effect on Chinese e-tail markets and help identify the best e-guanxi-enhancing practices.
... Apart from portraying centrality as the state of heartmind that remains unswayed by emotions, the Zhong Yong also labels centrality as "the great foundation of all under heaven". (Chan 1963, 97) Yang Shi further elucidates the metaphysical foundation of the psychological state of centrality as follows, and his explanation centers around the term "Ultimate Limit (太極, Taiji)" "The rectification of the heartmind achieves its utmost limit (極致) in a state of tranquil stillness (寂然不動). This condition enables one to resonate with, and thereby connect to (感而遂通) all under heaven. ...
Yang Shi initiated the Neo-Confucian methodology of self-cultivation centered on quiet-sitting, and focusing on Yang Shi may shift the study of Confucian quiet-sitting to a more chronologically appropriate “beginning-forward” approach. Incorporating techniques such as breathing and calming the mind, Yang’s approach to self-cultivation follows a model of returning to the state of centrality through quiet-sitting, and then preserving and expanding that state in moments of everyday life. This model is based on a moral psychology and metaphysics that views the comprehensive pattern-principle of the universe, Tianli, as fully manifest in the vital state of the human heartmind achievable through the practice of quiet-sitting. This view inherits major features of Cheng Hao’s philosophy while distinguishing itself from Cheng Yi’s. Yang Shi’s reflections on the differences between Confucian and Buddhist contemplative practices also indicate, despite his view being closer to the Huayan Buddhist metaphysical perspective of perfect fusion between pattern-principle and things compared to Cheng Yi, an insistence on characterizing his quiet-sitting philosophy as distinctively Confucian.
... The Cheng brothers emphasized moral self-cultivation and the investigation of things (格物致知), which resonated with Su Shi's own intellectual pursuits. Although Su Shi did not align himself entirely with their school of thought, their emphasis on ethical living and personal virtue deeply impacted his writings and philosophy (Chan 1963). Furthermore, Zhang Zai 張載 (1020-1077 CE), another key Neo-Confucian thinker, contributed to the intellectual milieu that shaped Su Shi's ideas. ...
This paper explores the life and works of Su Shi, a prominent intellectual and statesman during China’s Song Dynasty, as a champion of interreligious harmony. We examine how Su Shi’s vast philosophical and literary output demonstrates his deep engagement with Confucian ethics, Buddhist compassion, and Daoist tranquility. By analyzing his poems, essays, and other writings, we explore how Su Shi navigated these diverse traditions, finding common ground and promoting mutual understanding. This analysis highlights Su Shi’s ability to bridge religious and philosophical divides, offering a valuable perspective for contemporary discussions on interfaith dialogue and peaceful coexistence.
Maimonides (1135/1138–1204) and Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200) are unparalleled in the transformation and revitalization of Jewish and Confucian traditions, respectively. This article offers a comparative analysis of the two philosophers’ conceptions of nature and their view on the end of knowledge. It examines, on one hand, Maimonides’s distinctive interpretation of the rabbinic concept of maʿaseh bereshith (the Account of the Beginning) in the light of his statement that maʿaseh bereshith is identical with natural science; and on the other hand, Zhu Xi’s elucidation of key concepts such as xing 性 (nature), shu 數 (number), tian 天 (heaven), and cheng 誠 (genuineness) in the framework of his doctrine of li 理 (pattern or principle) and qi 氣 (material force). The article points out that Maimonides not only connects the maʿaseh bereshith to the beginning of the world, as traditionally held; he also associates it with the beginning of the revelation of the Mosaic Law, which renders profound implications. While both emphasize the inherent nature of all things, they diverge on the ultimate goal of knowledge in terms of the hierarchy of virtues. Along with Aristotle, Maimonides prioritizes rational virtue over moral virtue, thereby placing intellectual perfection as the ultimate human perfection. In contrast, Zhu Xi esteems knowledge of nature as facilitating the pursuit of the highest goal of sagehood, and leaves no room for the higher status of theoretical pursuit to moral cultivation.
O objetivo do presente trabalho consiste em analisar como a cultura tradicional chinesa molda a diplomacia do país, com foco nas relações sino-brasileiras. A China, com sua rica história e filosofia, combina tradições milenares com a ideologia marxista para construir uma diplomacia única. Conceitos como harmonia, respeito e cooperação, presentes em filosofias como o confucionismo e o taoísmo, são fundamentais para a diplomacia chinesa. A parceria entre Brasil e China, marcada pela cooperação em diversas áreas, é um exemplo de como a diplomacia cultural chinesa funciona na prática. A China busca fortalecer os laços com o Sul Global, onde o Brasil desempenha um papel crucial. A diplomacia cultural chinesa, através de intercâmbios e iniciativas conjuntas, promove o entendimento mútuo e a construção de um futuro mais próspero para ambos os países. Por conseguinte, a cultura chinesa é um elemento fundamental na diplomacia do país, influenciando suas relações internacionais. A parceria entre Brasil e China é um exemplo emblemático dessa abordagem, mostrando o potencial da diplomacia cultural para promover a paz e a prosperidade comum.
Durante las crisis económica y sociopolítica debido al cambio dinástico de Ming a Qing, paradójicamente la misión católica tuvo su mayor progresión entre los mundos de dialectos y analfabetismo del espacio rural chino. Una hipótesis que permite comprender esta nueva dinámica en la empresa misionera, se podría hallar en el “personaje del misionero”, imagen en si misma de un grado de legitimidad simbólica para todas las esferas de la cultura china de la época. Es decir, desde su vestimenta, su corte de cabello, su forma litúrgica de expresarse y hasta su capacidad para la dirección de los rituales, la presencia y el liderazgo del religioso impusieron un aura de poder, temor y respeto entre las masas poblacionales. De esta manera, el misionero se erigió como uno más de los maestros místicos de lo sobrenatural en la China imperial tardía de los Ming.
The present article explores the Jesuit interpretation of the Confucian concept of “tian” 天 (usually rendered as “heaven”) and “tianming” 天命 (“mandate of heaven”) within a few passages from the first Western translation of the Lunyu 論語 (Analects) to Latin (1687). Thus, it examines how Jesuit missionaries, driven by the goal of evangelization, sought to reconcile Confucius’ philosophy with Christianity. This not only implied interpreting terms such as “tian” or “tianming” through a Christian’s perspective but also commenting on the original text and adding content to it so as to portray Confucius as a proto-Christian. By using an orientalist framework, this article will analyze the construction of a “Christo-Confucianism”; a phenomenon that could be understood as a natural product of the particular material and theological conditions to which the Jesuit Order had to adapt in China.
This paper discusses Taoism and Confucianism, two ancient Chinese philosophies. Although they look different, both aim to create a peaceful and pleasant society. Taoism encourages living simply and following nature. It teaches "wu wei" (non-action), which means leaders should not control too much and let things go naturally. Confucianism teaches about keeping society in order by learning, following rituals, and respecting relationships and order. Leaders should show good behavior and keep old traditions.
The paper looks at how these ideas work in today's government and society, talking about positive and negative aspects. For example, Taoism might be hard to use in emergencies that need fast decisions. Confucianism might not agree with new ideas on individualism. Ultimately, mixing Taoist ideas of being humble and living with nature with Confucian ideas of duty and good leadership can give good advice. This can help solve pressing world problems concerning the environment, unfairness in society, and the need for kind leadership.
This study investigates the theological and philosophical interplay between Rosemary Radford Ruether’s ecofeminist theology and Neo-Confucian cosmology in the context of Korean Protestant Christianity. By exploring intolerant interpretations of the Christian creation story, it critiques the anthropocentric domination of nature and proposes a reformed ecological spirituality. The research integrates Ruether’s covenantal and sacramental traditions, arguing for the significance of “relational consciousness” as a framework for eco-spiritual formation. Drawing from Ruether’s examination of creation myths and Neo-Confucian perspectives, this study asserts the necessity in reshaping Christian theology to embrace human interdependence with nature and the cosmos. It proposes that Korean Christians, influenced by Calvinist theology, must move beyond human dominion over nature to a role of co-creator and nurturer of the ecosystem, advocating for an eco-theological renewal that centers on relational consciousness for spiritual formation.
This article examines the nuanced interpretations of chengxin 成心 in the Zhuangzi 莊子, a foundational Daoist text, across different philosophical traditions. Historically, Daoist thinkers like Guo Xiang 郭象 and Cheng Xuanying 成玄英, along with Neo-Confucian scholars such as Lü Huiqing 吕惠卿 and Lin Xiyi 林希逸, have provided differing perspectives on the notion of chengxin. They regard it as either a source of subjective bias or an expression of heavenly principle. The core focus of this study is Zhang Taiyan’s 章太炎 innovative interpretation of chengxin as seeds (bijas) within ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness), integrating Yogācāra Buddhist concepts with traditional Daoist philosophy. The study conducts a textual analysis of Zhang’s Qiwulun Shi 齊物論釋, comparing his interpretation with earlier commentaries on the Zhuangzi. It is argued that Zhang’s approach is profoundly influenced by the Buddhist doctrine of non-duality, which underscores the interconnectedness of all phenomena. While Zhang’s interpretation has faced criticism from contemporaries and later philosophers for misunderstandings of Yogācāra theory and Kantian philosophy, it employs the method of geyi 格義 (matching concepts), not to impose one tradition over another, but to foster a dialogical process where the insights from each tradition mutually inform and transform one another. This article highlights the interpretative openness of the Zhuangzi, which invites diverse interpretations, and demonstrates how Zhang’s approach enriches this tradition by synthesizing various philosophical and religious frameworks. Zhang’s methodology remains relevant, fostering cross-cultural and inclusive philosophical dialog.
In secular Western societies, individuals often embark on an autonomous quest for meaning in life, which, however, can lead to frustration. In contrast, many East Asian ethical leaders draw on age-old teachings to find fulfillment—an underexplored topic that merits further investigation. By analyzing ancient Confucian tenets and the discourses of modern Confucian leaders, this paper unveils three key aspects of the Confucian meaning of life: The Heavenly Way (the comprehension that good begets good), the Heavenly Mandate (the purpose of doing good), and the Heavenly Nature (the significance of one’s inherent goodness). From a psychological perspective, this “Confucian meaning framework” has persisted for millennia because its elements not only exhibit internal consistency and structural robustness but also fulfill humanity’s psychological needs for meaningfulness, transcendence, justice, self-improvement, competence, altruism, relatedness, morality, moral autonomy, and self-esteem. Therefore, ancient Confucian wisdom effectively counters the contemporary existential vacuum in modern East Asia. This paper highlights the crucial role of cultural heritage in our existential quests, opening new avenues for blending philosophical insights with psychological research. It also illustrates the power of psychological theories to explain the lasting influence of certain ancient cultures on modern life, demonstrating the intriguing interplay between culture and psychology.
The engagement of scholars and social scientists with cultures not their own is often said today to be a colonial or appropriative action. Such charges are countered here not defensively but by description of the hybridity of intercultural dialogues, of which translation is one case. Jesuit translation in Ming-dynasty China gives the example. Translation is often thought of as a channel – a way of moving content from one language to another. It is more productive, in my view, to treat it as a receptacle, a vessel in which unexpected combinations occur and give rise to new substances. Thus the missionary goal becomes a mere precursor to an actual production of new texts and new identities.
The life-views ( renshengguan ) of the supporters of scientism and of metaphysics in the 1923 controversy are distinct in their concept of the person, with consequences bearing on the nature of a proposed social order. This distinction became apparent when I deciphered the structure based on Confucian and Lebensphilosophie sources that underlie their views. Analysis demonstrates the radical approach of the supporters of science who are generally committed to a homogeneous context regardless of human or material. One attendant consequence of their argument is a concept of the person who realizes themselves in isolation from their surroundings. In contrast, the implicit framework of this-worldliness adopted by the supporters of metaphysics departs from the emotive and moral core of the person, acknowledging the resilience of lived experience. Endorsing the idea of human interrelatedness and interaction they denoted the heterogeneous context of human relations, contending that the person realizes herself in considerate responsiveness.
The concept of cultural community has been firstly or more obviously embodied in the works of the minority/minoritized literature or writers from marginalized countries and approached from different perspectives, such as small and enduring spiritual bonds, aspiration and an ideal, or self-deconstruction due to heterogeneity, conflict, and difference. However, most researchers explore the cultural community in the works of merely one racial group, such as American Indian, Chinese, Korean, or African. There has been comparatively little research on the construction of a cultural community across races. Focusing on Molefi Kete Asante’s Afrocentricity and Tu Wei-ming’s embodied Confucianism, two cultural movements that fully embody a “new cosmopolitanism” and have the potential to dialog and complement each other, this study compares the views of transcendence of these two philosophies in terms of sense, the ultimate goal, orientation of time, vehicle for realization, and thinking pattern in the hope of the construction of a Sino-African cultural community, which reflects mutual understanding, coexistence, harmony without uniformity, and the contact, conflict, and intermingling of heterogeneous cultures.
This essay seeks to rectify the lack of scholarly attention on the connection between Mohist and fajia thoughts, using Shang Yang and Han Fei as fajia representatives. I argue that the Mohists championed the ideal of universal justice in their teachings of impartial care (jian ai 兼愛) and objective standards (fa 法) and that the fajia thinkers appropriated the impartialist element in the Mohist ideal of universal justice by adopting the idea of objective standards in their design of an impartialist and impersonal state bureaucracy. I characterize Mohism as a form of universal state consequentialism that promotes a statist approach to maximize wealth, order, and population. In this connection, it is useful to view the fajia project as a way to operationalize the Mohist project, attempting to work out in granular details how to institute the Mohist principle of impartiality through state bureaucracy and enforcement of a uniform standard, i.e., legal and administrative codes. The mHan Fei, jian ai (impartial erit and the failing of the fajia project is briefly discussed at the end of the chapter.
Mainstream education systems are largely heavily based on checking students' knowledge by asking them questions and checking their answers. This is the complete reversal of the natural way of developing children’s brains from early age—through asking questions themselves. This article discusses the evolutionary importance of the ability of asking questions for human intelligence and its potential for creating a new strategy of education, based on encouraging students' natural curiosity, and encouraging their natural ability to search for knowledge. The article proposes that the most natural way to develop young human brains is through asking questions to adults from a very young age, the strategy developed and honed during the evolution of Homo sapiens through natural selection. The article concludes with some concrete classroom strategies and play suggestions that can be used to encourage young learners to ask questions freely in both child-centered education (CCE) and more traditional teacher-centered education models.
I see the emerging new religious groups in Taiwan as an emerging form of popularism in its encounter with the post-colonial situation. This scenario differs greatly from Western new religious movements, where new religion lies outside culturally established religious traditions, and it is also distinct from other Eastern traditions, such as those found in Japan, where traditionally elite and popular traditions have a larger social and mental distance from each other. In the complex Chinese cultural and historical tradition, there exists a deeper interpenetrating elite-popular relationship, therefore determining a different route for religious phenomena. I use the term ‘popular humanism’ to label this trend in contemporary Taiwan. Finally, I use two axes to codify the emerging Taiwanese new religions, ‘methods in popular humanism’ and ‘institutional framing’, mapping the key new religious movements of Taiwan within these axes to localise each group and their mutual positions.
Educational praxis incorporating intercultural wisdom, transdisciplinarycooperation, and nature-culture dialogues can arguably contribute tothe UN’s education for sustainable development (ESD) and amelioratecurrent social-ecological challenges. This article elucidates how 14Norwegian pupils aged 11–13 reflect on their experiences and feelingsin meditation in nature (MiN) – an intercultural ecopedagogical praxisgrounded on two corresponding philosophical ecopedagogies: Daoismand Arne Naess’ ecosophy. The pupils participated in MiN as part ofoutdoor education in a local environment and provided reflectionsthrough semi-structured focus group interviews. By engaging in MiNand embracing the concept of active nonaction, the pupils’ reflectionson experiences and feelings reveal meaningful human-nature interactionsand aesthetic embodiments in/with nature. MiN is proposed as oneontological-epistemologically holistic, ecocentric, and aesthetic-affectiveecopedagogical praxis that can potentially complement (post)critical andposthuman ecopedagogies and contribute to the reconfiguration ofoutdoor education and physical education for teaching and learningsocial-ecological, all-inclusive sustainable development.
This study raises the question whether it is possible, in Xunzi’s 荀子 view, for someone who has gone through moral transformation to backslide. I consider three possible interpretations. On the first interpretation, one’s dispositions are transformed by environmental forces. Backsliding is possible and likely. I rule out this interpretation because it is inconsistent with other aspects of Xunzi’s thought. On the second interpretation, one’s kind-determining constitution is transformed from a neutral constitution to a moral constitution. Backsliding is not possible because one has acquired a moral constitution that is insusceptible to bad environmental influences. On the third interpretation, to be transformed is to have accumulated significantly more moral knowledge than ordinary untransformed people. Backsliding is possible but unlikely. I will then explain why it is difficult to adjudicate between the second and third interpretations and suggest further issues in Xunzi’s thought that need to be investigated.
This essay examines whether Confucius aligns more with humanism or religious thought, asserting that his philosophy defies simple classification. It highlights his use of religious motifs, especially the concept of li 禮, which he broadened beyond mere rituals to include societal behaviors, infusing them with a sacred essence. Additionally, this essay delves into Confucius’s notion of de 德, perceived as having an almost magical influence without coercion, closely tied to his ideas on li and governance. This reflects a belief in a universal moral order, challenging the view of Confucius as purely a humanist. The text also explores his nuanced understanding of tian 天, a central yet complex aspect of his philosophy, suggesting a spiritual dimension. Ultimately, this essay advocates for recognizing Confucius not only as a moral guide but as a thinker embodying significant religious or spiritual insights.
In this and the following two chapters I propose an interpretation of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200) seen through the ontology of Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995). Zhu Xi is one of the most prominent Chinese philosophers, the figurehead of the so-called Neo-Confucian school, and Deleuze is arguably one of the most important Western philosophers of the twentieth century. Both philosophers presented an ontology of differentiation, whose main aspects or stages I try to analyze in this chapter: Deleuze’s notions of the virtual, dark precursor, field of individuation, intensities and the actual; and parallel to these, Zhu Xi’s notions of the veins (li 理), supreme ultimate (taiji 太極), energy (qi 氣) and things (wu 物). I argue that a Deleuzian (re)interpretation of Zhu Xi is possible and that it may open new tools of analysis for studying Chinese philosophy, thaw up thought-habits, create resonances between two different constellations of concepts, as well as dislocate and redistribute existing concepts.
With the aim of further bringing into resonance the two philosophies of Zhu Xi and Gilles Deleuze, I shall describe Zhu Xi’s theory of feelings (qing 情), nature (xing 性), and heart/mind (xin 心) in terms of Deleuze’s three syntheses of time in his Difference and Repetition: the “living present” of larval subjects, the virtual pure memory, and the pure form of time. Deleuze distinguishes, in case of the first two syntheses, between a more fundamental “passive synthesis” and a derived “active” one; for Zhu Xi the main distinction is, in case of the feelings, between a clear and a muddy qi 氣 involved in them; and in case of nature, between a narrow or obstructed and broad or unimpeded expression of it. The third synthesis of time, for Deleuze, involves the fractured “I” (Je) or the dissolved “self” (moi), so that through a transformation, finally, “what the self has become equal is the unequal in itself” (Deleuze 1993: 90). Using very different metaphors, Zhu Xi refers to different self-cultivation methods, that “enlarge the heart/mind” (daxin 大心). The apotheosis of this is the figure of the sage, who is the most capable of transformation and, to whom Deleuze’s citation of being equal to the unequal applies well.
I shall explore, in this chapter, the Neo-Confucian school of Qi, established by Zhang Zai 張載 (1020–1077), and show how everything can be considered as an implication or explication of energy, that I take provisionally as a conventional translation of qi 氣 (cf. above, 2.4) and that is both physical and mental, and entails both other- and self-relation. I shall resonate this conception with Arthur Schopenhauer’s (1788–1860) Will: everything is an implication or explication of Will.
In her “No Work for a Theory of Grounding,” Jessica Wilson argues that we have no need for a theory of what she calls Big-G Grounding. The reason for this, thinks Wilson, is that the work that Big-G Grounding is invoked for can be better done by what she calls small-g grounding relations: membership, parenthood, realization, and so on. Contra Wilson, I argue that small-g grounding relations may not allow us to do all the grounding work that needs to be done. In particular, I argue that small-g grounding relations may not be adequate to the task of engaging with the work of historical Western and non-Western figures; nor do they allow us to explore the full array of possibilities regarding the overarching structure of reality. To this end, I offer two case studies: one that explores dependence relations in the work of Leibniz, and the other the cosmology of the Chinese Buddhist thinker Fazang. Although I do not defend the claim that there is in fact some work for a theory of Grounding, my argument is highly suggestive of it.
This paper considers what it would mean to conceive of philosophy as living. In the first part, by way of a discussion on intercultural encounter recently taken up by Cora Diamond, I first illustrate why philosophical conflict cannot be resolved within already given modes of thought or self-contained finite philosophical traditions, but instead transcends those. In the second part, I show why this dynamic plays out not only between cultures but also between the individual and that individual’s own tradition. I do this by drawing from insights of the two major proponents of xinxue 心學 (Learning of the Heart-Mind), Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵 and Wang Yangming 王陽明. The way xinxue deals with both orthodox and heterodox traditions illuminates how we can understand philosophy as something living. It is neither self-contained and indifferent to its own heritage or to the culturally alien, nor does it consist of the mere accumulation of diverse philosophical contents. The deepening of individuality that xinxue introduces into Chinese philosophy consists in the relation of the individual to what has already been conceived. Ultimately, by grasping this dynamic that happens through the individual, we may better grasp why philosophy is not reducible to given modes of thought nor to self-contained finite philosophical traditions, but instead is infinite.
It seems that the early Jesuits misinterpreted the key Neo-Confucian terms taiji/li from an Aristotelian perspective in the seventeenth century, thereby leading to a dialogical failure in their initial encounter with Neo-Confucian tradition. What necessitates interreligious dialogue today is a pluralistic stance that deems all religious quests worthy in their own context. Therefore, this paper renews the dialogue between two spiritual traditions, long overdue, by reading two representative texts, side by side, from each tradition on self-cultivation: Reflections on Things at Hand (twelfth century) and The Spiritual Exercises (sixteenth century). The comparison showcases that the notion of “wanwuyiti”, a concomitant of the Confucian ren, is tantamount to a religious imperative for human ethical engagements, and the Ignatian axiom “Finding God in All Things” energizes a spiritual self-transformation to forge an intimate bond with God and the world. While Neo-Confucian cultivation focuses on the removal of desires, seeking to maintain “equilibrium” and “centrality”, the Ignatian exercises foreground commitment to “discernment” and “indifference”. The Neo-Confucians address human and worldly affairs in a procedural manner, with ever-broadening horizons, to establish an orderly society. In contrast, the Ignatian self is directed toward an orderly life to serve, love, and bring ever more to God’s Divine Majesty.
This essay is devoted to a comparative study of three philosophers' views on the relationship between positive law and natural law. It intends to ask whether obligations which positive laws impose, rights which positive laws define, and justice which positive laws are supposed to realize have a natural basis, and whether our reflection and judgment of good positive laws have some cognitive and normative constraints. The subject-matter of the relationship between positive law and natural law is important for us to understand the nature, basis, source of legitimacy, and function of positive laws. Today, its stock value rises as the debates about the legitimacy, authority, and rationality of global justice get heated. The dual appeals to natural justice and to international laws, and the statutes in those debates, return us to the subject-matter. That the norm of human rights is an operating norm of the spirit of our epoch, rekindles the issue of a normative justification of the norm. To a great extent, the subject-matter of the relationship between positive law and natural law to philosophy of law is akin to air to us. It may not always be in the center of our attention or debate, but we cannot slight or marginalize it. Notwithstanding, the subject-matter is pregnant with some dispositional, perennial questions on the philosophy of law: How best to distinguish between good and bad positive law? How best for us to distinguish between rational, reasonable positive laws and irrational, unreasonable ones? Are such distinctions subject to some cognitive and normative constraints, or are they merely choices of human will? If they should be subject to certain cognitive and normative constraints, what are those constraints? When we claim that human rights are inherent, inalienable rights, and the norm of human rights and the law of
Artykuł przedstawia istotne elementy wizji humanistycznej w świetle założeń filozofii konfucjańskiej. Autor wielokrotnie odwołuje się do Dialogów Konfucjusza oraz do wypowiedzi jego najważniejszych spadkobierców – Mencjusza i Xunzi, jak również do współczesnej literatury przedmiotu. W tekście najpierw uwaga koncentruje się na rozumieniu wspólnej wszystkim ludziom samej natury ludzkiej, którą konfucjaniści różnie oceniali – jako dobrą lub złą, ale zawsze podległą formacji i doskonaleniu. Właśnie człowiek moralnie doskonały (junzi), charakteryzujący się zwłaszcza cnotami dobroczynności i miłości, zasługuje na miano osoby. W odróżnieniu od tradycji zachodniej konfucjanizm widzi ludzką podmiotowość i wartość nie tyle w racjonalności, ile w dojrzałości moralnej, wyrażającej się w autentycznej życzliwości i spolegliwości. Ten akcent z kolei pozwala dostrzec nieodzowny społeczny wymiar człowieczeństwa, który ujawnia się i kształtuje przede wszystkim w rodzinie, a następnie oddziałuje na całe społeczeństwo. W końcu artykuł wyjaśnia wspólne pochodzenie i współzależność człowieka, świata (wszechświata) i nieba. Ponieważ filozofia ta nie odwołuje się do nadprzyrodzoności czy do Boga, ani nie posiada żadnego mitu o stworzeniu, cała jej wizja humanistyczna jawi się jako świecka, jakkolwiek, przynamniej według niektórych autorów, niepozbawiona całkowicie swoiście rozumianego wymiaru transcendentnego.
Krister Stendahl’s article, “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West”, argues that Paul has a “robust conscience” both before and after his conversion. Martin Luther misinterprets this as a “plagued conscience” in accordance with his own religious experience, and this misinterpretation can be traced back even to Augustine. This paper examines the context for the ancient Greek and Hellenistic theory of conscience, in order to understand Augustine’s transformation of Paul’s doctrine of justification by faith and the consequent discovery of the concept of introspective conscience in Western intellectual history. This paper also clarifies aspects of Augustine’s “plagued conscience”, which it analyses across two stages: the first after the descent of grace but before the conversion of a believer, and the second after conversion. In the first stage, Augustine implies a continuous spiritual conflict between good will and evil will within the inner self; however, in the second stage, the inner self experiences a deeper spiritual struggle, owing to its certainty of God’s predestined plan alongside its uncertainty over personal salvation. The concept of introspective conscience has shaped the deep consciousness of sin for many Western Christians. This paper compares Pauline and Augustinian conscience with the same concept in the Confucian author Mencius. For Mencius, conscience is self-sufficient even in the earliest stages of its development and does not require the support of God’s grace or the power of Heaven. The constant expansion of Mencius’s operative conscience is sufficient for self-cultivation and the correction of the distorted world.
The early medieval period saw the spread of Buddhism from India into China and the development of Daoism as a religious institution. By the early Tang dynasty, Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism were referred to as the three teachings, and had developed separate institutions; representatives of the three teachings were competing at court for patronage and influence. This paper probes the extent to which the institutionalization of these three teachings as separate, often competing, entities is mirrored at the philosophical level and attempts to delineate the fault lines of philosophical contention among them. Scholarship on Daoist chongxuan philosophy, as it developed in early Tang Changan, documents Daoists’ utilization of Buddhist concepts and terminologies, implying shared discourses. This paper extends this investigation to include Confucianism, focusing on excerpts from two texts written in early seventh-century Changan: the Confucian Zhouyi zhengyi and the Daoist Daode jing yishu, as a case study for a synchronic contextualization across the boundaries of the teachings. Analyzing explicit demarcation discourses and intertextual occurrences of specific terminologies, the paper juxtaposes the Daoist and Confucian conceptualizations of the “sage who embodies Dao”. Through this analysis, the paper explores shared discourses and demarcations in philosophical thought among the three teachings, emphasizing the complexity of fault lines in philosophical arguments, which resist simplistic alignment with sectarian affiliations.
The notion of "realistic optimism" seems paradoxical, intertwining the contradictory elements of objective judgment and a positive outlook. Extant research often falls short in analyzing this dilemma and in capturing the cultural nuances. Given Confucianism's endeavors to reconcile realism and optimism, this paper explores the cultivation of realistic optimism in Confucian classics. Further, an account of a contemporary Confucian merchant is provided to illustrate the enduring relevance of these ancient principles in the contemporary business world. This paper highlights two Confucian approaches that facilitate the development of realistic optimism. Firstly, from a preventive stance, "desire modesty" enhances realism by lowering cognitive dissonance and fosters optimism by reducing external motivation that often hinders creative solutions. Secondly, from a promotive perspective, "discernment clarity" promotes realism by cultivating a strong need for cognition; "meaningful adversity" mitigates pessimistic feelings by reframing hardships; and "sincere creativity" bolsters optimism by inspiring innovative solutions. Overall, this paper underscores the crucial role of culture in shaping realistic optimism by illuminating the profound influence of Confucian teachings in transforming this seeming paradox into a lived reality.
An accessible introduction to the ethical theory of Mou Zongsan.
Background: Pre-marital sex, a form of sexual activity practiced by unmarried individuals, has seen growing acceptance in western countries. Previously, it was considered a moral dilemma, prohibited by many cultures and religions. However, the acceptance of pre-marital sex has become more widespread.
Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the perceptions, practices, and factors associated with pre-marital sex and courtship among undergraduates at Osun State University in Osogbo, Osun State.
Methodology: This descriptive study employed a multi-stage sampling technique to select respondents from Osun State University's main campus. The sample size was calculated using Leslie Kish's formula, resulting in 387 valid survey responses. Data collection involved self-administered semi-structured questionnaires comprising four sections. Data were coded, input, and analysed using SPSS v21.
Results: The mean age of respondents was 19.19±2.17 years, with the majority falling in the 18 to 24 age group. Approximately 52% of respondents held a positive view of pre-marital sex and courtship. Regarding courtship, a significant portion (88.3%) believed that individuals spending time together were involved in courting. Analysis of factors associated with pre-marital sex revealed that peer pressure (90.4%), Internet exposure (86.7%), access to pornography (83.9%), and substance use (82.9%) were the prominent contributors to pre-marital sexual behaviour among undergraduate students.
Conclusion: The study suggests that parents should actively monitor and visit their children while they are at universities. Providing essential materials and creating a comfortable environment can help protect them from succumbing to peer pressure. It is recommended that undergraduate students avoid engaging in pre-marital sex. While many students view courtship as a normal practice, it can still contribute to pre-marital sexual activity.
Keywords: Pre-Marital Sex, Courtship, Influences, University, Undergraduates.
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