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Students' recollections of parenting styles and impostor phenomenon: The mediating role of social anxiety ☆
Abstract
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1cIY9heKdkDIr (full text)
Clance and Imes (1978) introduced a phenomenon regarding individuals who tend to experience intellectual phoniness and covert perceived inadequacy, which they termed impostor phenomenon. The current study aims to investigate the relationship between the impostor phenomenon and social anxiety in adult students, while inspecting the latter variable's mediating role in the relationship between students' recollections of their parents' parenting styles and their current impostor expressions. The study comprised 247 students, 185 females and 62 males (Mage = 28.27, SD = 8.22), who completed online forms of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), and the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN). The participants' social anxiety was positively correlated (at medium to strong size) with their impostor expressions. Perceived parental care was indirectly associated with the students' impostor expressions through social anxiety for mothers and fathers, meaning that the sample's students who perceived their parents as less caring exhibited greater impostor expressions because they were more socially anxious. Also, perceived paternal overprotection was associated with the students' impostor expressions through social anxiety. Namely, students who perceived their fathers as more overprotective had greater impostor expressions because they were more socially anxious. The etiological significances and applied implications of these findings are discussed.
... The first people to coin the impostor phenomenon, Clance and Imes (1978), described successful and achieving people (at first women) who were reluctant to internalize their own success, manifesting a propensity to attribute achievements to external factors like luck or mere mistakes, with the underlying fear of being revealed as a fraud. Those who frequently experience impostor feelings and cognitions tend also to downplay the importance of their achievements and to doubt their ability to restore or replicate them (Clance, 1985;Yaffe, 2021). ...
... The most prominent psychological correlates of the impostor phenomenon are low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression (Brauer & Wolf, 2016;Chrisman et al., 1995;Schubert & Bowker, 2019;Sonnak & Towell, 2001;Tigranyan et al., 2020;Yaffe, 2021). Recently, a few researchers have also pointed out the importance of emotion self-regulation in understanding impostor feelings among individuals, especially students (Bonetto et al., 2023;LaPalme et al., 2022), although the nature of the relationship between the two phenomena is yet to be clarified. ...
... Li et al., 2014;Want & Kleitman, 2006;Yaffe, 2023b). However, impostor feelings were best explained by the individual's psychological traits alongside parenting variables (Caselman et al., 2006;Sonnak & Towell, 2001;Want & Kleitman, 2006;Yaffe, 2021), suggesting that the possible influence of parenting styles on the offspring's impostor feelings should be understood through a wider contextual prism, whereby relative psychological variables serve as explaining mechanisms. ...
... In terms of the big five personality traits, the impostor phenomenon was found to be associated with high neuroticism and low conscientiousness, as well as with high introversion [2,5,17]. Indeed, these psychological conditions and other emotional distresses later described in the literature (such as somatic problems, emotional exhaustion, burnout, and more) may be the toll that a heightened fear over performance and intense effort spent at masking inadequacy take from those who cope with impostor feelings [18,19]. Yet, it is unclear whether the impostor phenomenon is caused by these factors, affects them, or whether they are simply co-occurring [16]. ...
... This included parental rearing styles and behaviors, attachment styles, maladaptive parenting and parent-child relations, and familial achievement orientation. The noticeable and more promising group of studies, however, dealt with the role of parental rearing styles and behaviors in the context of the impostor phenomenon, especially parental (low) care and over-protectiveness [14,19,52]. The effects observed for these parental variables on the offspring's impostor feelings in these studies were of relatively small to moderate size (especially when simultaneously accounting for other socio-emotional variables) and the extent of research evidence was limited. ...
... This implies the existence of long-term consequences of parenting on offspring's impostor feelings. However, recollections of such patterns are at great risk of inaccuracy and must not be interpreted in longitudinal terms but rather in contemporaneous terms (that is, to treat these retrospective reports as current perceived parenting) [19,54]. Using adolescent participants to test some relative empirical issues could partially overcome this methodological obstacle. ...
Introduction: Recent systematic reviews about the impostor phenomenon unveil a severe shortage of research data on adolescents. The present study aimed at reducing this gap in the literature by investigating the association between maternal and paternal authoritarian parenting and impostor feelings among adolescents, while testing the mediating role played by parental psychological control and the moderating role of the child’s gender in this context. Methods: Three hundred and eight adolescents took part in an online survey, in which they reported anonymously on their impostor feelings and their parents’ parenting styles via several valid psychological questionnaires. The sample consisted of 143 boys and 165 girls, whose age ranged from 12 to 17 (M = 14.67, SD = 1.64). Results: Of the sample’s participants, over 35% reported frequent to intense impostor feelings, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys on this scale. In general, the maternal and paternal parenting variables explained 15.2% and 13.3% (respectively) of the variance in the adolescents’ impostor scores. Parental psychological control fully mediated (for fathers) and partially mediated (for mothers) the association between parental authoritarian parenting and the adolescents’ impostor feelings. The child’s gender moderated solely the maternal direct effect of authoritarian parenting on impostor feelings (this association was significant for boys alone), but not the mediating effect via psychological control. Conclusions: The current study introduces a specific explanation for the possible mechanism describing the early emergence of impostor feelings in adolescents based on parenting styles and behaviors.
... Depression and anxiety also seem to be inherently related to the impostor phenomenon, as they are frequently found to be comorbid with impostor feelings among adult subjects (Bravata et al., 2020). Although these emotional problems are often assumed to underlie and intensify impostor feelings in youngsters and adults (Bernard et al., 2002;Yaffe, 2021), it is still unclear whether the impostor phenomenon is caused by these factors, affects them, or whether they are simply commonly co-occurring (Urwin, 2018). ...
... This body of studies generally accords with the view that parental behaviors and parent-child relations during childhood influence later feelings of impostorism. However, the trajectories in which the parental factor affects and elicits impostor feelings, its joint effects with other important antecedents, and the overall size of the parental effect are yet to be elucidated (Yaffe, 2021). ...
... In other words, the psychological variables were, for the most part, more significant predictors of impostor scores than parenting styles. Hence, while the conjoint prediction of the impostor scores was considerable (ranging from 15% to 50% in these studies), the unique contributions of the parental variables when considered simultaneously with socio-psychological variables, were relatively marginal or even insignificant (e.g., Sonnak & Towell, 2001;Want & Kleitman, 2006;Yaffe, 2020bYaffe, , 2021. In Yaffe's studies specifically, the paternal and maternal styles were found to be linked with the impostor phenomenon mainly indirectly through other psychological variables (i.e., self-esteem and social anxiety). ...
This systematic review work integrates the findings from studies conducted between 1991 and 2021 on the association between familial and parental factors and the impostor phenomenon, in an attempt to deepen the comprehension of the phenomenon’s etiology. All four forms of familial/parental factors identified in these studies (i.e., parental rearing styles and behaviors, attachment styles, maladaptive parenting and parent-child relations, and familial achievement orientation) were generally found to be moderately correlated with the impostor phenomenon. The prominent group of studies deals with the link between parental rearing styles as an explaining variable, with 7 studies showing somewhat consistent associations between parental (low) care and over-control and an offspring’s impostor feelings. However, when considered simultaneously, the parental variables are shown to be less predictive of impostor scores than some psychological variables such as self-esteem.
... This fact extends the relevance and validity of parental control to later periods of emerging adulthood. Another theoretical interest is to understand the long-term effects of negative childhood parent-child relation experiences (Yaffe, 2021). Either way, in dealing with the consequences of past and present parents' psychological control on psychological adjustment amongst older populations, it is vital to foster and develop the measurement abilities designed for this construct. ...
... The current study, whose findings are based on a large age-range of emerging adults, can contribute to broadening the research on parental psychological control in post-adolescence periods using the PCDS, whose predictive ability of emotional variables was demonstrated to be above and beyond those of the measure of psychological control (PCS) (Barber et al., 2012). Its findings are especially meaningful given the importance of studying parent-child relationships' variables in emerging adulthood (Chou & Chou, 2020;Nelson et al., 2007;Yaffe, 2021), particularly the short-and long-term effects of parental psychological control on the descendants' social wellbeing (Beyarslan & Uzer, 2020;Parise et al., 2017). Finally, aside from its sound psychometric properties, the PCDS also exhibited a strong convergence with conceptually analogous valid scales of parenting (that is, the authoritarian and authoritative styles), which strengthens the scale's validity as a measure of maladaptive parenting construct, especially in mothers of emerging adults. ...
The current study is the first to describe the validation of the Psychological Control Disrespect Scale (PCDS; Barber etal., 2012) with a large age-range of emerging adults, in an attempt to broaden the usage of the scale to late and post-adolescence population. The sample consisted of 364 participants (184 females and 179 males; 1 unknown sex), whose age ranged between 18 and 29 (M = 24.38, SD = 3.03). Subject to the exclusion of one item, the PCDS exhibited acceptable to good model-fit indices when used with emerging adults reporting on their mothers, and its psychometric properties were found to be principally equal across child’s sex (i.e. respondent’s sex measurement invariance). The PCDS also displayed good reliability indexes, including the first evidence of the scale’s test–retest reliability. Finally, the PCDS was tested for convergent validity against conceptually corresponding parenting scales, which reinforced the scale’s validity as a measure of maladaptive parenting construct.
... Trust and support are among the key dimensions of effective parenting, which may incorporate other constructs like attachment, acceptance, love, cohesion, and nurturing. 1,2 The relationship between these constructs and the behaviors that children may develop at a later age is well documented, [3][4][5] ...
... Although such relationship had been demonstrated by other researchers in different cultures of Europe, Asia, South and North America, 8,61 this study is among few that that revealed reveal the existence of such relationship in African culture as well. [3][4][5] From the sample drawn purposely for this study, the hypothesized causal effect (parental trust and support on learning engagement) to be mediated by students' self-esteem was supported (H1). The results suggest that parental trust and support for their younger children positively affect their self-esteem, which further affects their college learning engagement. ...
Parental trust and support are machineries for children's cognitive growth and behaviors exhibited at a later age. Their influence on students' learning engagement at school has been reported, but little is known about the mechanisms through which such a proposed causal effect occurs. This study tested 2 major proposed hypotheses; (1) general self-esteem (GSE) mediates the causal relationship between parents' trust and support (PTS) and Learning engagement (LE). (2) The mediation effect is further moderated by students' college grade level. Data was collected from 1139 college students in Tanzania (Mage = 22.5, SDage = 0.681) who filled out an online-designed questionnaire. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science), PROCESS macro of SPSS, and JASP (Jeffrey's Amazing Statistical Program) were used for analyzing data. The results indicated that GSE had a mediating effect (β = .0912, SE = 0.0134, P < .001) on the causal relationship between PTS and LE. The unmediated (direct) effect of PTS on LE (β = .2125, SE = 0.0419, P < .001) was lower than the total effect (β = .3037, SE = 0.0553, P < .001) after the mediation. The interaction effects of PTS (β = .0463, P < .001) and GSE (β = .0495, P < .001) on students' college grades were statistically significant, indicating that the mediation effect of GSE on the causal relationship between PTS and LE was moderated by college grades. Parental trust and support enhance students' behavioral learning at school through their general self-esteem, built from the family level (parenting).
... Current explanatory approaches for the etiology of the IP focus mainly on the parental style and the child's relationship with their parents. Parentification, as the reversed roles of parents and children (Castro et al., 2004), parental overprotection (Sonnak & Towell, 2001), and social anxiety (Yaffe, 2021), are well-studied IP predictors. ...
... Furthermore, the model should be tested with a sample of high-achiever since a stable attribution of negative outcomes is only associated with higher performance among high-achievers (Houston, 2016). In addition, follow-up studies could examine possible model extensions like the parental rearing styles and established mediators such as self-esteem (Yaffe, 2020) and social anxiety (Yaffe, 2021). Future studies should also examine the emergence of learned helplessness, primarily whether it is influenced by non-contingent success feedback. ...
The learned helplessness model of the Impostor Phenomenon is an exploratory approach to explain the Impostor Phenomenon by linking the constructs of growth mindset, learned helplessness, grit, thought-action fusion, and defensive pessimism. In this study, we (a) confirmatorily tested the factor structure of the English IPP30, (b) examined the instrument's nomological validity, and (c) exploratorily formulated a path model to explain the effects of learned helplessness on the Impostor Phenomenon. The sample consisted of n = 376 persons (46% female). The CFI indicated the bifactorial model of the English IPP30 as best-fitting, while the subscale correlations suggested the instrument's nomological validity. The exploratory path model showed sufficient goodness of fit. It proclaims a labeling as talented that decreases the growth mindset expression, which negatively correlates with learned helplessness. In addition, the model states learned helplessness as a central model component associated with grit, thought-action fusion, and finally, the Impostor Phenomenon.
... It involves negative emotions associated with embarrassment, shame, shyness, and audience anxiety linked to severe public self-consciousness and arose primarily in social contexts (Brook & Willoughby, 2017). Research shows that people who hold high fear of being negatively evaluated tend to become nervous in evaluative situations (Syed et al., 2021) and are perceived as less socially attractive (Barnett et al., 2020) and less intelligent (Yaffe, 2021). As most high-stakes jobs have a "people component" and involve responsibilities directly linked with future consequences, it will be desirable to examine the dynamics social apprehension plays in such situations. ...
Delineating a nuanced distinction between high-pressure and high-stakes scenarios, this study introduces the Measure of Interpersonal Apprehensions in High-Stakes Situations (MIPHSS), a sophisticated assessment instrument designed to comprehensively evaluate the direct, and mediating, effects of interpersonal apprehension (IpA) on the behavior (BA) and performance apprehension (PA) of professionals operating in high-stakes contexts. Additionally, the study explores the moderating effects of gender and behavioral and communication training (B&CT ) on these relationships. The hypotheses were empirically tested using SmartPLS-3, employing a sample of 210 professionals operating within high-stakes environments. The findings show a direct positive impact of interpersonal apprehension on both behavioral and performance apprehension, with behavioral apprehension identified as a mediating factor in the relationship between interpersonal and performance apprehension. Notably, the moderating effect of gender was statistically insignificant. Conversely, B&CT exhibited a moderately significant impact on mitigating performance apprehension in professions characterized by heightened stakes.
... Furthermore, learners that have social phobia are most likely inclined to remember social experiences negatively (Gong et al., 2023). According to Yaffe (2021), the students' social anxiety was an indication of their imposter expressions, unfavorably impacted their overall quality of life, especially in school. Likewise, Alsamghan's (2020) study showed that students' average scores for quality of life depreciate as they experience social anxiety more than those who do not have it. ...
Social anxiety is one of the most prevalent mental health issues students experience. It is the excessive worry on negative opinions about oneself from people. This study analyzes relative impacts of social anxiety on high school students' academic performance and self-esteem, and evaluates what stimulates social anxiety problems among high school students and how they overcome it. A phenomenological approach was utilized to examine experiences of 12 high school students from Central Luzon State University, Philippines. Through Social Cognitive Theory, the researchers explored the cognitive, social, and behavioral components that contributed to effects of social anxiety on high school students' self-esteem, academic performance, and coping strategies. Data were gathered through semi-structured audio-recorded interviews and were analyzed thematically. Results revealed various factors, including environmental, negative experiences, and inner conflicts that caused social anxiety. Students suffering from social anxiety struggle academically while building relationships with peers as well. Overcoming social anxiety is challenging and effective coping strategy helps reduce students' anxiety. Collectively, social anxiety significantly impacts academic performance, self-esteem, and coping strategies.. This study would contribute to literature and the educational field as it could serve as a guide to what actions should be implemented to improve the mental health of high school students through better guidance on coping strategies, which was revealed to be lacking. Therefore, school-based anxiety treatments, as well as socio-academic programs, must be concretized to develop social skills and succeed in future endeavors. This study would benefit literature and the educational field as it could guide them to what actions should be made to improve the mental health of high school students through better guidance on coping strategies, which was revealed to be lacking.
... Furthermore, learners that have social phobia are most likely inclined to remember social experiences negatively (Gong et al., 2023). According to Yaffe (2021), the students' social anxiety was an indication of their imposter expressions, unfavorably impacted their overall quality of life, especially in school. Likewise, Alsamghan's (2020) study showed that students' average scores for quality of life depreciate as they experience social anxiety more than those who do not have it. ...
Social anxiety is one of the most prevalent mental health issues students experience. It is the excessive worry on negative opinions about oneself from people. This study analyzes relative impacts of social anxiety on high school students' academic performance and self-esteem, and evaluates what stimulates social anxiety problems among high school students and how they overcome it. A phenomenological approach was utilized to examine experiences of 12 high school students from Central Luzon State University, Philippines. Through Social Cognitive Theory, the researchers explored the cognitive, social, and behavioral components that contributed to effects of social anxiety on high school students' self-esteem, academic performance, and coping strategies. Data were gathered through semi-structured audio-recorded interviews and were analyzed thematically. Results revealed various factors, including environmental, negative experiences, and inner conflicts that caused social anxiety. Students suffering from social anxiety struggle academically while building relationships with peers as well. Overcoming social anxiety is challenging and effective coping strategy helps reduce students' anxiety. Collectively, social anxiety significantly impacts academic performance, self-esteem, and coping strategies.. This study would contribute to literature and the educational field as it could serve as a guide to what actions should be implemented to improve the mental health of high school students through better guidance on coping strategies, which was revealed to be lacking. Therefore, school-based anxiety treatments, as well as socio-academic programs, must be concretized to develop social skills and succeed in future endeavors. This study would benefit literature and the educational field as it could guide them to what actions should be made to improve the mental health of high school students through better guidance on coping strategies, which was revealed to be lacking.
... The Social Anxiety Assessment Scale in the Social Media Environment in the Chinese Cultural Context, proposed by Guizh Jia et al., was used as the measurement tool [17]. Jinjian Zhang et al. discussed the bidirectional relationship between social anxiety and internet addiction among college students [18], while Yaffe Yosi explored the link between parental indifference or excessive care and social anxiety [19]. The questionnaire included the test questions presented in Table 1: My parents don't care about me, or they care about me very much 7 ...
University students, as a special group, face multiple psychological pressures and challenges, making them susceptible to social anxiety disorder. However, there are currently no articles using machine learning algorithms to identify predictors of social anxiety disorder in university students. This study aims to use a stacked ensemble model to predict social anxiety disorder in university students and compare it with other machine learning models to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model. AUC and F1 are used as classification evaluation metrics. The experimental results show that in this dataset, the model combining logistic regression, Naive Bayes, and KNN algorithms as the first layer and Naive Bayes as the second layer performs better than traditional machine learning algorithms. This provides a new approach to studying social anxiety disorder.
... This maladaptive attribution diminishes self-esteem (Ibrahim et al., 2022a) and leads to a heightened fear of failure (Noskeau et al., 2021). Those affected fear being exposed (Vergauwe et al., 2015), show elevated levels of social anxiety (Yaffe, 2021), and a perfectionistic self-presentation (Ferrari and Thompson, 2006). Thus, a crucial facet of the IP revolves around concealing self-doubts and cultivating a perfectionistic image in the eyes of others. ...
This study examines whether a heightened impostor expression is associated with a judge’s assessment. The sample comprised n = 155 triads (target, mother, and a friend). Results indicated a slightly higher profile agreement between the target and mother (rraw = 0.47; rdistinct = 0.33) than a friend (rraw = 0.41; rdistinct = 0.23). The profile agreement was inversely correlated with the IPP total score, Competence Doubt, Alienation, and Other-Self Divergence (r = ≤ −0.29, p < 0.001), indicating reduced accuracy among judges when confronted with a heightened impostor expression. However, these relationships disappear once controlling for stereotype effects. Overall, this study reveals a negative association between the impostor expression and the other-self agreement, supporting the biasing self-presentation of impostors in the eye of others.
... In other words, parents' parenting style is the stimulation of students' external environment, which has an impact on their anxiety. Some scholars also believe that parents' different educational styles will have an impact on students' social anxiety [8]. Albulescu, Labar, Manea & Stan [9] mentioned in their research on the parenting style that excessive emphasis on achievement in parental education will bring psychological pressure to children and thus form anxiety. Jiang, Luo, and Hu [10] mentioned in their research on the influencing factors of college students' employment anxiety that different occupations and educational levels of parents lead to different cognition of parents, which will have different degrees of influence on students' employment anxiety. ...
This study takes students from higher vocational colleges in SX City as the research object to study the relationship between parental parenting styles and employment anxiety. The study used the Parenting Style Scale and the Employment Anxiety Scale, and conducted a questionnaire survey on the research subjects, using four-point and five-point scales respectively for scoring. The results confirmed that both the father’s and mother’s parenting styles have a significant impact on employment anxiety, among which the father’s and mother’s parenting styles have varying degrees of impact on employment anxiety in different dimensions. The research conclusion states that parents should educate their children in a more reasonable and scientific way, or with warm educational techniques so that students in higher vocational colleges can have a better mental state to face the fierce competition. At the same time, negative education methods must be avoided in order to better build students’ self-confidence and alleviate factors such as lack of confidence in anxiety. Finally, it is suggested that parents need to consider their children’s ideas more and not impose their own hospitals on their children too much, and that higher vocational students should learn how to alleviate their friends’ employment anxiety.
... In university students, individuals who score high on IP do not generally differ in their academic grades from those who score low on IP (e.g., Gibson-Beverly & Schwartz, 2008;Yaffe, 2021). These findings suggest that IP feelings are not restricted to those who are underperforming. ...
Individuals who experience the imposter phenomenon (IP) have feelings of self-doubt and are concerned that they will be exposed as frauds. Previous research has indicated that IP is associated with anxiety, depression and low self-esteem, and university students are thought to be particularly susceptible to IP. This study investigated the relationship between IP and self-efficacy, maladaptive perfectionism and happiness in university students, and examined whether these variables differ between females and males. The study also examined whether IP was associated with belonging and perceived levels of academic competition. Participants (N = 261) completed the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), New General Self-Efficacy (NGSE), Big Three Perfectionism Scale – Short Form (BTPS-SF), Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), plus measures of belonging and perceived competition. As predicted, CIPS scores correlated negatively with NGSE and OHQ and positively with BTPS-SF in both sexes. Females scored higher, on average, than males on CIPS and BTPS-SF, and the gender difference in CIPS remained after indirect effects of perfectionism were removed. Neither belonging nor competition correlated with CIPS scores. The negative relationship between perfectionism and happiness was fully mediated by imposterism, which suggests that designing interventions that reduce IP could positively enhance student wellbeing.
... We used the so-called Enter method because, based on previous studies, we could pre-determine the variables associated with the IS of doctoral students (Nummenmaa, 2021). According to the literature (Craddock et al., 2011;Sonnak & Towell, 2001;Thompson et al., 1998;Yaffe, 2021), the following background variables of students have an impact on impostor feelings: gender, age, home resources, parenting styles, academic success, and level of planning (LoP) before applying for doctoral studies (Table 2). ...
Impostor syndrome (IS) refers to the inner speech of self-doubt and the belief that you are not as competent as others perceive you to be. The university can be considered a work environment prone to IS, especially because of the requirements of present higher education and science policy, which emphasizes continuous evaluation, a competitive spirit, and a focus on performance and excellence. It is therefore understandable that many doctoral students have begun to experience inadequacy and uncertainty during their postgraduate studies. This study focuses on the prevalence of IS among Finnish PhD students (n = 1694). In particular, attention is paid to the background factors in which experiences of uncertainty and attitudes related to IS are linked. Theoretically, we interpret IS as a phenomenon related to the habitus formed through an individual’s life experiences and the inner speech associated with it. Based on the results of the linear regression analysis, the lack of encouragement in childhood and a low level of planning when applying for doctoral studies explain the emergence of IS in a statistically significant manner.
... A large body of research has demonstrated that parenting characteristics such as overprotection (Yaffe, 2021), harsh punitive control (Chubar et al., 2020), intrusive and manipulative control (Gómez-Ortiz et al., 2019), lower autonomy support (Nelemans et al., 2020), rejection (Smout et al., 2019) are also associated with social anxiety. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that parenting behavior has an impact on the emotion regulation strategies that children with behavioral inhibition use, which in turn contributes to social anxiety outcomes (Suarez et al., 2021). ...
"Introduction: Recently emotion-focused therapy has developed as an additional approach and considers the role of primary emotions such as shame in the formation and persistence of SAD. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the theoretical model of emotion-focused therapy for SAD by considering the role of early negative memories, humiliation and the mediating role of self-defectiveness/shame schema in the etiology of SAD. Method: This cross-sectional descriptive study recruited a sample of 105 students, 44 males (41.9%) 61 females (58.1%), diagnosed with SAD by psychologists from Shahid Beheshti University Counseling Center. Participants ranging in age from 18 to 34 with a mean age of 23.1 years (SD=3.5) completed the Social Phobia Inventory, Humiliation Inventory, Early Life Experiences Scale, Defectiveness /Shame Schema subscale of the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form. Results: Data were analyzed using SmartPLS-SEM. The results showed that early childhood experiences and humiliation significantly predict SAD. Also, the indirect effects of the independent variables through defectiveness/shame schema on SAD were significant. Conclusions: Consistent with the assumptions of the emotion-focused approach to SAD, these results confirm that early life experiences and humiliation with the development of shame schemes play an important role in the etiology of SAD and must be considered for therapy to be effective. The results of this study suggest that the components of the emotion-focused model can have therapeutic value as targets of intervention in randomized clinical trials."
The purpose of this research is to compare the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy and endurance exercises on the problem-solving styles of female students with social anxiety disorder. The design of this research is a quasi-experimental type of pre-test-post-test with a unequal control group and a one-month follow-up. The statistical population was female students of the second level of high school in the three educational districts of Kermanshah in the academic year 2023-2024. From this population, 60 students with social anxiety were selected by screening and according to the criteria for entering the study. They were randomly assigned in 4 groups of 15 people (three experimental and one control). The research tools included social anxiety questionnaires (Kanor, 2000) and problem-solving styles (Dzurila et al., 2002). Data were analyzed with SPSS23 software and Analysis of variance test and Benferoni's post hoc test. The findings showed that metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy, and endurance exercises increased effective problem-solving styles and decreased ineffective problem-solving styles in people with social anxiety (P≤0.05) and among the three treatments, Metacognition therapy in efficient problem-solving styles and metacognition and solution-oriented treatment in ineffective problem-solving styles were more effective than endurance exercises (P≤0.05). Based on these findings, it can be said that all three treatment models can be used in the Iranian clinical sample. Article Info:
Background & Objective: Social anxiety is one of the most common anxiety disorders that can lead to cognitive, emotional and behavioral symptoms in sufferers; therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy, and endurance exercises on the social skills of female students with social anxiety disorder.
Methods: The design of this research was a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test type with a control group and a one-month follow-up. The statistical population of secondary school female students of the three educational districts of Kermanshah in the academic year 1401-1402 was 60 people from this population who were available and according to the criteria for entering the study and were randomly selected in 4 A group of 15 people (three experiments and one control) were assigned. The research tools included social anxiety questionnaires (Kanor, 2000) and social skills (Dzurila et al., 2002). Data were analyzed with SPSS23 software and mixed variance analysis test.
Results: The Reslts showed that all three treatments increased the desirable social behavior and decreased the undesirable social behavior of female students with social anxiety disorder (P≤0.05) and among the three treatments, the solution-focused therapy in behavior Favorable social behavior was more effective than endurance training and unfavorable social behavior was more effective than both metacognitive therapy and endurance training (P≤0.05).
Conclusion: The results showed that all three treatment models can be used in the Iranian clinical sample, but in some evidences, the solution-focused therapy group has shown superiority in the Iranian clinical sample compared to the other two groups.
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Background: One of the most common disorders that negatively impacts all aspects of individuals' lives is social phobia disorder. In recent decades, there has been an increasing trend towards investigating the effectiveness of new therapeutic approaches in reducing social anxiety disorder among adolescents, and treatment protocols such as endurance training, metacognitive therapy, and solution-focused therapy have been examined for their efficacy in various studies. However, a research gap exists as no study has focused on comparing the differences between these treatments.
Aims: The aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy, and endurance training on self-efficacy beliefs of female students with social anxiety disorder.
Methods: The present study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up. Sixty female students from the second grade of secondary school in three educational districts of Kermanshah city in the academic year 1401-1402 were selected as the research sample based on accessibility and inclusion criteria. They were randomly assigned to four groups of 15 (three experimental and one control). The research instruments included the Social Anxiety Scale (Connor, 2000) and General Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer, 1982). The data were analyzed using SPSS23 software and mixed analysis of variance.
Results: The findings indicated that all three treatments led to an increase in self-efficacy beliefs of students with social anxiety disorder (p< 0.05), and no significant differences in effectiveness were observed among the three intervention groups of metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy, and endurance training (p> 0.05).
Conclusion: Given that metacognitive therapy, solution-focused therapy, and endurance training were effective in enhancing self-efficacy beliefs of individuals with social anxiety disorder, it is recommended to utilize these two approaches to reduce social anxiety symptoms and improve the quality of life and other problems in private counseling centers.
Helicopter parenting during emerging adulthood, a developmental period highlighting autonomy and self-reliance, can undermine college students’ well-being. The current study examined the mediating role of emotion dysregulation in the association between helicopter parenting and mental health outcomes among college-aged adults. A sample of 790 college students completed questionnaires on perceived helicopter parenting, emotion dysregulation, depression, social anxiety, and alcohol use. Results generally supported the hypothesized mediation model, but associations depended on the specific helicopter parenting behavior, emotion dysregulation dimension, and mental health outcome. Autonomy limiting was particularly detrimental to all emotion dysregulation dimensions and mental health, whereas information-seeking behaviors may be beneficial to emerging adults’ outcomes. Impulse control difficulties and lack of emotional clarity emerged as robust mediators. The findings highlight the importance of disentangling specific helicopter parenting behaviors as well as emotion dysregulation as a mechanism of risk, providing useful clinical implications for the improvement of college students’ well-being.
Clance and Imes (1978) came up with the term imposter phenomenon which refers to persistent feelings of self-doubt in one’s achievements which was mostly seen in high-achieving individuals. This study investigates the relationships among Imposter Phenomenon (IP), Achievement Motivation, Parental Bonding, and Perceived Social Support in a sample of 251 individuals (108 males and 143 females) in India. Using Pearson correlations, the study explores how these factors relate to one another and what implications they have for understanding imposter syndrome. The results reveal a significant positive correlation between Imposter Phenomenon and Achievement Motivation (r = 0.549, p < 0.01), indicating that individuals with higher achievement motivation are more likely to experience imposter syndrome. This suggests that high-achieving environments might contribute to feelings of self-doubt and fraudulence. Parental bonding and the impostor phenomenon do not significantly correlate (r = -0.017), suggesting that parental interactions may not play a substantial role in imposter syndrome. Similarly, there appears to be no evidence that social support has a major effect on impostor syndrome based on the weak and non-significant correlation (r = -0.105) between the imposter phenomenon and perceived social support. Hence, future results need to delve deeper into the other underlying causes of the imposter phenomenon, examining personal, cultural, and organisational factors that might contribute to this phenomenon. Understanding the root causes can help develop more effective strategies and interventions to reduce imposter syndrome's impact, especially in high-achieving environments.
Background and Aim: Not only is it important to investigate the components and factors affecting it in order to help prevent and treat this disorder in children, but it is also necessary to investigate the effectiveness of effective treatments in reducing the symptoms of this disorder. The present study was conducted with the aim of determining the effectiveness of teaching mothers with Barclay's behavioral approach on the dimensions of parenting and anxiety of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Methods: The research method was quasiexperimental with pre-test and post-test design with experimental and control groups. The research population was all children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder who referred to the specialized children's psychiatric clinic in Gorgan city in the first ten months of 2022. The research sample was 24 people who were selected by purposive sampling method and randomly assigned to three groups of experimental (n=12) and control (n=12). The experimental group received Barclay Behavioral Maternal Education in 12 sessions of 90 minutes. The research instruments were the Alabama Form Parent Parenting Questionnaire (1991), and Spence Form Parent Child Scale (2001). Data were analyzed by analysis of covariance using SPSS-22 software. Results: The results showed that parent training with Barclay's approach improved parenting dimensions (parental participation, positive parenting, instability in discipline, weakness in monitoring and physical punishment) in mothers and reduced anxiety in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (P<0.05). Conclusion: According to the research findings, the use of Barclay's parenting training can be used as an effective method to improve the parenting dimensions of mothers and the anxiety of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by modifying the parenting pattern of parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
The need to comprehend the factors that contribute to the development of imposter
syndrome and its potential effects on students' mental health and academic success underlies the
need for research into the relationship between maternal parenting style and imposter syndrome
among young adults. Here are some important things to think about:
The prevalence of imposter syndrome: Imposter syndrome is a psychological condition
marked by feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and the conviction that one's successes are
attributable more to chance than to talent. Young adults tend to experience it frequently,
and this can have a detrimental effect on both their academic and general well-being.
Parental Influence: Studies have demonstrated that parenting practices can significantly
affect a child's sense of self-worth, self-esteem, and general psychological health.
Particularly the mother's parenting style can have a significant impact on how students
view themselves and their skills.
Maternal Parenting Styles: Various parenting philosophies, such as authoritative,
authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful, each have distinctive traits and can have a
different impact on a child's development. In contrast to an authoritarian approach, which
may result in high levels of self-doubt and perfectionism, an authoritative parenting style
is characterized by warmth, support, and clear expectations.
Theoretical Framework: A theoretical framework that suggests a connection between
parenting practices and imposter syndrome is likely to serve as the study's compass. This
framework may use social cognitive theory, attachment theory, or other pertinent
psychological theories to describe how maternal parenting practices may help impostor
syndrome develop.
11
Practical Implications: Parents and university instructors can both benefit from an
understanding of the relationship between mother parenting style and imposter syndrome.
It can influence parental behavior and treatments meant to lessen imposter syndrome in
students, potentially enhancing their mental well-being and academic achievement.
Academic Success: Imposter syndrome has been associated with poor academic
performance, including reduced self-esteem, less drive, and higher dropout rates. It may
be possible to support students in overcoming these difficulties and achieving their full
academic potential by looking into the influence of maternal parenting style.
Gender and Cultural issues: Since these variables can influence mother parenting
practices and imposter syndrome, the study may also take gender and cultural issues into
account. Parenting styles and experiences with imposter syndrome can be influenced by
cultural norms and gender roles.
In order to comprehend the psychological mechanisms at work and to provide insights for
future therapies, the study intends to analyze the association between maternal parenting styles
and imposter syndrome among young adults. This study has the potential to improve students'
success and general well-being as they meet the rigors of higher education.
This study explores the relationship between perceived parenting styles and the impostor phenomenon in young adults. The sample included 155 participants aged 16 to 24 years. Multiple regression analysis was conducted, revealing that only the responsiveness domain of parenting styles had a significant negative relationship with the impostor phenomenon (β =-0.31, p = 0.008), while the control domain did not have a significant impact (β = 0.21, p = 0.128). The model explained a small proportion of the variance in the impostor phenomenon (adjusted R-squared = 0.032). These findings suggest that a more responsive parenting style may be associated with lower levels of impostor feelings in young adults. The results can inform in designing interventions for the impostor phenomenon.
The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) is a measure widely used to assess individuals' self-perceptions of intellectual and professional fraudulence. The study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the Hebrew form for the CIPS (HCIPS) in female Hebrew-speaking students, in an attempt to further clarify its structure and strengthen its validity in international settings. The study comprised a sample of 248 female students (M age = 27.74, SD = 7.32), who completed an online version of the questionnaire. Our results generally demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties of the HCIPS total scale, with its internal consistency, reliability, and item-total-correlations meeting the standard criteria. The exploratory factor analysis yielded a stable four-factor solution for the 19-items, with its factors accounting for 54.81% of the model's variance. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the four-factor model as compatible, with its fit-indices meeting the minimal standards of goodness of fit. The study's findings are the first to identify a four-factor model, which improves the imbalanced factorial composition characterizing the common three-factor model. Subject to the study's limitations, this evidence suggests that the HCIPS is a sound instrument for assessing impostor feelings among female Hebrew-speaking students.
Parenting is a broad construct that comprises stable and durable attitudes and behaviors regarding child-rearing. Since mothers and fathers play different roles in the family, parenting styles and practices in childhood and adolescence may differ depending on the parents' and adolescents' gender. While gender differences in parenting are theoretically warranted, the research literature in this field is considerably limited and lacking conclusive information dealing with this question. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to aggregate and synthesize the available research studies containing significant findings on the differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles and practices. For that purpose, we conducted a systematic search of the PsycInfo, Scopus, Eric, and Web of Science databases, covering literature published from 1990 to 2020. The search was restricted to peer-reviewed studies in English alone. Our findings reveal that mothers as compared to fathers are perceived as more accepting, responsive, and supportive, as well as more behaviorally controlling, demanding, and autonomy granting than fathers. Accordingly, in the studies comparing parents on the constructs of overall parenting styles, mothers were predominantly more authoritative than fathers, and fathers were mostly more authoritarian than mothers (based on both parent and descendant reports). These parental differences established by research from over 15 countries around the globe seem to apply similarly for male and female descendants, while principally not varying by their age.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the Impostor Phenomenon’s (IP’s) relationship to perfectionistic cognitions, depression, anxiety, achievement motives, self-efficacy, self-compassion, and self-esteem in clinical and counseling psychology doctoral students. Further, this study sought to investigate how IP interferes with academic, practicum, and internship performance of these students and how IP manifests throughout a psychology doctoral program. Eighty-four clinical and counseling psychology doctoral students responded to an online survey. The data was analyzed using a Pearson’s product-moment correlation and a multiple linear regression. Perhaps the most striking finding of the study is that 88% of students in the sample reported at least moderate feelings of the IP. This study also found significant positive correlations between the IP and perfectionistic cognitions, depression, anxiety, and self-compassion. In addition, as anticipated, one significant negative correlation emerged with achievement motives. Further, seven variables statistically significantly predicted feelings of the IP, with perfectionistic cognitions, depression, and achievement motives, adding statistical significance to the prediction. These findings add to existing literature regarding how IP manifests itself and impacts psychology doctoral student academic success. Further continued investigations will help educators and trainers understand more clearly how students are affected by the IP. Faculty and clinical supervisors should take a supportive approach to assist students to diminish feelings of the IP and enhance their competence and confidence to provide effective services to their clients.
Aim/Purpose
This US-based study explored various facets of impostor phenomenon experienced during PhD training in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Specifically, the purpose of this research was to identify certain experiences that trigger this phenomenon.
Background
Competent high-achievers who do not believe in their efforts leading to accomplishments sometimes experience the impostor phenomenon. It is characterized by the notion that one has fooled others into overestimating their ability, not attributing one’s accomplishments to ability, and living with the fear of being discovered as a fraud.
Methodology
Data were collected using convenience and snowball sampling. Qualitative, semi-structured interviews from 90 PhD students were analyzed thematically.
Contribution
Study findings contribute to a less-understood area of what constitutes triggers for the impostor phenomenon among PhD students in STEM fields.
Findings
Participants described the following themes that triggered impostor phenomenon during PhD training: 1) Progress and public recognition, 2) Comparing oneself with others, 3) Developing skills: public speaking and scientific writing. 4) Application of new knowledge, and 5) Asking for help.
Recommendations for Practitioners
PhD faculty, mentors, advisers, and administrators should be cognizant of the triggers that could give rise to the impostor phenomenon among their students. Professional development activities for students could focus on earlier and more rigorous training for improving scientific communication.
Recommendation for Researchers
Future research should continue to explore if other stakeholders in academia such as postdoctoral trainees and faculty also experience similar stress due to the impostor phenomenon.
Impact on Society
Institutes of higher education should continue to focus on improving student mental health and retention rates, alleviating some of the PhD training stressors by designing interventions that improve students’ mindset and self-efficacy.
Future Research
Findings point to avenues for further research on how to support those with impostor phenomenon. Future research could explore the topic in other disciplines outside STEM and examine if long-term interventions could mitigate impostor-feelings, including the nature and length of interventions that could be helpful.
The Impostor Phenomenon can be described as the tendency to attribute professional success not to one’s own abilities but to excessive effort or fortunate external circumstances. Individuals strongly experiencing those tendencies fear that one day they will be exposed as “impostors” as soon as their alleged incompetence can no longer be concealed. Typical characteristics of the Impostor Phenomenon outlined by Clance (1985) show a remarkable conceptual similarity to the personality construct of perfectionism. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating how the Impostor Phenomenon is related to various facets of dispositional perfectionism with respect to predominant conceptualizations of perfectionism by Frost et al. (1990), Hewitt and Flett (1991), as well as their combination within the bifactor model of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns (Frost et al. 1993). A total of N = 274 individuals participated in an online survey including the Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance 1988), the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al. 1990), and the Hewitt und Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS short form; Hewitt et al. 2008). Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the differential contributions of perfectionism dimensions and factors in predicting the Impostor Phenomenon. The perfectionism dimensions Doubts about Actions, Concern over Mistakes and Socially prescribed Perfectionism appeared to be efficient predictors of the Impostor Phenomenon. Contrary to Perfectionistic Strivings, Perfectionistic Concerns as a maladaptive perfectionism factor strongly contributed to the prediction of the Impostor Phenomenon. Theoretical and practical implications of the associations between the Impostor Phenomenon and multidimensional perfectionism are discussed.
Background:
Impostor syndrome is increasingly presented in the media and lay literature as a key behavioral health condition impairing professional performance and contributing to burnout. However, there is no published review of the evidence to guide the diagnosis or treatment of patients presenting with impostor syndrome.
Purpose:
To evaluate the evidence on the prevalence, predictors, comorbidities, and treatment of impostor syndrome.
Data sources:
Medline, Embase, and PsycINFO (January 1966 to May 2018) and bibliographies of retrieved articles.
Study selection:
English-language reports of evaluations of the prevalence, predictors, comorbidities, or treatment of impostor syndrome.
Data extraction:
Two independent investigators extracted data on study variables (e.g., study methodology, treatments provided); participant variables (e.g., demographics, professional setting); diagnostic tools used, outcome variables (e.g., workplace performance, reductions in comorbid conditions); and pre-defined quality variables (e.g., human subjects approval, response rates reported).
Data synthesis:
In total, 62 studies of 14,161 participants met the inclusion criteria (half were published in the past 6 years). Prevalence rates of impostor syndrome varied widely from 9 to 82% largely depending on the screening tool and cutoff used to assess symptoms and were particularly high among ethnic minority groups. Impostor syndrome was common among both men and women and across a range of age groups (adolescents to late-stage professionals). Impostor syndrome is often comorbid with depression and anxiety and is associated with impaired job performance, job satisfaction, and burnout among various employee populations including clinicians. No published studies evaluated treatments for this condition.
Limitations:
Studies were heterogeneous; publication bias may be present.
Conclusions:
Clinicians and employers should be mindful of the prevalence of impostor syndrome among professional populations and take steps to assess for impostor feelings and common comorbidities. Future research should include evaluations of treatments to mitigate impostor symptoms and its common comorbidities.
Objectives: In this study, we investigated the sex differences in the impact of perceived parental rejection on various health-risk behaviors and the moderation of resilience on the relations between perceived parental rejection and health-risk behaviors. Methods: Cross-sectional data of 730 college-attending emerging adults were analyzed with Poisson and negative binomial models. Results: Maternal rejection predicted drug use and aggressive behavior for men and binge drinking, drug use, and aggressive behavior for women; paternal rejection predicted drug use for women. Resilience buffered the negative association of maternal rejection to drug use and the relation of paternal rejection to aggressive behavior in men. Resilience enhanced the association between maternal rejection and drug use but buffered the association between paternal rejection and drug use in women. Conclusions: Parental rejection was associated with health-risk behavior, whereas resilience may attenuate such a relationship. Prevention and intervention programs should consider sex-specific needs.
Individual differences in how people experience and engage in laughter and ridicule can be described by three personality dispositions: gelotophobia (fear of being laughed at), gelotophilia (joy in being laughed at), and katagelasticism (joy in laughing at others). We study the correlates of how people deal with ridicule and being laughed at with the Impostor Phenomenon (IP; individual differences in the failure to internalize success and feelings of intellectual fraud). We tested our hypotheses in two independently collected samples of students and working professionals (N = 315/229; M = 22.7/37.1 years; 54.9/59.4% females). In line with previous studies, the IP was more pronounced in the students (g = 0.45). As expected, the fear of being laughed at best predicted the IP robustly positively (26-31% explained variance), and only numerically small effects (≤ 3% explained variance) existed for joy in being laughed at and laughing at others. Associations between the laughter-related dispositions and the IP did not differ between students and professionals. We discuss the findings with respect to expectations derived from theory, potential mediators, and future research directions.
Imposter phenomenon (IP) has traditionally been linked to indicators of psychological well-being with fewer studies examining the impact on work outcomes. Using conservation of resources (COR) theory, we examined how imposter phenomenon as a personal demand contributed to emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction among a sample of university faculty (N = 310). Our results suggest that individuals who experience high levels of IP deplete critical resources needed to avoid psychological strain in part because of their use of avoidant coping strategies, and in how their experience of emotional exhaustion contributes to low job satisfaction. That is, avoidant coping partially mediated the imposter–emotional exhaustion relationship, and the imposter–job satisfaction relationship is fully and serially mediated through avoidant coping and emotional exhaustion. To help combat imposter feelings and enhance job outcomes, we suggest the use of learning and development interventions as active coping approaches (e.g., training, coaching, and mentoring) geared at correcting how imposters attribute success and failures, increase social support, and normalize the imposter experience.
The impostor phenomenon involves feelings of intellectual self-doubt that often occur to people in challenging new roles or in the wake of personal success. Many previous studies appear to have understated the relationship between the impostor phenomenon and self-esteem, and have included only measures of self-esteem level in their designs. In the present study, the impostor phenomenon was examined in relation to both self-esteem level and self-esteem instability. Three-hundred and four undergraduates completed the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and a measure of self-rated instability. A subsample was also assessed for statistical instability (n = 38). The impostor phenomenon was negatively correlated with self-esteem level (r = −.62) and positively correlated with self-reported (r = .32) and statistical (r = .57) instability (all ps < .001). A multiple regression model predicting the impostor phenomenon with self-esteem level and self-rated instability revealed a negative main effect of self-esteem level and a significant 2-way interaction. Simple slopes analysis revealed that the negative effect of self-esteem level was weaker among participants with unstable self-esteem, compared to those with stable self-esteem. Results emphasize the critical involvement of self-esteem problems in the impostor phenomenon, indicating that people with low self-esteem are especially vulnerable to impostor feelings, and that people with unstable high self-esteem are more vulnerable to such feelings than are those with stable high self-esteem.
Clance (1978) first identified the Impostor Phenomenon in therapeutic sessions with highly successful women who attributed achievements to external factors even in the presence of evidence to the contrary. These individuals, believing themselves unworthy of promotions, recognition and rewards, saw themselves as frauds. Those dealing with impostor tendencies put a considerable amount of pressure on themselves to maintain the façade and as such are known to exhibit high levels of perfectionism and workaholic behaviors. This article reviews the definition and traits associated with the Impostor Phenomenon with a focus on incidence and impact in higher education.
Following up on earlier investigations, the present research aims at validating the construct impostor phenomenon by taking other personality correlates into account and to examine whether the impostor phenomenon is a construct in its own right. In addition, gender effects as well as associations with dispositional working styles and strain are examined. In an online study we surveyed a sample of N = 242 individuals occupying leadership positions in different sectors. Confirmatory factor analyses provide empirical evidence for the discriminant validity of the impostor phenomenon. In accord with earlier studies we show that the impostor phenomenon is accompanied by higher levels of anxiety, dysphoric moods, emotional instability, a generally negative self-evaluation, and perfectionism. The study does not reveal any gender differences concerning the impostor phenomenon. With respect to working styles, persons with an impostor self-concept tend to show perfectionist as well as procrastinating behaviors. Moreover, they report being more stressed and strained by their work. In sum, the findings show that the impostor phenomenon constitutes a dysfunctional personality style. Practical implications are discussed.
The current study focused on relations between maternal and paternal perceived parenting style, marital conflict, and child behavior outcomes. Child participants (N = 152) ranged in age from 3 to 9 years old. Reports from both parents on perceived parenting style, marital conflict, and child behavior problems were collected. Results indicated that (a) parenting styles of mothers and fathers were related, (b) mothers’ and fathers’ authoritarianism and permissiveness were associated with increased child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, (c) marital conflict was significantly related to child behavior problems, (d) when mother and father reported parenting styles differed, increased marital conflict was reported, (e) increased differences between mothers and fathers in self- and spouse-perceived permissiveness were related to increased child externalizing behavior problems, and (f) the direction of the differences between parents (i.e. whether a particular parent reported being more permissive than the other) was linked with marital conflict and child behavior problems. Namely, marital and child outcomes were poorer when mothers saw themselves as more authoritative than fathers and when fathers were more authoritarian than mothers, and outcomes were better when fathers saw themselves as more permissive than mothers and when mothers were more authoritarian than fathers. Implications for marital and family therapy are discussed.
A growing body of literature links particular parenting practices with negative child outcomes including greater anxiety symptoms among western societies. However, the effects of cultural differences on such linkages have not been adequately addressed in the anxiety literature. This study therefore aimed to examine the relationship between perceived parenting style and anxiety among Malay, Chinese, Indian, Arab and European/American (Caucasian) origins adolescents and the possible cultural group influences on this relationship was studied. Using multiple cluster sampling, a total of 227 students (122 boys and 105 girls) aged 13–18 years was selected. They completed questionnaires measuring parental rearing behaviors (EMBU-C) and anxiety symptoms scale (SCAS). Results indicated that in comparison to the European/American; Asian samples reported greater anxiety symptoms on all subscales of anxiety. Parental rejection, anxious rearing and control/over protection were correlated to higher anxiety independent of cultural group but these associations were stronger for Caucasians. Parenting styles as predictor of anxiety were found to be cross culturally different. Although European/American adolescents rated their parents as least over controlling, it was significant predictor of anxiety. This study provides evidence for the notion that relationship between parenting factors and anxiety were different across cultural contexts.
The question of gender differences in academic outcomes has been widely reported and debated. Recent data suggest more similarities than differences in achievement, yet also show males being more likely to make ability attributions for grades while females are more likely to make effort attributions. Thus, it may be more useful to focus on underlying factors and psychological processes that are gendered and influence academic outcomes. The primary purpose of this study was to test a hypothesized model of academic outcomes in a sample of U.S. undergraduate women and men in the Southwest (345 women, 146 men). Participants were recruited from an educational psychology subject pool and completed an online survey. A hypothesized path model was tested that linked gender stigma consciousness to impostor phenomenon, and linked impostor phenomenon to the academic outcomes of disengagement and grade point average (GPA) through academic self-concept. Alternative models were also tested that included 1) academic self-concept predicting impostor feelings, 2) impostor feelings predicting gender stigma consciousness, and 3) GPA predicting academic self-concept. Results revealed the hypothesized model fit the data reasonably well across men and women while the alternative models resulted in a poorer fit. However, there were notable differences in some of the paths. The path from impostor phenomenon to GPA was significant for women but not men, while the path from academic self-concept to disengagement was significant for men but not women. Theoretical and practical implications regarding the gendered role of impostor feelings in grades are discussed.
Attention to faculty development, especially factors influencing faculty satisfaction and performance, has increased in the last decade. While a significant focus has been on contextual factors (i.e., tenure policies, mentoring, work-life integration), fewer studies have examined individual psychological factors especially in the field of human resource development. This descriptive study addresses a particular focus in faculty development by examining the prevalence of faculty experiences of imposter phenomenon, IP, (the experience of fraudulent thoughts and feelings and the inability to attribute and internalize personal achievement), how it affects their perceived emotional exhaustion (a dimension of job burnout) and their reported coping skills. Results of the study suggest that faculty (n=61) do experience moderate levels of IP with the highest reported by untenured faculty. Results also indicate that faculty emotional exhaustion is positively related to IP, and faculty reporting moderate-high levels of IP also reported greater use of adaptive coping skills to address imposter thoughts. Faculty also identified the important role of mentoring at tempering imposter tendencies.
The Imposter Phenomenon (IP) is an observed anxiety caused by an individual's feelings of fraudulence, fear of being exposed as a fraud, and inability to internalize personal achievement. This study measures the incidence of the IP among librarians at college and research institutions in the United States and Canada and seeks to identify factors that contribute to its frequency. One in eight librarians reported above average IP scores. Younger librarians and those with less longevity experience IP feelings at a higher rate than more experienced counterparts. Also included is a discussion of how to lessen the impact of IP feelings.
Are the negative thought patterns and self-doubt associated with the Imposter Phenomenon similar to the negative thought patterns and self-doubt that many individuals who have mild depression experience? If so, it is reasonable to believe that a relation between depression and the Imposter Phenomenon (IP) exists. The relation between the IP and depression among college students was examined. Results of a Pearson product-moment correlation yielded a positive correlation between the IP and BDI-II scores. Additionally, a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) using the IP scores and BDI scores as the dependent variables, with sex serving as the independent variable, revealed that men and women differ significantly on the combined dependent variables of IP and BDI scores. More specifically, the main effect between sex and IP score indicates that women have higher IP scores than men. However, the effect between sex and BDI was not statistically significant. Lastly, the implications of these findings are discussed.
This article examines the hypothesis that individuals who were parentified as children are more likely to report impostor feelings in adulthood. A sample of 213 graduate students were given the Parentification Questionnaire (Sessions & Jurkovic, 198636.
Sessions , M. W. 1986 . Influence of parentification on professional role choice and interpersonal style . Dissertation Abstracts International , 47 : 5066 View all references) and Clance's Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 198512.
Clance , P. R. 1985 . The impostor phenomenon: Overcoming the fear that haunts your success , Atlanta, GA : Peachtree Publishers . View all references). Results indicated that parentification and the impostor phenomenon are moderately correlated (r = .37). No significant gender differences were found for either construct. With regard to racial/ethnic differences, no significant differences were found in parentification scores; however, Caucasians endorsed significantly higher impostor phenomenon scores than African Americans. The results suggest that the impostor phenomenon can be explained, in part, as a significant long-term effect of childhood parentification.
The term "impostor phenomenon" is used to designate an internal experience of intellectual phoniness that appears to be particularly prevalent and intense among a select sample of high achieving women. Certain early family dynamics and later introjection of societal sex-role stereotyping appear to contribute significantly to the development of the impostor phenomenon. Despite outstanding academic and professional accomplishments, women who experience the impostor phenomenon persist in believing that they are really not bright and have fooled anyone who thinks otherwise. Numerous achievements, which one might expect to provide ample objective evidence of superior intellectual functioning, do not appear to affect the impostor belief. Four factors that contribute to the maintenance of impostor feelings over time are explored. Therapeutic approaches found to be effective in helping women change the impostor self-concept are described. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined differences in mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices in relation to child externalizing behavior. Data were
collected from a community sample of 135 cohabiting couples with a child aged 6–12. The couples were recruited through undergraduate
and graduate students. Both parents were required to complete a series of questionnaires assessing demographic, parental,
and child variables. Results indicated that after controlling for parental depression and marital conflict, all parenting
variables were significantly related to child externalizing behavior; however, parent and/or child sex moderated these relations.
Specifically, parental involvement was only significant for fathers and sons, positive parenting was only significant for
mothers and sons, poor monitoring/supervision was only significant for girls, and only mothers’ inconsistent discipline was
related to externalizing behavior. These results offer practical information regarding identification of children at risk
for behavioral problems, as well as potential targets for prevention and intervention.
KeywordsParenting practices-Externalizing behavior-Child sex-Father-Multilevel modeling
Of available self-rated social phobia scales, none assesses the spectrum of fear, avoidance, and physiological symptoms, all of which are clinically important. Because of this limitation, we developed the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN).
To establish psychometric validation of the SPIN.
Subjects from three clinical trials and two control groups were given the 17-item, self-rated SPIN. Validity was assessed against several established measures of social anxiety, global assessments of severity and improvement, and scales assessing physical health and disability.
Good test-retest reliability, internal consistency, convergent and divergent validity were obtained. A SPIN score of 19 distinguished between social phobia subjects and controls. The SPIN was responsive to change in symptoms over time and reflected different responses to active drugs v. placebo. Factorial analysis identified five factors.
The SPIN demonstrates solid psychometric properties and shows promise as a measurement for the screening of, and treatment response to, social phobia.
Some family medicine residents often doubt their ability to become competent family physicians. Individuals who believe themselves to be less intelligent and less competent than others perceive them to be are described in the psychological literature as having the "impostor phenomenon." This study sought to determine the prevalence of the impostor phenomenon in family medicine residents.
We conducted a mail survey of all 255 family medicine residents in Wisconsin. The survey included the Clance Imposter Scale and two scales measuring depression and anxiety.
A total of 185 surveys were returned, for a 73% response rate. Forty-one percent of women and 24% of men scored as "impostors." Impostor symptoms were highly correlated with depression and anxiety.
About one third of family medicine residents believe they are less intelligent and less competent than others perceive them to be. These residents suffer psychological distress and do not believe they will be ready to practice family medicine after graduation. Teachers may assist these learners by letting them know such feelings are common and by providing regular, timely, and positive feedback.
The impostor phenomenon (IP), or erroneous cognitions of intellectual incompetence, is a risk factor for poor psychological adjustment among Black emerging adults. Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman's Stress and Coping Framework, the current study investigated John Henryism's active coping and institutional racial composition as moderators of the association between IP and indicators of psychological well-being among 266 Black students (77% women; M
age
= 19.87) attending predominately White institutions (PWIs) and historically Black colleges/universities (HBCUs). Hierarchical moderation regression analyses revealed that IP was associated with decreases in well-being indicators among students attending PWIs and HBCUs. Moreover, students who attended PWIs and reported higher levels of John Henryism (+1 SD) were most vulnerable to increases in social anxiety, particularly at higher levels of IP. Results suggest that the interaction between IP, John Henrysim, and institutional racial composition may negatively influence psychological well-being. We discuss how these findings can be used to inform clinical and educational practices to best support Black college students.
The study investigates the links between maternal and paternal parenting styles and the imposter syndrome among adult female students, while probing the meditative role played by self-esteem in this context. The sample comprised 182 female students (Mage = 27.85, SD = 7.25) who completed the Parental Bonding Instrument
(PBI), the Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). The results of the analyses of the regressions models using SEM revealed that parental care is associated with students’ lower imposter feelings via self-esteem, and paternal overprotection is associated with students’ higher imposter feelings via self-esteem. Hence, parental care and overprotection may be related to female students’ imposter feelings since they increase and decrease (respectively) their self-esteem which, in turn, affects their imposter feelings. The current study is among the first to demonstrate the mediation role played by self-esteem in the association in question separately for mothers and fathers, which contributes to facilitating the understanding of the etiology mechanism of the imposter phenomenon.
Purpose
This study aims to explore different themes related to impostor phenomenon, as experienced by graduate students and postdocs in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields.
Design/methodology/approach
Open-ended survey responses from 120 US-based participants from 40 states and Washington, D.C., describing an occasion when they felt like an impostor, were analyzed thematically.
Findings
Following content analysis, three themes emerged: occurrence, attribution and identity. While impostor-like feelings were experienced as early as high school or college, the majority experienced it during PhD application, on being admitted to a PhD program and throughout PhD training. The people experiencing impostor phenomenon attributed their achievements and success to others (other’s name, prestige, or connections, other’s mistake, other’s lies or misrepresentation, or other’s kindness) or self (self-inadequacy, pretense, luck or self-doubt) rather than their own hard work or ability. Gender-based and race/ethnicity-based identity also shaped the experiences of the impostor phenomenon.
Research limitations/implications
Open-ended survey responses varied in length and level of detail. Responses provided a one-time snapshot of a memory related to impostor-feelings that stood out, not indicating if the feeling persisted or evolved with time. The findings are not generalizable over a larger population.
Originality/value
This study identified multiple themes related to the impostor phenomenon not investigated before, enriching existing research while also providing methodological rigor for the development of follow-up studies.
Imposter syndrome is feeling incompetent despite evidence of competence. It is characterized by the inability to internalize one's status and success, which causes much emotional distress. People with imposter syndrome fear that others will eventually find out that they are frauds and thus feel that they do not belong in their academic or working environment despite objective qualifications, achievements, and accomplishments. Perfectionism has been linked to imposter syndrome due to a tendency to focus on one's inadequacies. In this study, participants were 169 Russian college students. Mediating and moderating effects of imposter syndrome on the link between perfectionism and psychological distress were examined. Results indicated that imposter syndrome fully mediated the link between perfectionism and anxiety, whereas it served as a partial mediator between perfectionism and depression. A significant moderation effect of imposter syndrome was found between the link of perfectionism and depressive mood. In sum, it appears that if a person does not fall into the imposter mindset, the positive link between perfectionistic discrepancy and depression no longer exists. Results of this study identify imposter syndrome as a point of intervention to prevent depression caused by perfectionism.
Imposter phenomena (IP) is when an individual experiences unwarranted feelings of inadequacy in relation to their own abilities. Often linked to self-efficacy, individuals who experience IP doubt their own skills and attribute their successes to luck as opposed to themselves. Whilst this has been studied in relation to a number of fields, IP has not been considered in relation to social work. This article investigates the prevalence of IP amongst a small sample of currently practising social workers (fifty-nine) and utilises a survey approach to assess levels of IP. This data were explored in relation to levels of experience. From the sample, it appears that IP is more frequently occurring amongst social workers than would be expected and IP experiences are less frequent with increased levels of experience. This article considers the impact of IP upon practitioners and makes suggestions for further work.
The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) is characterized by external attribution of success, feelings of inadequacy, and a fear of being exposed as intellectual fraud. The most frequently used and psychometrically sound IP measure is the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) whose German version has not been validated yet. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties and validity of the German CIPS. In two independent samples (N = 151; 149), analyses yielded good reliability (α = .87; .89) and item-total correlations (.47; .51). Robust correlations to IP-related variables (depression, fear of negative evaluation, attributional style, locus of control, and self-esteem) supported the nomological validity. Partial correlation analysis controlling for depression revealed a unique attributional style for IP-high scorer which manifests in external-instable attributions concerning success. In line with previous findings, an exploratory factor analysis (Sample 1) yielded three factors (Fake, Luck, and Discount), which accounted for 44% of variance. Confirmatory factor analyses (Sample 2) supported this 3-factor-model. The diagnostic application of the German CIPS is encouraged.
High anxiety levels have been associated with high levels of the imposter phenomenon (IP), a negative experience of feeling like a fraud. This study was designed to explore IP among graduate students and to determine whether a difference exists between online graduate students and traditional graduate students. The theoretical foundation of this study was social influence, which holds that students may feel pressured in a traditional setting because of the social cues of peers and instructors, as well as institutional norms. This quantitative study used a between-subjects design to compare 2 independent samples (115 online students & 105 traditional students). The study used a cross-sectional survey design, with 4 different measures: the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale, the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and a basic demographic survey. Results indicated that traditional graduate students had significantly higher IP scores than online graduate students. Results also indicated a significant, positive relationship between IP scores and anxiety scores. Regression analysis indicated that perfectionism was the most influential predictor of IP scores, followed by anxiety and program type. Because the scale used in this study explored socially prescribed perfectionism, the results appear to suggest an underlying social component to IP.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the moderated-mediational relationship between the impostor phenomenon (IP) and work-to-family conflict (WFC). Building on conservation of resources (COR) theory, the authors hypothesize that individuals who experience the IP lack the initial resources needed to meet work demands and, thus, experience emotional exhaustion, which leads to WFC. However, the authors hypothesize that additional resources provided by organizations, such as perceived organizational support (POS), may weaken the negative experiences of imposters.
Design/methodology/approach
– The authors tested a moderated-mediation model using data from a time-lagged survey study among 92 Midwest community college employees. Regression was used to examine the mediating effects of emotional exhaustion and the moderating effect of POS on the IP to WFC relationship.
Findings
– Results support the hypothesized model. Emotional exhaustion is a mediating mechanism in the relationship between the IP and WFC. POS is a moderator of this indirect relationship; the indirect relationship between the IP and WFC through emotional exhaustion is weaker when employees perceive high levels of POS.
Practical/implications
– The findings suggest that there are detrimental long-term effects associated with the IP for organizations. Thus, managers should curb feelings of impostorism within their organizations and provide impostors with organizational support in order to reduce their emotional exhaustion and WFC.
Originality/value
– The present study indicates that individual dispositions play an indirect role in WFC. Furthermore, the authors identify organizational outcomes associated with the IP, whereas previous research has rarely emphasized outcomes.
This article provides a methodology for mapping an individual's system of social relationships. Three examples of network maps which vary in complexity have been selected to represent the most common issues discussed by over 90 African American professional women during an eight year period. Excerpts from their explanations of these "maps" are used to identify issues pertinent to the social structure and adult development issues of this group. Implications for clinical practitioners working with African American women of professional status are discussed.
Impostors are outwardly successful individuals who experience secret intense feelings of fraudulence in achievement situations. Elements of perfectionism are evident in a tendency on the part of impostors to maintain high standards for personal evaluation while being critical of their inability to realise these standards. This study utilised a 2 (impostor status: high, low)×2 (task type: high vs. low frequency of mistakes) between-subjects factorial design to investigate the connection between impostor fears and perfectionistic concern over mistakes. Sixty undergraduate students completed either a high or low frequency of mistake Stroop Colour-Word task, following which they completed items assessing perceptions of their performance, concern over mistakes, perceptions of control and anxiety, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and the Russell Causal Dimension Scale. Links with perfectionistic concern over mistakes and anxiety were strongly supported, with impostors reporting less control, greater anxiety, more negative affect and greater concern over mistakes than non-impostors irrespective of experimental condition. The roles of anxiety and perfectionist cognitions in the maintenance of impostor fears are discussed.
This study examined parental rearing styles and objective confidence in relation to impostor phenome-non (feelings of phoniness experienced by individuals who have achieved some level of success, Clance & Imes, 1978) and self-handicapping tendencies (creation of an impediment to performance as an excuse for possible failure, Jones & Berglas, 1978). Participants (N = 115) completed measures of impostorism, self-handicapping, parental bonding (for each parent) and Esoteric Analogies test with confidence judg-ments. Impostor feelings were predicted by paternal overprotection and lack of paternal care. Self-handi-capping scores were predicted by lack of maternal care. A significant relationship was found between impostorism and self-handicapping. Supporting the nature of the impostor phenomenon, impostors showed a ''gap'' between assessment of their performance and actual task-related achievements.
Two new scales of parental care and overprotection, and their combination as a Parental Bonding Instrument, are described. On measurements of reliability and validity the scales appear to be acceptable, and are independent of the parent's sex. It would appear that mothers are perceived as significantly more caring and slightly more overprotective than fathers, but that those judgements are not influenced by the sex of the child. Overprotection appears to be associated with lack of care. The scales and scoring method are appended. Norms for a general Sydney population are presented, and the possible influence of age, sex and social class examined.
The present study examined the differences in internal and external locus of control and imposter phenomenon among persons
with alcoholic and non-alcoholic parents. The subjects were 48 college students and 21 members of local Adult Children of
Alcoholic groups. The students were further divided into those with alcoholic parents and non-alcoholic parents. The subjects
were administered the following three instruments: the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale for Adults (Nowicki
& Duke, 1973), the Imposter Test (Chance & O’Toole, 1987), and a family history survey. Analysis of locus of control scores
revealed a highly significant (p<.01) difference for externality, with Adult Children being most external and students with
non-alcoholic parents least external. Similarly, internality scores differed significantly (p<.0001), with Adult Children
being least, and the non-alcoholic group being most internally oriented. Analysis of variance for imposter phenomenon revealed
a significant (p<.05) difference among the three groups, with the Adult Children of Alcoholics group having the highest scores
and students with non-alcoholic parents having the lowest. These findings are consistent with the idea that parental alcoholism
interferes with nurturing and consistent reinforcement, and with the development of personal adaptability.
The role of perceived parental rearing style, parental background, self-esteem, mental health and demographic variables upon impostor phenomenon [IP; Psychotherapy: Theory Research and Practice, 15, (1978) 241–247] intensity was investigated using a cross-sectional survey design, with 107 subjects (78 females, 29 males). A regression analysis revealed that both greater degree of perceived parental control and lower levels of self-esteem emerged as significant predictors of impostor fears, together accounting for 50% of the variation in impostor scores. Parental care score, parental educational and occupational level and subject's mental health and demographic information did not show a significant relationship to impostor scores. A post-hoc regression analysis indicated, however, that in addition to parental protection, lower care and poorer mental health was significantly related to increasing levels of impostor scores and with subjects having attended private school reporting lower levels of impostor feelings. In addition, subjects classified as impostors were found to report significantly higher GHQ scores (poorer mental health) than non-impostors. These findings, which are interpreted in terms of parenting styles, indicate that the role of parental overprotection may be especially implicated in impostor fears.
This investigation consists of two studies designed to examine perceived fraudulence, its measurement, and the personality traits associated with the experience in young adults. For Study 1, the Perceived Fraudulence Scale (PFS), a new measure constructed for this study, was administered to a sample of 50 college undergraduates, along with several other self-report measures; a semistructured interview and thought-listing exercise were added to provide convergent assessments of perceived fraudulence. Correlational patterns and regression analyses supported the investigators' conceptualization of perceived fraudulence as involving a combination of fraudulent ideation, depressive tendencies, self-criticism, social anxiety, achievement pressures, and self-monitoring skills. Study 2, in which 100 college undergraduates completed several personality questionnaires, replicated the factor structure of the PFS and provided some evidence for the discriminant validity of the construct of perceived fraudulence.
In the present paper, I critique the use of the retrospective method when it is used as a proxy for actual longitudinal data on personality development. Studies on the constructive nature of memory cast strong doubts about the meaning of retrospective data. There are good reasons, both theoretical and empirical, to distrust the accuracy of such recall concerning parenting, whether recalled by parents, children, or siblings. Instead of using the method as a shortcut to developmental data, studies examining individual differences in accuracy and distortion and the factors that moderate them may inform us of the various meanings of retrospective data.
The purpose of this study was to relate the impostor phenomenon (IP) to the Five-factor model of personality. A sample of 190 college students (79 men, 111 women) completed the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 1985), the Perceived Fradulence Scale (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991), and the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Results of correlational and regression analyses support the predicted relations of imposter measures with high Neuroticism and low Conscientiousness. Facet-level correlations showed that depression and anxiety were particularly important characteristics of those with imposter feelings as well as low self-discipline and perceived competence. Implications for treatment and future research on the IP are discussed.
Personality traits, self-perceptions, beliefs, and feelings that accompany the Imposter Phenomenon (IP) have been identified in adults but little research with adolescents has been reported. The present research describes data from a sample of 11th and 12th graders in order to examine predictors of IP among adolescents. The participants completed measures of the IP, global self-worth, social support and self-concept. Gender differences were found in correlations between IP and Parent Support, Classmate Support, and Teacher Support. Multiple regression analyses found significant predictors of IP scores for females to be Friend Support, Classmate Support and Dependability. Only Friend Support significantly predicted IP scores for males. The unique variance explained (UVE) by each of the variables was fairly modest, suggesting that the variables are explaining a considerable amount of the same portion of the variance, particularly for females.
The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance, 1985) was compared to the newly developed Perceived Fraudulence Scale (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991). The two scales were found to have high internal consistency and to correlate in a similar manner with other measures. Further, discriminant validity evidence for the Impostor Phenomenon (IP) was provided by comparing the CIPS to measures of depression, self-esteem, social anxiety, and self-monitoring. The IP was related to, but substantially discriminable from, these constructs. Finally, construct validity evidence for the CIPS was provided through principal components analysis that yielded three stable factors: Fake, Discount, and Luck.
Impostor phenomenon in an interpersonal/social context: Origins and treatment
- P R Clance
- D Dingman
- S L Reviere
- D R Strober
Clance, P. R., Dingman, D., Reviere, S. L., & Strober, D. R. (1995). Impostor phenomenon
in an interpersonal/social context: Origins and treatment. Women & Therapy, 16,
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