Traditional/Indigenous Vegetables of the Kingdom of Eswatini: Biodiversity and Their Importance: A Review

Abstract

Traditional (indigenous) vegetables of the Kingdom of Eswatini are important for their contribution to human nutrition. They are major sources of vitamins and minerals. They provide fibre which is required for the proper functioning of the human digestive system. Traditional vegetables are important economically however, no assessments have been done in the Kingdom of Eswatini to measure their contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP). A traditional vegetable concern provides employment and thus income, and ensuring food and nutritional security, and hence striving to attain sustainable development goals (SDGs) pertaining to human health, nutrition, food security and biodiversity. Traditional vegetables are infested relatively less by insect pests and diseases. They relatively out compete weeds in terms of resources essential for growth and development. In food, traditional vegetables provide interesting colour, texture and variety. Despite the immense importance of traditional vegetables, they have been neglected and regarded as poor man's food with no research prioritisation. The objective of this study was to explore their present status, prioritize consumer education, explore their importance as climate smart vegetables and to document their contribution to biodiversity.

Full text

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: mike@uniswa.sz;
Journal of Experimental Agriculture International
42(9): 204-215, 2020; Article no.JEAI.60596
ISSN: 2457-0591
(Past name:
American Journal of Experimental Agriculture,
Past ISSN: 2231-0606)
Traditional/Indigenous Vegetables of the Kingdom of
Eswatini: Biodiversity and Their Importance:
A Review
Michael T. Masarirambi
1*
, Kwanele A. Nxumalo
1
, Emmanuel N. Kunene
2
,
Daniel V. Dlamini
3
, Molyn Mpofu
4
, Lokadhia Manwa
4
, Diana M. Earnshaw
5
and Gabriel C. Bwembya
6
1
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Eswatini, P. O. Luyengo,
M205, Eswatini.
2
Eswatini Institute for Research in Traditional Medicine, Medicinal and Indigenous Food Plants,
Eswatini.
3
Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Eswatini, P.O. Luyengo, M205, Eswatini.
4
Department of Consumer Science Education and Community Development, Faculty of Consumer
Sciences, University of Eswatini, P.O. Luyengo, M205, Eswatini.
5
Department of Crop Production, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Eswatini, P.O. Luyengo, M205,
Eswatini
6
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Eswatini, P Bag 4,
Kwaluseni, Eswatini.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/JEAI/2020/v42i930602
Editor(s):
(1)
Dr. Lixiang Cao, Sun Yat-sen University, China.
Reviewers:
(1)
Muhammad Asghar, Pakistan.
(2)
Rama Shankar, Patanjali Research Foundation Trust, India.
(3)
Diabate Dohouonan, Université de Man & Côte d’Ivoire, Côte d’Ivoire.
Complete Peer review History:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/60596
Received 25 June 2020
Accepted 30 August 2020
Published 17 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Traditional (indigenous) vegetables of the Kingdom of Eswatini are important for their contribution
to human nutrition. They are major sources of vitamins and minerals. They provide fibre which is
required for the proper functioning of the human digestive system. Traditional vegetables are
Original Research Article

Masarirambi et al.; JEAI, 42(9): 204-215, 2020; Article no.JEAI.60596
205
important economically however, no assessments have been done in the Kingdom of Eswatini to
measure their contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP). A traditional vegetable concern
provides employment and thus income, and ensuring food and nutritional security, and hence
striving to attain sustainable development goals (SDGs) pertaining to human health, nutrition, food
security and biodiversity. Traditional vegetables are infested relatively less by insect pests and
diseases. They relatively out compete weeds in terms of resources essential for growth and
development. In food, traditional vegetables provide interesting colour, texture and variety. Despite
the immense importance of traditional vegetables, they have been neglected and regarded as poor
man's food with no research prioritisation. The objective of this study was to explore their present
status, prioritize consumer education, explore their importance as climate smart vegetables and to
document their contribution to biodiversity.
Keywords: Traditional vegetables; food security; climate smart; pests and diseases; biodiversity.
1. INTRODUCTION
A vegetable is a plant or plant part eaten either
raw or cooked as a side dish accompanying the
main staple like thick porridge or rice. An
indigenous vegetable is one that originated from
a particular area while a traditional vegetable is
one that has been utilised since time immemorial
or persistent prehistoric times from one
generation to another [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11].
Traditional vegetables in a way have indigenized
overtime. Traditional vegetables have been
utilised by indigenous people for generations
through local indigenous knowledge systems
(LINKS). They have been reported to be
relatively high in micronutrients however, through
urbanization and modernization their use has
been decreasing. On the other hand, they have
been neglected in terms of research education
and extension. In fact, in some circles traditional
vegetables are regarded as a poor man's food
yet they are very important from a nutritional and
food security point of view. In the Kingdom of
Eswatini, they are important socially from a
cultural point of view. Traditional vegetables are
important in a biodiversity nexus. Climate change
brought about by global warming due to
greenhouse gases poses a great threat to
biodiversity [12,8]. Traditional vegetables are
potentially not safe from this threat. The diversity
of indigenous leaf vegetables and fruits of Africa
is being seriously eroded as a result of
multiplicity of environmental, political and socio-
economic factors [12]. They are therefore,
endangered species which face possible
extinction. There is therefore urgent need to
preserve traditional vegetables. The purpose of
this study was to explore various environmentally
friendly means possible to conserve traditional
vegetables in the Kingdom of Eswatini in
southern Africa and to educate consumers about
their health benefits and to promote experimental
trials to promote their improvement.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study was a qualitative study. The study
was carried out in the Kingdom of Eswatini
(formerly Swaziland) which is a member of the
Southern African Development Community
(SADC) and is comprised of four agro-ecological
zones (Fig. 1). The four agro-ecological zones
are the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld and the
Lubombo plateau.
The country is located in south eastern Africa
between latitudes 25
o
43’ and 27
o
19’ S and
longitudes 30
o
47’ and 32
o
08’ [13]. Eswatini
covers an area of about 17, 364 km
2.
It is a land
locked country surrounded on the north, west
and south by South Africa and to the east shares
a border with Mozambique. Information was
sought through existing literature review and
informal surveys in the country's four agro-
ecological zones.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
There are various traditional vegetables found
and utilised in the Kingdom of Eswatini, some are
traditional leafy vegetables (TLV) [Table 1], while
others are traditional root vegetables (Table 2).
Traditional fruit/seed vegetables are also
consumed in the country (Table 3). Traditional
vegetables are found growing in farmers’ field or
in the wild mostly during the rainy season from
November to April, and they are highly valued
culturally in Eswatini.
3.1 Economic Importance
Traditional vegetables like their counterparts,
conventional vegetables, are important
economically [14,15]. The people involved in
their growing, harvesting, post-harvest handling
and processing get employed and subsequently

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206
secure income. Jobs are created in the traditional
vegetable industry. Therefore, the traditional
vegetable industry contributes to the GDP
although the statistics are not available due to
their negligence in the commercial agricultural
industry. Traditional vegetables were simply
regarded as weeds and not even allowed to be
sold in the formal market like supermarket
chains. The National Agricultural marketing
board (NAMboard), the national horticultural
produce regulator, does not have statistics on
traditional vegetables despite their immense
importance. There is urgent need for the
agricultural marketing board to recognise and
embrace the traditional vegetable industry which
has an immense potential. Traditional vegetables
are not only important economically but are
important culturally. Culture is pivotal to the
Eswatini society.
3.2 Traditional Leafy Vegetables
Several leafy vegetables are found in the four
agro-ecological zones of Eswatini (Table 1). As
far as traditional leafy vegetables are concerned,
the parts used are tender leaves, flowers and
tender stems.
Fig. 1. Ecological zones of the Kingdom of Eswatini

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Table 1. Common traditional leafy vegetables found and consumed in Eswatini
Common name
Scientific name
SiSwati name
Parts used
Pigweed/amaranth Amaranthus hybridus Imbuya Leaves and shoots
Juke/Jews mallow Corchorus spp Ligusha Leaves and shoots
Black jack Bidens pilosa Chuchuza Leaves and shoots s
Black nightshade Solanum nigrum Umsobo Leaves and shoots s
Pumpkin Cucurbita maxima Tintsanga Leaves and shoots
Cats whiskers/spider
flower
Cleome gynandra Ulude Leaves and shoots
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas Bhatata Leaves and shoots
Bitter gourd Mormodica involucrata Inkhakha Leaves and shoots
Bitter gourd Mormodica clementidae Inshubaba Leaves and shoots
Cassava Manihot esculenta Umjumbula Leaves and shoots
Cowpea Vigna unguiculate Tinhlumaya Leaves and shoots
Common Sowthistle Sonchus oleraceus Ingabe Leaves and shoots
Cartwheels Asclepias affinis Umdzayi Leaves
Wild Lettuce Lactuca inermis Lihabe Leaves, stem and flower
Climbing Raisin Grewia caffra Liklolo Leaves
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Silele Leaves and shoots
Wood Sorrel Oxalis davyana Simunyane Leaves
Anise Root Annesorhiza flagellifolia Sibhadze Leaves, fruit and roots
Wild Purslane Portulaca quadrifidia Emahenjana Leaves
River Nettle Laportea peduncularis Lubati Leaves
Lamb’s Quarters Chenopodium album Imbilikicane Leaves
Adder’s Tongue Ophioglossum
lusoafricanum
Sankunshane Leaves
Wild Onion Tulbaghia alliacea Negoje Leaves and stems
Morning Glory Plant Ipomoea obscura Umdzandzabuka Leaves
Wild Cucumber Cucumis zeyheri Indzema Leaves
Source: Authors
The traditional leafy vegetables are traditionally
gathered by women and children from farmers’
fields, near domestic animal dwellings and from
the wild [16,3,17,18,19,20,21]. There has been
an increased movement towards cultivation of
traditional leafy vegetables by indigenous
farmers. The vegetables are handled and stored
briefly before being marketed in informal markets
in the four agro-ecological zones of the country.
Excess and un-marketed traditional leafy
vegetables are often processed for later use
mainly during the dry season.
3.3 Traditional Root Vegetables
Many traditional root vegetables are grown or
harvested from the wild in the four agro-
ecological zones (Table 2).
3.4 Traditional Fruit Vegetables
Many traditional fruit vegetables are grown or
harvested in the four agricultural zones of
Eswatini (Table 3).
3.5 Maturity Indices
Several maturity indices are used to assess
when a particular vegetable is ready for harvest.
The definition of maturity, as the stage of
development giving minimum acceptable quality
to the ultimate consumer, implies a measurable
point in the commodity’s development and the
need for techniques to measure maturity [22] The
maturity indices used are mostly subjective. For
traditional vegetables size, colour and turgidity
are widely used maturity indices to determine
when to harvest a particular vegetable. For
traditional root vegetables, cracking of the soil
surface where the root vegetable will be growing
has traditionally been used as a maturity index.
In most cases the soil is dug with a hoe so that
samples of the root or tuber are obtained so as to
assess if the given vegetable species is ready for
harvest.
3.6 Crop Protection
Traditional vegetables need to be protected from
insect pests, diseases and weed infestation

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when grown like conventional vegetables [23]. It
is important to minimize the use of pesticides
(insecticides, bactericides, fungicides and
herbicides). Integrated pest management (IPM)
may be the way to go or where organic
production is desired, biological control may be a
panacea [24]. Reduced use of pesticides is
important [8] as countries strive to achieve SDGs
pertaining to planet earth. It is important to note
that in the wild where they grow naturally, they
are relative less infested by insect pests and
diseases. It is recommended to harvest
vegetables which are free from insect damage
and free from disease.
3.7 Utilisation
After harvest the traditional leafy vegetables are
soaked in clean water and washed in preparation
for fresh cooking [25,26,27,28]. The traditional
leafy vegetables are chopped into small pieces
then boiled. To flavour traditional vegetables,
fried onions and tomatoes are added. These
days various soup thickeners are also added. In
cooking of ligusha, pumpkin leaves and other
vegetables traditionally maize cob material, or
wood ash may be used to soften the vegetable in
the cooking process. In modern days Eswatini,
sodium bicarbonate is used in place of the wood
ash.
3.8 Processing
Traditional vegetables are in abundance during
the rainy season. The traditional leafy vegetables
are the ones usually processed. In Eswatini, the
oldest method of processing vegetable is drying.
The vegetables are sun-dried [29,30,31,32,8,33].
Table 2. Common traditional root vegetables found and consumed in Eswatini
Common name
Scientific name
SiSwati name
Parts used
Taro/coco yan Colocasia esculentum Emadumbe Tubers
Livingstone potato Coleus esculentus Umhlata Tubers
Zulu round potato Solenostemon
rotundifolius
Ematabhane Tubers
Cassava Manihot esculenta Umjumbula Tubers
Common Soap Aloe Aloe maculata Emahala Bulbs
Red Milkwort Schizoglossum
atropurpureum
Lishongwe Roots
Wild Garlic Tulbaghia acutiloba Lisela Rhizomes
Sweet potato
Impomoea batatas
Bhatata
Tubers
Scented Wild Garlic Tulbaghia ludwigiana Sikhwa Rhizomes
Speargrass Imperata cylindrica Umtsentse Roots
Wooden Rose Creeper Ipomoea albivenia Umgwiligwili Tubers
Leafy-flowered Ipomoea Ipomoea crassipes Vimbukhalo Roots
Wild Cucumber Coccinia rehmannii Tjwalabetinyoni Tubers
Source: Authors
Table 3. Common traditional fruit vegetables found and consumed in Eswatini
Common name
Scientific name
SiSwati name
Parts used
Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranean Tindlubu seeds
Cowpea Vigna unguiculate Tinhlumaya Seeds
Pumpkin Cucurbita maxima Tintsanga Seeds and fruit
Squash Eugenia natalitia Emaselwa Fruit (Immature)
Caustic Vine Sarcostemma viminale Liphoti Fruits
Tree Strawberry Cephalanthus natalensis Umfomfo Flowers and fruits
Wild Senna Senna italica Imphengu Seeds
Cherry tomato Solanum esculentum Tamatisi Fruit
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus Mandandwe Fruits (Pods)
Bitter melon/Cattle melon Cucumis myriocarpus Lijoti Fruit
Water melon Citrullus lanatus Lihwapha Fruit
Source: Authors

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The sun dried vegetable product is generally
known as umfuso in Siswati. Sun dried vegetable
face challenges like contamination with dust,
pesticides, insects and other extraneous
material. As a solution to possible contamination
challenges, the use of solar dryers is advocated.
In solar dryers, environmental conditions are
controlled and a clean processed product is
guaranteed. Drying leads to loss of nutrients.
Other processing methods can be explored.
Previous indigenous post-harvest processing of
traditional vegetables has been reported [8]. This
can now be revisited. Processing using heat and
chemicals can also be explored. The greatest
potential of processing in terms of nutrient
retention is minimal processing and freezing.
Retention of nutrients after processing is of
paramount importance when human nutrition and
health are considered.
3.9 Nutritional Issues
Nutritional values of some common Eswatini
foods, which included traditional vegetables,
were previously determined at the University of
Eswatini (Table 4) [34].
The greatest contribution of vegetables is to
human nutrition and subsequent good health.
Traditional vegetables have been reported to be
relatively more nutritious than conventional exotic
vegetables (Table 5).
Traditional vegetables are not good sources of
carbohydrates except for the traditional root
vegetables like cassava, sweet potato, taro
among others. Traditional vegetables do not
have ample amounts of fats or oils except for the
seed vegetables like cowpea and pumpkin
seeds. The good thing about vegetable oils is
that they are rich in unsaturated oils like oleic
acid and linolenic acid which are good for the
heart and vascular system. Unlike animal fat,
they do not block consumer’s blood vessels.
Traditional vegetables are not good sources of
protein however, they supply men with eight
essential amino acids that man and animals
cannot synthesise. The essential amino acids are
by far the greatest contribution of traditional
vegetables to human nutrition in the provision of
vitamins, both water soluble and fat soluble
(Table 5). Traditional vegetables provide
minerals which are important to human nutrition
and health. The minerals include calcium which
is important for strong teeth and bones. Iron is an
important component of haemoglobin of the red
blood cells.
3.10 Roughage
Traditional vegetables play an important role in
the provision of roughage to human food
[29,30,32,8]. Roughage is crucial for the proper
functioning of the human digestive system. When
the human digestive system functions properly,
constipation and possible subsequent colon
cancer is prevented.
3.11 Medicinal Properties
Traditional vegetables have medicinal properties
in that they generally boost the human immune
system by provision of vitamins and other
phytochemicals [2,32,35]. Jute is known to
contain anticancer phytochemicals. Mormodica
species are known to alleviate symptoms of
diabetes and high blood pressure which causes
hypertension disease [2]. Traditional vegetables
have positive benefits for the human reproductive
system such as gametes manufacture and
promotion of libido.
Table 4. Nutritional values of vitamin A, iron, calcium and zinc for Swazi foods. Source: [34]
Foodstuff
Composition/100 g sample
Vitamin A
[g]
Iron
[mg]
Calcium
[mg]
Zinc
[mg]
Corchorius olitorus 959.0  27.7 28.8  0.5 50.9  2.3 6.9  0.4
Momordica involucrate 1194.0  30.9 19.0  1.0 1024.2  119.7 6.2  0.2
Amaranthus spinosus 215.9  11.0 41.0  1.2 2683.3  55.2 11.6  0.6
Bidens pilosa 1113.6  14.0 19.0  0.8 68.0  1.2 7.1  0.5
Solanum nigrum 26.8  4.6 19.0  0.6 161.8  1.8 10.6  0.3
Vigna unguiculata 1.6  0.3 11.0  1.1 136.7  3.9 8.9  0.2
Vigna subterranean 0.6  0.2 7.0  0.8 36.0  1.9 8.6  0.3
Cucurbitea moschata
25.3  1.2
4.2  0.6
58.0  3.1
2.6  0.2
Phaseolus vulgaris
22.0  2.1
1.8  0.3
30.6  2.1
ND
Persea Americana 101.9  3.2 3.6  0.5 22.7  3.0 ND
ND= Not done

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Table 5. Comparison of the nutritional content of five African traditional vegetables and cabbage
Amaranth
Spider plant
Cleome gynandra
Cowpea
Vigna inguiculata
Jute/ Jews
Mallow Corchorus
alitorius
Pumpkin leaves
Cucurbita maxima
Cabbage
Brassica oleracea
var capitata
Iron (mg) 8.9 6.0 3.9 6.3 15.9 0.7
Protein (g) 4.6 4.8 4.1 5.2 4.2 1.7
Moisture (%) 84.0 86.6 87.6 81.0 87.3 91.4
Calories 42 34 26
Carbohydrates (g) 8.2 5.2 6.8 10.3 5.0 6.0
Fibre (g) 1.8 1.2
Ascorbic acids/ Vit C (mg) 64 13 54
Calcium (mg) 410 288 221.1 548.5 382.9 47
Phosphorus (mg) 103 111 80.1 136.4 119.2 40
B-carotene/ Vit A (mg) 5716 2249.35 3662.99 1694.55 100
Thiamine 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.12 0.04
Riboflavin 0.42 0.1
Folic acid (mg/100g) 122 107 90
Source: www.hsrc.ac/en/research-data/view 4688

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3.12 Nutritional Security and Education
Attainment of nutritional security at the
household level is very important for healthy
communities [36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43] as
enshrined in the SDGs pertaining to human
health. It all starts with consumer education.
Education on the benefits of consumption of
traditional vegetables from primary level up to
tertiary education. Traditional vegetables have
been found to be relatively more nutritious than
exotic vegetables (Table 4 and 5). Therefore, it is
crucial to educate consumers about the
nutritional importance of traditional vegetables in
the Kingdom of Eswatini. In fact, traditionalists
have called for the promotion of traditional
vegetables in the country. The Kingdom of
Eswatini is rich in culture like the Amarula
Festival [44]. This culture is not complete when
traditional vegetables are not put in the matrix.
3.13 Food Security
Food security is crucial in communities
[45,46,47]. Traditional vegetables are a very
important component of food security not only in
Eswatini but in the whole of SADC. In the rainy
season when they are relatively abundant, they
are widely consumed by resource poor farmers
in the rural areas. They are consumed as side
dishes with the staple thick maize porridge
(locally known as liphalishi) being the only source
of relish. Apart from consumption with the staple
food they are also sold in urban and peri-urban
areas and thus provide income. Income from the
sale of traditional vegetables can be used to
boost food security.
3.14 Potential Commercialization
All vegetables consumed in the world today were
once wild in certain parts of the world before they
were domesticated and commercialized.
Therefore, there is great potential of
domestication and commercialization of
traditional vegetables [48] in Eswatini. They can
be grown on a commercial scale like the exotic
vegetables, for example cabbage and lettuce.
They can be harvested systematically using
mainstream post-harvest maturity indices.
Appropriate packages may be used in the value
addition processing chain. They can be
introduced in commercial markets like
supermarket chain stores, for example Pick n
Pay, Spar and Shoprite (OK bazars) found in the
country and in the region (SADC).
3.15 Recent Research Revisited
There is dearth of information pertaining to
research on traditional vegetables in the
Kingdom of Eswatini. Some research has
previously been done in the country
[49,50,51,52]. Elsewhere research on traditional
vegetables has been done [53,54,55]. Relatively,
very recent research has been done on
traditional vegetables in the country [56,57,
58,59].
3.16 Future Perspectives
There is urgent need to place traditional
vegetables into mainstream experimental
agriculture. There is need to develop new
traditional vegetable varieties, appropriate
technologies for commercial production and use
of biotechnology in crop improvement.
Development of integrated pest and disease
management pertaining to traditional vegetables
is necessary. There is need to develop
greenhouse technologies like hydroponics
production in order to facilitate all year-round
availability of traditional vegetables in the
country. There is need for research in irrigation
and water conservation, organic farming and
nutrition management in traditional vegetable
production. The use of modern technologies like
1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) to extend the
shelf life of traditional vegetables is desirables
[60,61,62]. There is need for consumer
education on the health benefits of traditional
vegetables and their contribution to biodiversity.
Economic contribution to the country's
GDP needs to be assessed as a matter of
urgency. There is also need for envisioning
regenerative and nourishing food features for
2050 [63].
4. CONCLUSION
Various traditional vegetables are found and
consumed in the four agro ecological zones of
the Kingdom of Eswatini. The traditional leafy
vegetables are mostly available in the rainy
season while the traditional root vegetables are
available in the cool dry season. Traditional
vegetables are relatively more nutritious than
exotic vegetables, and they are important
culturally. Traditional vegetables have been
reported to have medicinal properties of
immense benefit to human health. They have
great potential of commercialization and

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forming part of the indigenous diets to attract
tourists.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
There is urgent need to prioritise research,
education and extension pertaining to traditional
vegetables in Eswatini. The Department of
Agricultural Research and Specialist Services
(DARSS) should not only keep traditional
vegetables in its gene banks but needs to carry
out trials to determine optimum production
methods in the country’s four agro-ecological
zones. There is need to educate communities
and policymakers on the importance of traditional
vegetables nutritionally, culturally and from a
biodiversity point of view in this era of climate
change.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
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