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Saffron
Potential Health Benefits
Keith Singletary, PhD
Saffron is derived from a specific portion of the flowers of
Crocus sativus L. and is one of the most expensive spices in
the world. Besides its use in Mediterranean, Middle Eastern,
and South Asian cuisines, it also has been a part of Ayurve-
dic and Persian traditional healing strategies for thousands
of years. Recently, human studies have emerged examining
the capacity of saffron or its individual bioactive phytochem-
icals to ameliorate conditions and symptoms related to, for
example, depression, neurodegenerative conditions, and
symptoms of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This narra-
tive review presents a summary of human studies assessing
these and other potential health benefits of saffron supple-
mentation and highlights issues for future research. Nutr
Today. 2020;55(6):294–303
Saffron is one of the most expensive culinary herbs
and has numerous uses as a preservative, coloring
agent, food ingredient, pharmaceutical, and tradi-
tional medicine. It is derived from the dried stigmas of the
flowering perennial plant Crocus sativus L. (family Iridaceae)
that for centuries has been cultivated under specific climactic
conditions in Iran, India, and southern Europe (Figure 1). The
high cost of this spice is driven largely by the exceptionally
labor-intensive and meticulous harvesting procedures. Accord-
ing to some estimates, 225 000 stigmas from 75 000 blossoms
may be needed to produce 1 lb of saffron.
1,2
It is not surpris-
ing therefore that alternative cultivation, processing, and
harvesting procedures are being considered.
2–6
Saffron en-
riches several popular regional dishes such as paella in
Spain, pulao rice in India, and khoreshes (stew dishes) in
Iran and is included in a diverse array of meat, seafood, rice,
and dessert recipes. For example, saffron is a key flavoring
in French bouillabaisse, Iranian steamed saffron rice with
tahdig (chelo ba tahdig), Persian almond cake with rose wa-
ter,andIndianfrieddoughwithsaffronsyrup(Jalebi).More
than 100 biologically active compounds have been identified
in saffron, with crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal
being major bioactives (Figure 2). To date, a variety of bio-
logical properties have been associated with these phyto-
chemicals, including antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and
antidepressant and hypolipidemic actions, mediated in part
by modulating several intracellular signaling and regulatory
pathways. Both picrocrocin and the more water-soluble
crocin are derived from the xanthophyll zeaxanthin. The
diterpenoid crocetin (8,8′-diapo-8,8′-carotene-dioic acid) is
formed after deglycosylation of crocin. There are at least 6
forms of crocin, with the digentobiose ester of crocetin being
the principal form in most extracts. Safranal (2,6,6-trimethyl-
1,3-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a degradation
product of picrocin. Saffron's rich red color is attributed to
crocetin esters; its bitter taste, to picrocrocin; and its distinctive
aroma, to safranal.
3,5–8
Its ancient uses in traditional Ayurve-
dic and Persian remedies include treatment of gastrointestinal
and genitourinary distress, asthma and respiratory conges-
tion, fever, and pain, as well as for mental and eye diseases,
to name a few.
1,9–13
For the past 2 decades, there has been
a steady increase in preclinical and clinical reports examining
the effects of saffron, its extracts, and individual phytochemi-
cals as potential treatments of a diverse array of health issues,
including cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, psycholog-
ical and behavioral disorders, neurodegenerative conditions,
reproductive tract dysfunction, and ocular diseases.
3,6
This
narrative review gathers published information on saffron's
possible beneficial effects and provides a focused summary
on future research directions to better characterize and assess
potential emerging health benefits.
METHODS
Studies providing evidence for potential health benefits of
foods, ingredients, and plant constituents gather data from
Keith W. Singletary, PhD, is professor emeritus of nutrition in the De-
partment of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the University of
Illinois. From 2001 to 2004, he was the director of the Functional Foods
for Health Program, at the Chicago and Urbana-Champaign campuses
of the University of Illinois. Dr Singletary received bachelor and master's de-
grees in microbiology from Michigan State University and his PhD in nutri-
tional sciences from the University of Illinois. Dr Singletary's primary
research interests include molecular carcinogenesis and the potential use
of natural products in cancer chemoprevention. Dr Singletary currently re-
sides in Florida.
Funding for the preparation of this article was provided by McCormick
and Co.
The author has no conflicts of interest to disclose.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives License 4.0 (CCBY-
NC-ND), where it is permissible to download and share the work provided
it is properly cited. The work cannot be changed in any way or used
commercially without permission from the journal.
Correspondence: Keith Singletary, PhD, Department of Food Science
and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 905
South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL (kws@illinois.edu).
Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc.
DOI: 10.1097/NT.0000000000000449
Food Science
294 Nutrition Today
®
Volume 55, Number 6, November/December 2020
a variety of scientific methods such as cell culture experiments,
animal studies, and human clinical trials. Human studies are
particularly important in determining public health recom-
mendations, especially those randomized controlled trials
testing well-characterized treatments and applying appro-
priate statistical analyses. With this in mind, a search of the
PubMed and Science Direct databases was conducted using
terms that included C. sativus, saffron, crocin, crocetin,
picrocrocin, and safranal. Full reports of English-language
publications and English-language abstracts of foreign-
language articles from peer-reviewed journals were the
primary sources of information. Although the quality of
identified studies varied considerably, all published inves-
tigations were included in this overview so that the totality
and diversity of information can be described and issues
for future research can be identified. Additional informa-
tion was gleanedfrom bibliographies withinthese sources.
Studies of saffron as a component within multi-ingredient
preparations were not included in this overview.
RESULTS
Bioavailability
The amount and form of a food ingredient or phytochemical
that is consumed, and absorbed and distributed throughout
the body in the circulation can differ substantially from the
dose and form ultimately accessible to tissues and organs of
the body. This terminal biological availability or disposition
determines in part the local effective dose and is an important
factor in understanding the physical response or lack thereof
of a food component.
On the basis of animal studies, oral intake of crocin re-
sults in its deglycosylation to crocetinby enzymes in the in-
testinal epithelium where it is rapidly absorbed by passive
transcellular diffusion. After glucuronidation in the in-
testine and liver, crocetin appears in the circulation as
monoglucuronides and diglucuronides.
12,14–17
Information
on the bioavailability of saffron and its bioactive constit-
uents in humans is limited. For example, in 1 study,
18
healthy human volunteers were given a commercial saf-
fron extract (affron) at 2 doses (56 and 84 mg). The com-
position of this extract (% dry weight basis) was 3.63%
total crocins, 3.21% picrocrocin, 0.03% crocetin, and 0.04%
safranal. The mean time for crocetin to reach maximum
plasma concentration (T
max
) was 60 and 90 minutes, and
the mean maximum plasma concentration (C
max
)was
0.26 and 0.39 μg/mL, for the 56- and 84-mg doses, respec-
tively. However, crocins, picrocrocin, and safranal were
not detected in plasma in this study. In another study,
Chryssanthi et al
19
provided 4 human subjects with a cup
of saffron tea made from 200-mg dried stigmas. By 2 hours,
postconsumption plasma levels of crocetin were 1.24 to
3.67 μM. Crocetin also was examined in healthy adults
20
administered with 3 different doses of 7.5, 15, and 22.5 mg.
Crocetin was rapidly absorbed with a T
max
of 4.0 to 4.8 hours,
which is substantially faster than such values reported for
the C40 carotenoids such as carotene, lutein, or lycopene.
The C
max
increased in a dose-dependent manner between
100.9 and 297.7 ng/mL and was no longer detected by
24 hours. In future studies, the dose-dependent disposi-
tion of saffron and its constituents in target tissues and
FIGURE 1. Saffron flowers, stigmas, and powder.
Volume 55, Number 6, November/December 2020 Nutrition Today
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295
the identity of key metabolites there need to be further
characterized.
Potential Health Benefits
The potential health benefits reported for saffron are
summarized in the Table. Considered collectively, the
quality of these human studies is not consistently high,
often due, for example, to design flaws, inadequate controls,
and limited statistical analyses. In addition, the amounts of
active components within different saffron samples are not
consistently known, which can hamper comparison of
clinical effects among trials. Unless specifically noted, the
term saffron treatment in the text refers to C. sativus stigma
powder or stigma extract (usually ethanolic or aqueous)
administered in supplemental form. Similarly, individual
constituents such as crocin or crocetin are provided as
supplements.
Psychological, Behavioral, and Neurological Effects
Saffron and major constituents were investigated as a treat-
ment of depression in nearly 2 dozen human trials. Most
trials provided 30 mg/d of a stigma extract (some as propri-
etary products such as SaffroMood, Satiereal, or affron stan-
dardized to specific crocin or safranal content). Treatment
durations were 4 to 12 weeks. One study provided crocin
alone. For patients with mild to moderate depression,
saffron significantly reduced the severity of symptoms,
compared with placebo.
21–25,27,28,39–41
Of note, 1 trial
41
ad-
ministered an extract of C. sativus petals and observed sig-
nificant improvement, compared with controls. Because
crocin is largely absent from petal extracts, this suggests that
portions of the C. sativus plant other than stigmas may be a
source of bioactive and possibly less expensive compounds.
Ten trials compared saffron with medications typically pre-
scribed to treat depression including the selective serotonin
FIGURE 2. Structures of saffron bioactive constituents.
296 Nutrition Today
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Volume 55, Number 6, November/December 2020
reuptake inhibitors sertraline, fluoxetine, and citalopram,
and the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine.
29–38
Saffron's ef-
fect on these patients was not statistically different than
those responses due to the medications, indicating that saf-
fron improved symptoms in a comparable way with these
antidepressant drugs.
Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses conclude
that saffron is significantly more effective than placebo in
reducing the severity of depression and exhibits similar or
equal efficacy to antidepressants.
69–74
Moreover, there
were no significant differences in adverse events between
saffron and placebo among the trials. The most commonly
reported adverse events were headache, nausea, appetite
changes, anxiety dry mouth, drowsiness, and constipation.
Although these findings from clinical trials are promising,
several methodological concerns were raised in these anal-
yses that illustrate possible reasons for any inconsistencies
in outcomes reported and why better future trials are war-
ranted. Doses administered differed by 45-fold among trials,
durations of treatments varied by 3-fold, and generally, sample
TABLE Summary of Potential Health Benefits of Saffron in Humans
Health Issue of Patients
Saffron Samples
(Doses and Durations) Outcomes Refs.
Depression Stigma extract (28–30 mg/d; 6–12 wk)
Stigma powder (100 mg/d; 12 wk) or
crocin (30 mg/d; 8 wk)
Petal extract (30 mg/d; 6 wk)
Improved: depression symptoms
Similar efficacy vs antidepressant medications
Improved: depression symptoms
Improved: depression symptoms
21–28
29–38
39,40
41
Learning/memory disorder Stigma powder
Petal extract (30 mg/d; 3 wk)
Inconsistent outcomes: alertness, memory
Improved: short-term (but not long-term)
memory
42
43
Alzheimer's disease Stigma extract (30 mg/d; 4–12 mo) Improved: cognitive function
Similar or equal efficacy vs
cognition-enhancing medications
44
45,46
Amnesic mild cognitive
impairment
Stigma powder (12 mo) Inconsistent outcomes: cognitive function,
behavior, daily living activities duties
47
Type 2 diabetes mellitus and
prediabetes
Stigma powder (100–1000 mg/d;
8–12 wk)
Stigma extract (15–30 mg/d; 8–12 wk)
Crocin (15 mg/d; 3 mo)
Inconsistent effect: FBG, serum lipid profile, BP
No effect: SI, IR, HbA
1C
, anthropometric
measures, serum liver enzymes, serum
cytokines
Decreased: FBG
Inconsistent effect: lipid profile, HbA
1C
No effect: SI, IR, BP, BMI, cytokines,
liver enzymes
Decreased: FBG, HbA
1C
No effect: lipid profile, liver enzymes
48–52
53–57
58
Metabolic syndrome Stigma powder (100 mg/d; 12 wk)
Crocin (30–60 mg/d; 6–8wk)
Inconsistent effect: FBG, lipid profile
Decreased: serum HSP27 antibody, serum PAB
Increased: serum leptin
No effect: BP, serum cytokines
Decreased: PAB
No effect: CRP, HSP27 antibody, FBG, lipid
profile, BP, BMI
59–62
63–65
Cardiovascular disease Stigma extract (30 mg/d; 8 wk)
Crocin (30 mg/d; 8 wk)
Crocetin (10 mg/d; 8 wk)
Decreased: BMI, WC, serum oxLDL
No effect: FBG, lipid profile
Decreased: oxLDL
Decreased: BMI, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, MCP-1
Increased: HDL
No effect: other blood lipids, FBG, BP
66,67
67
68
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; CRP, C-reactive protein; FBG, fasting blood glucose; HbA
1C
, glycated hemoglobin; HDL,
high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HSP, heat shock protein; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; IR, insulin resistance; MCP, monocyte
chemoattractant protein; oxLDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; PAB, prooxidant-antioxidant balance; SI, serum insulin;VCAM, vascular
cell adhesion molecule; WC, waist circumference.
Volume 55, Number 6, November/December 2020 Nutrition Today
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size was small (averaging 21 for controls and 24 for interven-
tions). Of interest is that 1 meta-analysis examined patients'
responses to saffron depending on the specific mental health
test or measurement used. Saffron exposure significantly
improved scores when certain tests were used (Beck De-
pression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory) but not
others (Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and Hamilton
Anxiety Rating Scale), suggesting that measurement test
content or quality may affect trial outcomes. The authors col-
lectively recommend numerous specific changes in trials
including larger, randomized, well-controlled designs; tests
of multiple doses (to determine optimal dose-response
range) of standardized saffron extracts for a longer dura-
tion of treatment; and additional analyses to determine
gender- and age-specific efficacy. Whether saffron is effec-
tive as an add-on to antidepressant treatment needs more
study. There is evidence that saffron dosing can reduce
anxiety symptoms in adults and youths,
22
and possibly
learning and memory shortcomings,
42,43
suggesting that
additional examination of saffron intervention on other
mood disorders and cognitive deficits in a broader age
range of subjects is warranted. Future studies also should
provide clear and consistent classification of subjects' base-
line conditions. Moreover, trials need to be conducted in
diverse global populations because most studies to date
originated in Iran and India. To better characterize potential
mechanisms of action, additional quantitation of inflammatory,
neurochemical, endocrine, and oxidative stress biomarkers in
subjects is needed.
75
In light of the current evidence, guidelines
from the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments
regarding use of complementary and alternative medicine
treatments recommend that saffron not be considered as a
first- or second-line treatment of depression.
76
Mechanisms by which saffron may alleviate symptoms
of human depression and cognitive deficits are poorly un-
derstood. On the basis primarily of preclinical experiments,
potential actions include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
effects, modulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis
and serotonergic processes, and neuroprotective actions.
75,77
In other recent reviews, oral intake of saffron was
shown to improve cognitive function and functional status
(community and home life, and personal care duties) for
subjects with neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's
disease (AD) and amnesic mild cognitive impairment
(MCI), which is suspected of being an early stage in neuro-
degenerative progression to dementia. Saffron was supe-
rior to placebo and demonstrated similar efficacy to anti-
AD medications such as donepezil and memantine.
78,79
Human studies have not yet clearly established the
mechanisms underlying saffron's neurological actions toward
neurodegenerative disorders. It is known in humans that the
prescribed medications memantine and donepezil can inhibit
acetylcholinesterase and antagonize N-methyl-D-aspartate ac-
tion. On the basis of animal models of AD and Parkinson's
disease, other possible mechanisms may include suppressing
reactive oxygen and nitrogen radical generation, lowering in-
flammation, lessening cellular apoptosis in specific brain re-
gions, altering cholinergic transmission, and inhibiting the
deposition and enhancing the removal of β-amyloid fibrils
in the brain.
80–83
Effects on Lipid and Glucose Dysregulation
More than 20 human trials during the past decade assessed
saffron's effect on subjects exhibiting risk factors for CVD,
type 2 diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome (MetS).
Doses of samples differed among studies. For extracts,
amounts given varied from 15 to 30 mg/d; for stigma pow-
der, from 100 mg/d to 1 g/d; and for crocin and crocetin,
from 15 to 30 mg/d. Most saffron treatments were given
as tablets, with the exception of 2 trials in which the pow-
der was incorporated into black tea.
48,49
The trials provided
saffron interventions for periods lasting 6 to 12 weeks.
Inconsistent improvements in fasting blood glucose
(FBG) were reported, with 6 of 14 CVD and MetS trials ob-
serving lower FBG in those provided saffron, compared
with controls. When it was measured, % HbA
1C
value was
unchanged in 4 of 5 trials. Improvement in dyslipidemia
was inconsistent as well. In 7 of 15 trials, an improvement
in at least 1 blood lipid measurement was reported, al-
though there was considerable heterogeneity when individ-
ual changes in total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol, or high-density lipoprotein choles-
terol levels were assessed. Similarly, inconsistent outcomes
were reported in trials examining blood pressure and re-
nal and liver function. Only 3 of 12 studies detected
saffron-associated decreases in body mass index, body
weight, or waist circumference, compared with placebo.
These studies, however, were consistent in showing no
significant difference in adverse events between saffron
treatment and controls.
Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses reached
disparate conclusions about the effect of saffron intake on
blood glucose and lipid regulation, and anthropometric
measures.
84–89
It is notable that the subjects' disease status
in trials selected for examination by these systematic re-
views and meta-analyses differed. For example, whereas 1
meta-analysis selected trials with subjects with type 2 diabe-
tes mellitus and MetS, another meta-analysis chose trials
for review with subjects exhibiting diverse conditions
such as diabetes, coronary artery disease, schizophrenia,
depression, and normal health. It was suggested that
disease-specific factors may possibly contribute to outcome
variability among these reviews. Thus, it is recommended
that patients with more homogeneous stages of disease be
the focus of reviews. In the case of evaluating the effect of
saffron on blood lipid regulation, dyslipidemic patients
should be selected. In addition, a subgroup analysis of FBG
changes showed significant saffron-associated improvement
298 Nutrition Today
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Volume 55, Number 6, November/December 2020
in trials in which treatment duration was at least 12 weeks.
85
Other issues contributing to inconsistencies in outcomes
among trials were identified as small sample sizes, variable
trial methodologies, diverse saffron materials tested, and
inconsistent measurement of other factors that influence
glucose and lipid homeostasis, such as dietary intake, body
mass index, and physical activity.
84,86
Potential mechanisms for antidiabetic benefits include
suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation, improve-
ment of pancreatic β-cell function, and modulation of insulin
signaling pathways and translocation of glucose transporter
type 4. Mechanisms for saffron's influence on dyslipidemia
and atherosclerosis may include interfering with gastrointes-
tinal tract lipases after meals, increasing serum adiponectin
levels, enhancing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mech-
anisms, lowering blood pressure and platelet aggregation,
and modulating signaling pathways such as those involving
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γand heat shock
proteins.
12,90–93
Additional Miscellaneous Actions
There is limited and inconclusive evidence that saffron
may help treat sexual dysfunction,
94–96
certain ocular dis-
eases,
97,98
premenstrual syndrome,
99–102
insomnia,
103–105
and multiple sclerosis.
106–108
SAFETY
Occupational allergies to saffron among saffron workers
chronically exposed to higher amounts of this spice were
observed.
109,110
Although there are anecdotal reports of al-
lergic responses to saffron in consumers, the allergic poten-
tial of saffron is likely low.
111–113
Human trials that assessed
oral intake of saffron or its constituents in amounts less
than 400 mg/d showed no statistically significant differ-
ences in adverse effects, compared with controls. When
evaluated in short-term human safety trials (7–30 days), saf-
fron (30–400 mg/d), and crocin (20 mg/d) intakes were not
associated with clinically significant changes in hematolog-
ical, biochemical, hormonal, or urinary parameters,
114–116
although in 1 report, crocin dosing was associated with de-
creases in serum amylase and mixed white blood cells.
114
Recent summaries of human toxicity studies suggest that
oral administration of saffron at the maximum tolerated
dose of 1.5 g/d is recommended as safe, whereas a dose
of 5-g/kg body weight is toxic and 20-g/kg body weight
is considered lethal.
11,12,17,117
Caution in the use of supple-
mental saffron is advised for individuals with kidney and
bleeding disorders, and its use should be avoided in preg-
nancy. Specifically, doses greater than 10 g/d can lead to
genitourinary and gastrointestinal bleeding and uterine
stimulation. An abortion-inducing action of saffron was re-
ported at doses greater than 10 g/d.
11,12,17
Taking these
studies into consideration, the amounts of saffron consumed
at levels commonly used in the diet and less than 400 mg/d
are likely safe. In this regard, there are dozens of commercial
products containing saffron extract alone or in a mixture of
bioactives. Most commercial extracts provide saffron constit-
uents in amounts typically from 30 to 88 mg/capsule, which
translates to daily doses as high as 180 mg, if recommended
dosing is followed. For example, affron, a proprietary product
used in some trials, is marketed as an extract standardized by
high pressure liquid chromatography to 0.3% of a mixture of
crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, and recommended daily
dose of 28 mg. Similarly, another product used in trials,
Satiereal, is a stigma extract containing 88 mg/capsule stan-
dardized to 0.3% safranal. SaffroMood contains 15-mg
extract/capsule, and the daily dose is 2 capsules. Nonethe-
less, to better characterize the safety of saffron intake, con-
siderably longer oral intake of saffron needs to be studied
to determine dose-associated safety related to gender, age,
andhealthstatusofconsumers.
CONCLUSIONS
To date, although the quality of many human trials is vari-
able, there is preliminary support for an emerging benefit
of saffron intake in lessening symptoms of depression.
For these studies of depression as well as for those
targeting other health conditions, there is a common need
for clinical trials to be larger, longer, and well controlled,
and to examine multiple oral doses of well-characterized,
standardized interventions. Additional human metabolic
data are clearly needed so that potential mechanisms of ac-
tion can be assessed. Furthermore, biomarkers of bioavail-
ability after saffron consumption need to be quantitated in
conjunction with health outcomes measured, so that find-
ings from multiple studies can better be compared and
interpreted. The collective assessment of higher quality sci-
entific data will better guide future recommendations re-
garding any benefits of supplemental and culinary saffron
consumption for improving mental health.
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