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Conservation policy under a roadless perspective: Minimizing fragmentation in Greece

Authors:
Vassiliki I Kati at University of Ioannina
Vassiliki I Kati
Christina Kassara at Freelance biologist
Christina Kassara
  • Freelance biologist
Maria Psaralexi at Callisto-Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society
Maria Psaralexi
  • Callisto-Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society
Olga Tzortzakaki at University of Patras
Olga Tzortzakaki
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Abstract

Land use change poses as the top threat for biodiversity decline, and road sprawl as a key driver behind it globally. According to the recent Landscape Fragmentation Indicator (LFI), Greece is less fragmented than the rest of Europe but presents higher rates of fragmentation increase. We developed the Roadless Fragmentation Indicator (RFI) to monitor fragmentation in more natural ecosystems. The RFI calculates the percentage of land that is covered by roadless areas (RAs), defined as land patches over 1 km2 that are over 1 km away from the nearest road. We produced the roadless map of Greece, concluding to 1115 RAs ranked by size (1–256 km2) and to a national RFI of less than 5%. The RFI reflected naturalness, was significantly higher in the Natura 2000 network, and was more sensitive in less fragmented zones. Six mountains (0.51% of Greek land) have remained largely roadless (RAs ≥ 50 km2) and should be protected as such. We call for a straightforward roadlessness policy under a “European Roadless Rule” that would legally protect at least 2% of European land as road-free area. We also call for no further unjustified road sprawl in more natural and least fragmented ecosystems, as a measure to be integrated in all sectors of EU policy and particularly in the spatial planning of development projects. We recommend a five-step roadlessness guideline to be implemented in the European Union, including Greece, as a measure to effectively address biodiversity decline.
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Biological Conservation 252 (2020) 108828
Available online 17 November 2020
0006-3207/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Policy analysis
Conservation policy under a roadless perspective: Minimizing
fragmentation in Greece
Vassiliki Kati
a
,
*
, Christina Kassara
a
, Maria Psaralexi
b
, Olga Tzortzakaki
a
, Maria Petridou
a
,
b
,
Antonia Galani
b
, Monika T. Hoffmann
b
,
c
a
University of Ioannina, Department of Biological Applications & Technology, University Campus, Ioannina 45500, Greece
b
Pindos Perivallontiki Non-Prot Organization, Metsovou 12, Ioannina 4522, Greece
c
Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Mickiewicza 33, 31-120 Krak´
ow, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O
Original content: V. Kati, C. Kassara, M.
Psaralexi, O. Tzortzakaki, M. Petridou, A.
Galani, et al. The roadless map of Greece
Mendeley Data, v1 (2020), p. 1,
10.17632/s6zh89fb5c
Keywords:
Fragmentation
Mountains
Natura 2000
Policy
Roadless areas
Spatial planning
A B S T R A C T
Land use change poses as the top threat for biodiversity decline, and road sprawl as a key driver behind it
globally. According to the recent Landscape Fragmentation Indicator (LFI), Greece is less fragmented than the
rest of Europe but presents higher rates of fragmentation increase. We developed the Roadless Fragmentation
Indicator (RFI) to monitor fragmentation in more natural ecosystems. The RFI calculates the percentage of land
that is covered by roadless areas (RAs), dened as land patches over 1 km
2
that are over 1 km away from the
nearest road. We produced the roadless map of Greece, concluding to 1115 RAs ranked by size (1–256 km
2
) and
to a national RFI of less than 5%. The RFI reected naturalness, was signicantly higher in the Natura 2000
network, and was more sensitive in less fragmented zones. Six mountains (0.51% of Greek land) have remained
largely roadless (RAs ≥50 km
2
) and should be protected as such. We call for a straightforward roadlessness
policy under a “European Roadless Rule” that would legally protect at least 2% of European land as road-free
area. We also call for no further unjustied road sprawl in more natural and least fragmented ecosystems, as
a measure to be integrated in all sectors of EU policy and particularly in the spatial planning of development
projects. We recommend a ve-step roadlessness guideline to be implemented in the European Union, including
Greece, as a measure to effectively address biodiversity decline.
1. Introduction
We are experiencing the most critical era of human-induced biodi-
versity loss, altering the functioning of ecosystems and imperiling their
capacity to provide goods and services to human systems (Ceballos et al.,
2015; Díaz et al., 2019; Cardinale et al., 2012). Our progress to halt
global biodiversity decline and achieve the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets
is poor to moderate, compromising our ability to meet the relevant
Sustainable Development Goals as well (Díaz et al., 2019). Land use
change, including habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, has been
recognized as the top threat for biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems
globally, with at least 70% of the world’s land surface to be signicantly
altered (Díaz et al., 2019).
It is not by coincidence that the biodiversity crisis era happens at the
same time with the most explosive road sprawl in human history (Ibisch
et al., 2016; Laurance et al., 2014). With the length of paved roads
projected to increase at a magnitude of 14–23% (Meijer et al., 2018) up
to 59% (Dulac, 2013) by the year 2050, road sprawl is a key driver
triggering or accelerating land use change and is an underlying threat to
biodiversity per se. On one hand, road infrastructure is recognized to
promote economic growth and human welfare: it encourages the pro-
liferation of new development projects, reduces transport cost, increases
gains in agricultural productivity, and delivers social benets, though
not always (Cigu et al., 2019; IPBES, 2019). On the other hand, besides
land use change, roads cause a suite of often irreversible negative effects
to ecosystem functioning (e.g. chemical pollution, hydrological disrup-
tion, soil erosion) and to species (e.g. wildlife vehicle collisions, over-
exploitation, alteration of gene ow, animal behavior change, noise
disturbance, facilitation of biological invasions) (Trombulak and Fris-
sell, 2000; Laurance et al., 2014; Ibisch et al., 2016). Such serious effects
are well-documented for the European biodiversity (Torres et al., 2016;
Garcˆ
es et al., 2020; Konstantopoulos et al., 2020) and evidence is also
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vkati@uoi.gr (V. Kati), cristina.kassara@gmail.com (C. Kassara), mpsarale@gmail.com (M. Psaralexi), olgatzortz@gmail.com (O. Tzortzakaki),
petridoulc@gmail.com (M. Petridou), toniagalani@yahoo.gr (A. Galani), Monika.Hoffmann@hnee.de (M.T. Hoffmann).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Biological Conservation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108828
Received 18 June 2020; Received in revised form 5 October 2020; Accepted 16 October 2020

Supplementary resource (1)

The roadless map of Greece. Mendeley Data,v1. http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/s6zh89fb5c.1
Data
December 2020
Vassiliki I Kati · Christina Kassara · Maria Psaralexi · Olga Tzortzakaki · Monika T Hoffmann
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  • Sep 2023
Greek abstract of PhD thesis entitled: "Wolf ecology and predation behavior: a conflict minimization strategy towards sustainable livestock breeding" (in english). Η παρούσα διατριβή εξετάζει τη σύγκρουση μεταξύ λύκου και ανθρώπου, η οποία προκύπτει κυρίως από τη θήρευση κτηνοτροφικών ζώων, αποτελώντας σημαντική απειλή τόσο για τη διατήρηση των λύκων όσο και για τον κλάδο της κτηνοτροφίας. Για να επιτευχθεί η βιώσιμη συνύπαρξη λύκου και ανθρώπου, απαιτείται πλήρης κατανόηση των οικολογικών και κοινωνικών παραγόντων που την επηρεάζουν. Η παρούσα διατριβή υιοθετεί μία διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση, διερευνώντας τις τροφικές συνήθειες των λύκων, τα χωροχρονικά του πρότυπα σε σχέση με τις ανθρώπινες δραστηριότητες, την επίδραση των κτηνοτροφικών πρακτικών στα επίπεδα θήρευσης από τον λύκο, καθώς και τις προκλήσεις που αντιμετωπίζουν οι κτηνοτρόφοι σε περιοχές με παρουσία λύκου. Στο παράπανω πλαίσιο, η διάρθωση της διατριβής είναι η ακόλουθη. Το Kεφάλαιο 1 παρέχει μια γενική εισαγωγή στο θέμα και τις κύριες έννοιες της διδακτορικής διατριβής. To Κεφάλαιο 2 εξετάζει τις τροφικές συνήθειες του λύκου σε μια περιοχή της Κεντρικής Ελλάδας, με έντονη ανθρωπογενή παρουσία. Ειδικότερα, αυτή η περιοχή χαρακτηρίζεται από υψηλή διαθεσιμότητα κτηνοτροφικών ζώων και περιορισμένους πληθυσμούς άγριων οπληφόρων. Το Κεφάλαιο 3 διερευνά, με τη χρήση αυτόματων υπέρυθρων καμερών, τα χωροχρονικά πρότυπα δραστηριότητας του λύκου, των κυριότερων άγριων θηραμάτων του, και άλλων σαρκοφάγων θηλαστικών στη Βορειοδυτική Ελλάδα. Παράλληλα εξετάζει τη σχέση αυτών των χωροχρονικών προτύπων με τις ανθρώπινες δραστηριότητες. Το Κεφάλαιο 4 εστιάζει στον ρόλο των κτηνοτροφικών πρακτικών στα επίπεδα θήρευσης από τον λύκο στη Βορειοδυτική Ελλάδα και παράλληλα παρουσιάζει μια επισκόπηση των τάσεων στις απώλειες που προκαλούνται από τον λύκο σε εθνικό επίπεδο. Το Κεφάλαιο 5 εξετάζει τις προκλήσεις που αντιμετωπίζουν οι κτηνοτρόφοι που δραστηριοποιούνται σε περιοχές στη Βορειοδυτική Ελλάδα με παρουσία λύκου. Επίσης, αξιολογεί τις απόψεις τους ως προς τον αντίκτυπο που έχουν οι λύκοι στο επάγγελμα τους.
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Mapping roadless areas in regions with contrasting human footprint
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
In an increasingly human- and road-dominated world, the preservation of functional ecosystems has become highly relevant. While the negative ecological impacts of roads on ecosystems are numerous and well documented, roadless areas have been proposed as proxy for functional ecosystems. However, their potential remains underexplored, partly due to the incomplete mapping of roads. We assessed the accuracy of roadless areas identification using freely available road-data in two regions with contrasting levels of anthropogenic influence: boreal Canada and temperate Central Europe (Poland, Slovakia, Czechia, and Hungary). Within randomly selected circular plots (per region and country), we visually examined the completeness of road mapping using OpenStreetMap 2020 and assessed whether human influences affect mapping quality using four variables. In boreal Canada, roads were completely mapped in 3% of the plots, compared to 40% in Central Europe. Lower Human Footprint Index and road density values were related to greater incompleteness in road mapping. Roadless areas, defined as areas at least 1 km away from any road, covered 85% of the surface in boreal Canada (mean size ± s.d. = 272 ± 12,197 km²), compared to only 0.4% in temperate Central Europe (mean size ± s.d. = 0.6 ± 3.1 km²). By visually interpreting and manually adding unmapped roads in 30 randomly selected roadless areas from each study country, we observed a similar reduction in roadless surface in both Canada and Central Europe (27% vs 28%) when all roads were included. This study highlights the urgent need for improved road mapping techniques to support research on roadless areas as conservation targets and surrogates of functional ecosystems.
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Spatiotemporal Patterns of Reptile and Amphibian Road Fatalities in a Natura 2000 Area: A 12-Year Monitoring of the Lake Karla Mediterranean Wetland
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
Simple Summary The expansion of road networks poses a significant threat to wildlife, particularly reptiles and amphibians, within protected areas (PAs). To address this concern, we examined road mortality patterns among herpetofauna in a Greek-protected wetland over 12 years (2008–2019), utilizing a combination of statistical modeling and spatial analysis. We aimed to identify the most vulnerable species, seasonal variations, and ecological determinants of roadkill patterns. Across 14 documented species, 340 roadkill incidents were recorded, with snakes comprising over 60% of encounters. Both environmental and road-related factors significantly influenced roadkill risk. Spatial analysis techniques pinpointed critical hotspots, particularly in the southeastern region of the study area. These findings highlight the need for targeted mitigation strategies to protect herpetofauna within this PA. Understanding the specific factors influencing roadkill patterns is crucial for implementing effective conservation measures and safeguarding these vulnerable species. Abstract The pervasive expansion of human-engineered infrastructure, particularly roads, has fundamentally reshaped landscapes, profoundly affecting wildlife interactions. Wildlife-vehicle collisions, a common consequence of this intricate interplay, frequently result in fatalities, extending their detrimental impact within Protected Areas (PAs). Among the faunal groups most susceptible to road mortality, reptiles and amphibians stand at the forefront, highlighting the urgent need for global comprehensive mitigation strategies. In Greece, where road infrastructure expansion has encroached upon a significant portion of the nation’s PAs, the plight of these road-vulnerable species demands immediate attention. To address this critical issue, we present a multifaceted and holistic approach to investigating and assessing the complex phenomenon of herpetofauna road mortality within the unique ecological context of the Lake Karla plain, a rehabilitated wetland complex within a PA. To unravel the intricacies of herpetofauna road mortality in the Lake Karla plain, we conducted a comprehensive 12-year investigation from 2008 to 2019. Employing a combination of statistical modeling and spatial analysis techniques, we aimed to identify the species most susceptible to these encounters, their temporal and seasonal variations, and the ecological determinants of their roadkill patterns. We documented a total of 340 roadkill incidents involving 14 herpetofauna species in the Lake Karla’s plain, with reptiles, particularly snakes, being more susceptible, accounting for over 60% of roadkill occurrences. Moreover, we found that environmental and road-related factors play a crucial role in influencing roadkill incidents, while spatial analysis techniques, including Kernel Density Estimation, the Getis-Ord Gi*, and the Kernel Density Estimation plus methods revealed critical areas, particularly in the south-eastern region of Lake Karla’s plain, offering guidance for targeted interventions to address both individual and collective risks associated with roadkill incidents.
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A review of the mortality of wild fauna in Europe in the last century: the consequences of human activity
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2020
The exponential growth of the human population and their activity in the last decades have adverse effects on biodiversity. The main objective of this review was to present a compilation of works on causes of mortality of native wildlife in Europe, in the last decades linked to human activity. Here, a total of 130 peer-reviewed publications were reviewed for the period between 1942 to 2017 from thirty-eight countries. Sixty-five percent of the studies were focused on the bird's species. Our results showed that the leading cause of mortality was due to traumatic origin, particularly collision with infrastructures and motor vehicles. Based on the papers analysed in the present study, it is possible to conclude that human development and its anthropogenic pressures have a negative effect on some species of wildlife, while the potential impact on the vast majority of other species is still unknown. This study provided an insight into the effects of the different anthropogenic pressures on the European fauna, giving valuable information on its main threats and raising important questions on rehabilitation management practices.
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Balkan Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) Avoids Roads, Settlements, and Hunting Grounds: An Ecological Overview from Timfi Mountain, Greece
Article
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Balkan chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) is a protected species with an Inadequate-Bad (U2) conservation status in Greece. Our study explores its seasonal range use pattern, demography and habitat selection in a site of the Natura 2000 network, Timfi Mountain. To this aim, we examined 1168 observations obtained from six seasonal surveys (2002: four seasons, 2014 and 2017: autumn) and performed an ecological-niche factor analysis (ENFA), using 16 environmental and human-disturbance variables. The species had an annual range of 6491 ha (25% of the study area), followed the typical range-use pattern, and presented the minimum core area during the rutting season (autumn). Timfi Mt hosted 469 individuals in 2017 (the largest population in Greece), increasing by 3.55 times since 2002. The species selected higher altitudes during summer and autumn, pinewoods over broad-leaved woods as winter grounds, and it avoided south-facing slopes. Our results supported the anthropogenic risk avoidance hypothesis; the species always selected remote areas away from roads, human settlements, and hunting grounds. In Greece, 40% of its distribution area falls within hunting ban areas (16.5% of the country). A national conservation policy is needed towards maintaining and increasing roadless areas and hunting-ban areas within Balkan chamois range nationwide.
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A spatially explicit impact assessment of road characteristics, road-induced fragmentation and noise on birds species in Cyprus
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2020
The rapid increase of transportation infrastructure during the recent decades has caused a number of effects on bird species, including collision mortality, habitat loss, fragmentation and noise. This paper investigates the effects of traffic noise and road-induced fragmentation on breeding bird richness in Cyprus. Cyprus, situated along one of the main migratory routes for birds, has a rich and diverse avifauna threatened by an ever-expanding road network and a road density among the highest in Europe. In this first island-wide study we used data from 102 breeding birds recorded in 10 km × 10 km grid cells. Within every cell we calculated road traffic noise and eight road-related properties. Most of the grid cells are subject to intense fragmentation and traffic noise with combined impact ‘hotspots’ located even within protected areas (such as Cape Greco, and the Troodos Massif). Results from variance partitioning indicated that road-related properties (total road extent and road length) accounted for a combined 59% of variation in species richness, followed by fragmentation-related properties and noise properties. The study posits the need for further in-depth research on the effects of road networks on birds, and road construction, particularly in protected areas within Mediterranean islands. • Key policy insights • Road areal extent is as important as road density when evaluating the effects of roads on biodiversity • In addition to roadless areas, conservation efforts should focus on areas with low combined impact of noise and fragmentation • Mitigation measures are required within protected areas where high noise and fragmentation are documented
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Renewable energy development threatens many globally important biodiversity areas
Article
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  • Mar 2020
Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy is fundamental for halting anthropogenic climate change. However, renewable energy facilities can be land‐use intensive and impact conservation areas, and little attention has been given to whether the aggregated effect of energy transitions poses a substantial threat to global biodiversity. Here, we assess the extent of current and likely future renewable energy infrastructure associated with onshore wind, hydropower and solar photovoltaic generation, within three important conservation areas: protected areas, Key Biodiversity Areas and Earth’s remaining wilderness. We identified 2,206 fully operational renewable energy facilities within the boundaries of these conservation areas, with another 922 facilities under development. Combined, these facilities span and are degrading 886 protected areas, 749 Key Biodiversity Areas, and 40 distinct wilderness areas. Two trends are particularly concerning. First, while the majority of historical overlap occurs in Western Europe, the renewable electricity facilities under development increasingly overlap with conservation areas in South East Asia, a globally important region for biodiversity. Second, this next wave of renewable energy infrastructure represents a ~30% increase in the number of protected areas and Key Biodiversity Areas impacted and could increase the number of compromised wilderness areas by ~60%. If the world continues to rapidly transition towards renewable energy these areas will face increasing pressure to allow infrastructure expansion. Coordinated planning of renewable energy expansion and biodiversity conservation is essential to avoid conflicts that compromise their respective objectives.
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Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change
Article
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  • Dec 2019
  • SCIENCE
The time is now For decades, scientists have been raising calls for societal changes that will reduce our impacts on nature. Though much conservation has occurred, our natural environment continues to decline under the weight of our consumption. Humanity depends directly on the output of nature; thus, this decline will affect us, just as it does the other species with which we share this world. Díaz et al. review the findings of the largest assessment of the state of nature conducted as of yet. They report that the state of nature, and the state of the equitable distribution of nature's support, is in serious decline. Only immediate transformation of global business-as-usual economies and operations will sustain nature as we know it, and us, into the future. Science , this issue p. eaax3100
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Road-induced fragmentation and the environmental value of roadless areas in a partly protected landscape in Central Iran
Article
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This study assessed the effect of road development on vegetation fragmentation in and around a protected area network in western Isfahan Province, central Iran. As the first study in Iran, an attempt was also made using the Weighted Linear Combination-informed EVIRA index, to evaluate the environmental value of roadless areas based on a set of ecological and anthropogenic factors. Toward these aims, a Landsat 8-OLI image was processed to delineate land use/cover of the region. Road induced fragmentation was then estimated by comparing the results of a small set of landscape metrics (DIVISION, SPLIT, MESH, LPI, and NP) measured from the original and road-included LULC map. The results showed road-induced increasing DIVISION (by 4.8%- 85.9%) and SPLIT (by 0.01%- 23.1%) and decreasing MESH (by 2.7%- 14%), LPI (by 1.3%- 32.4%), and NP (by 6%- 97.8%) values within all protected areas and across the entire study area, indicating a significant rise in landscape fragmentation and habitat loss. Roadless patch area and Thiessen connectivity stood out as the most salient criteria in determining environmentally valuable roadless areas. The results of EVIRA showed that the study region comprises some valuable but unprotected roadless areas which should be protected against road development or any kind of destructive human activities by laying out conservation plans or their inclusion to the current protected area network.
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The effect of two road categories on wildlife in Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park, North-eastern Greece
Conference Paper
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  • Jun 2007
Assessment of Widlife - Vehicle collisions impact in north-eastern Greece
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Transport Infrastructure Development, Public Performance and Long-Run Economic Growth: A Case Study for the Eu-28 Countries
Article
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  • Dec 2018
This paper examines the link between the transport infrastructure and the economic performance in the EU-28 countries, over the period of time 2000–2014, using panel data methods. Firstly, we aim to provide the theoretical background of the transport infrastructure development, public sector performance and economic growth. The paper’s key point is the detailed look at the components of transport infrastructure, analyzing the implications of the policy-makers based on a production function and in order to test the policy implication, factor analysis is also employed. The results show significant effects from transport infrastructure components even after institutional and other factors are controlled for. From the path analysis results, the study confirm the alternative hypothesis, outlining the unidirectional long-run causality relationship between growth, transport infrastructure and Public Sector Performance. Transport infrastructure status (measured thought index of transport) has significant impact on economic development with coefficient estimate. The public performance indicators influence the way to economic growth. On the one hand, the corruption, the regulatory environment, size shadow economy, infant mortality, income inequality, inflation and unemployment rate negatively affect the economic growth, and on the other hand there is a strong positive relationship between the quality of the judiciary, education achievement, life expectancy and economic growth.
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Public land policy and urban planning in Greece: Diachronic continuities and abrupt reversals in a context of crisis
Article
  • Dec 2018
  • EUR URBAN REG STUD
Land ownership determines fundamental interests, prescribing a framework of alliances and oppositions around its development and use. The public sector constitutes one of the main categories of large landowners, although this type of ownership takes more than one form, due to the wide variety of public sector bodies holding property. Public land management became one of the focuses of austerity policies in many European countries after the burst of economic crisis in 2008–2009, externally imposed in those countries that went through bailout programmes. In Greece, the history of land policy shows that a fundamental objective of state policy was the distribution and liquidation of public land, a policy that contributed to the formation of an extensive system of small land ownership. From 2010 onwards, a plethora of formal legislation sought to accelerate development procedures for the remaining large-scale public property, as a background resource to attract large-scale, so-called “strategic”, investments. This paper explores the critical characteristics and outcomes of the reforms to transform public land policy, identifying the interactions with urban planning, before and during the economic crisis. Taking a longer temporal view, the paper highlights the entrenched relationships existing between public land policy, urban planning and property development processes and their significance in the diachronic continuities often concealed in major policy reversals and reforms. It argues that ultimately there is a lack of a coherent and sustainable public property valorisation policy, being deprived of any institutional innovation for new forms of urban development, as well as of social acceptance.
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