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Petrographic and geochemical investigations of the late antiquity unguentaria from the archaeological site of Tripolis, Denizli (southwestern Turkey)
Abstract
Petrographic and geochemical analyses were performed on unguentarium samples from Tripolis, Denizli, which was in the crossroads of the Phrygia, Caria and Lydia region during the late Antique period. In particular, optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) were used for the determination of the morphological, mineralogical and chemical characteristics of the unguentaria. Thin section and XRD analyses show that unguentaria are composed of an amorphous matrix with various minerals and rock fragments and/or voids and were categorized into three petrographic groups. Group 1 samples consist of abundant quartz, plagioclase (anorthite), gehlenite, clinopyrox-ene (diopside), rarely calcite and iron minerals. Group 2 samples have similar mineralogical compositions but they have lesser quartz and further calcite than group 1. Group 3 samples have porous matrix and rarely quartz, plagioclase (anorthite), gehlenite. Petrographic differences between groups are further supported by the chemical compositions. The presence of Ca-silicate minerals and bloating pores in the sample matrix indicated higher firing temperatures (approximately 900 or 1000°C) in a reducing atmosphere. The coexistence of calcite and gehlenite can be practically interpreted as a secondary calcite, which has formed in samples as a result of post-burial depo-sition processes. Results further showed that illitic clays were used for the production and the unguentaria were manufactured by using Başkarcı clays from Denizli region.
... A comparative analysis of the chemical and structural property differences among the samples was conducted using SEM-EDS at multiple points across six samples. The stages of vitrification during the firing can be categorized as 'No Vitrification (NV), Initial Vitrification (IV), Extensive Vitrification (EV), and Continuous Vitrification (CV)' (Maniatis & Tite, 1981;Semiz, 2021). ...
... Some trace elements, such as Cr, Zr, Ti, and Nb, are commonly employed as geochemical indicators due to their association with specific petrological characteristics of source rocks (Belfiore et al., 2007;Iordanidis et al., 2009;Kibaro glu et al., 2011;Mommsen, 2001;Semiz, 2017Semiz, , 2021. Elemental profiles of these trace elements exhibit similar characteristics across all samples examined (Figure 4e,f). ...
In the present study, red slip wares excavated from the ancient city of Germanicia (modern Kahramanmaraş, Southeastern Anatolia) were subjected to an archaeometric analysis. A multi‐analytical approach was employed, including stereomicroscopy, optical microscopy, XRPD, SEM‐EDS, and XRF to explore the mineralogical and chemical compositions of the samples. Based on both archaeological and archaeometric criteria, the samples were classified into three main categories: African, Phocaean, and Sagalassos red slip wares. The African red slip wares were characterized by an abundance of coarse quartz inclusion, accompanied by lesser quantities of plagioclase and mica. The Phocaean red slip wares primarily consisted of quartz, feldspar, and mica. In contrast, the Sagalassos red slip wares featured a groundmass rich in quartz, mica/biotite, hematite, and opaque minerals. Thermoanalytical data indicated that all samples were fired at temperatures between 800 and 900°C. The results suggest that red slip wares found at Germanicia were not manufactured using local available clay sources but rather originated from different regions. This evidence further provides that Germanicia was actively involved in trade networks and interacted with various ancient urban centers, such as Africa, Phocaean, and Sagalassos, during the Late Roman Period, between the fourth and fifth centuries AD.
... Por otro, en fechas más recientes se han detectado evidentes fallos de cocción, descartes y más de 9.500 formas en la ciudad de Kibyra (Lycia) (Japp, 2005: 237-241, fig. 1 y 6;2009: 117-119;Özüdoğru y Dündar, 2007;Akgül, 2015). Además, también se ha atestiguado otro extenso conjunto de ungüentarios en ciudades como Laodicea y Trípoli, con un estudio arqueométrico en esta última que certifica una fabricación local en el valle del Lykos o Çürüksu (Şimşek y Duman, 2007: 290;Duman, 2018;Semiz, 2021). ...
... La investigación sobre el LRU tipo 1 ha experimentado un crecimiento importante en los últimos años en todo el Mediterráneo, especialmente gracias a su fácil reconocimiento en los distintos registros arqueológicos y, cuando se presenta la oportunidad, a la constatación de sus característicos sellos impresos cerca del pivote. Además, se ha progresado en la localización de los distintos centros de producción y ya no existe ninguna duda de su ubicación en la península de Anatolia (Cottica, 2000(Cottica, : 1005(Cottica, -1006Lochner-Metaxas, Sauer y Linke, 2005: 647;Özüdoğru y Dündar, 2007; Şimşek y Duman, 2007: 290;Akgül, 2015;Duman, 2018;Semiz, 2021). Contamos, también, con nuevos planteamientos meto- dológicos que han ido encaminados a caracterizar químicamente los diversos residuos conservados en el interior de sus paredes y fondos para esclarecer el contenido albergado (Kimpe et al. 2004(Kimpe et al. : 1507Linke y Stanek, 2005;Kaya, 2019;Semeraro y Aquilino, 2021: 66). ...
This paper presents, for the first time, an analysis of the Late Roman Unguentarium (LRU) attested in the city of Tarragona and, more specifically, in the excavations carried out in the so-called port suburb. The study has recorded 40 examples deriving from 16 ceramic contexts, in which Late Roman Unguentarium and Ephesian Early Byzantine Amphoriskos variants have been identified. The connection of these small containers with the stratigraphic data and the information provided by other ceramic categories allows us to place them chronologically between the 7th and early 8th centuries AD.
... Previous research has generally focused on the characterization of archaeological materials (Hoeck et al., 2009;Tekkök et al., 2009;Tschegg et al., 2009;Braekmans et al., 2011;Szilágyi et al., 2012;Cultrone et al., 2014;Aydın et al., 2015;Kilicarslan, 2015, 2016;Akyol and Kadıoğlu, 2016;Eroğlu and Akyol, 2017;Atlihan et al., 2018;Semiz et al., 2018aSemiz et al., , 2018bAkyol, 2019;Koralay et al., 2019;Abay et al., 2020;Akyol andYılmaz, 2020a, 2020b;Karatak and Akyol, 2020;Büyüksoy et al., 2021;Derakhshan Houreh and Akyol, 2021;Eroğlu et al., 2021;Semiz, 2021;Yetiş et al., 2021;Akyol et al., 2022;Deniz and Kadıoğlu, 2022;Eroğlu et al., 2022;Koralay and Kıymaz, 2022;Sansar and Akyol, 2022;Şen Ekinci et al., 2022;Aksoy and Akyol, 2023;Kayser et al., 2023;Koralay et al., 2023;Akyol and Akkuş Koçak, 2024;Bayazit et al., 2024;Sarialtun et al., 2024;Semiz et al., 2024). Some studies have focused on distinguishing and classifying ceramic samples from different periods (Hoeck et al., 2009;Kibaroğlu and Thumm-Doğrayan, 2011;Szilágyi et al., 2012;Kibaroğlu and Falb, 2013). ...
... Thin sections of the samples were taken to show all levels from the outside to the inside. The prepared thin sections were examined with the Leica brand polarizing microscope in the Department of Geological Engineering and their mineralogical and petrographic properties were tried to be determined (Semiz, et al., 2018;Semiz, 2021). ...
In prehistoric archaeology, pottery is a significant fragment in defining and making sense of the culture. The pottery forms and the differences in the variety of decorations are used together with other archaeological elements in the stratification of the settlement at the local scale. Bahçelievler settlement is located in the southeast of the Marmara Sea and in a mountainous area, unlike many other settlements with similar cultural characteristics. Bahçelievler Neolithic settlement was inhabited for the first time between 7192 and 7052 BCE and continued to be used until 6063–5971 BCE. Therefore, the settlement in question has a crucial role in the beginning and development of the Pottery Neolithic Period, especially in Northwestern Anatolia. Both the differences in form variation and the change in decoration preferences, as well as the changes in undefined stone, limestone, quartz, volcanic rock, basalt, etc. additives, provide meaningful results in the settlement stratigraphy. As a result of petrographic research, Bahçelievler Neolithic potteries are divided into four main groups and are very compatible with the archaeological classification. Clay and clay paste used in pottery are almost entirely consistent with local clays. It has been understood that the tempered material, which is strictly compatible with the geology of the immediate environment, is preferred for pottery. Although different forms and ware groups were selected chronologically to evaluate all the data together, it can be quickly asserted that the samples were of local production.
Metamorphic reactions in ancient ceramics, particularly neo-crystallization, are key for analyzing antique objects during their technological processes. Cathodoluminescence imaging and spectrometry (via optical and scanning electron microscopy) enhance the study of mineralogy, crystal growth, and phase decomposition in materials like celadons. synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction further supports archaeometric studies by identifying newly formed crystals in small quantities, especially at the body-glaze interface of celadon products. This study analyzed celadon sherds from Gur in the south-central Iranian plateau. Optical microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray emission, synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction, and cathodoluminescence were employed to examine chemical and mineralogical transformations during manufacturing. The research focused on phase development at the body-glaze interface. Crystals formed during heating were identified by cathodoluminescence emissions from point defects in crystal structures. The celadon body was crafted from kaolinite-rich clay, producing aluminosilicate crystals in the glaze at – 1200 °C. Anorthite and mullite were detected at the body-glaze interface. These materials and firing conditions reflect the advanced technical expertise of ancient potters, influencing the color, cohesion, and durability of celadon pottery.
The ancient city of Stratonikeia is located within the territory of Eskihisar Neighbourhood in Yatağan District of Muğla Province. Excavations have been undertaken at the site since 1977. Settlement at the site of the ancient city is understood to go back to the second millennium BCE. At the site it is possible to see structures from a wide time span ranging from Classical Period through the twentieth century. Within the scope of the present study, a total of 25 samples were taken from seven structures within the ancient city of Stratonikeia. This study aims to cast light onto the archaeometric characters of the brick samples, to retrieve information on their production technologies, obtain data regarding their firing temperatures and their production sites as local or imports. The samples were investigated using stereomicroscope, optical microscope, color analysis, XRF, XRD, statistical and SEM-EDS methods. Various analyses led to compatible results and the brick samples were categorized into three main groups and one subgroup. It was noted that most of the samples were fired at 750-850oC and all of them were produced with clay taken from similar clay deposits.
Germanicia, antikçağda Cilicia-Cappadocia sınırında, Commagene Bölgesi’nde, günümüzde ise Kahramanmaraş ili, Dulkadiroğlu ilçesinde yer almaktadır. Antik kentte 2021 yılında gerçekleştirilen kazı çalışmalarında mozaik zemin döşemeli bir konut yapısı ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu çalışmada, söz konusu alandan ele geçen Afrika Kırmızı Astarlı Seramikleri değerlendirilmiştir. Kapların form tipolojisinin oluşturulmasında, Hayes’in gruplandırması örnek alınmıştır. Buna göre 8 farklı form tespit edilmiştir. Germanicia’da bulunan Afrika Kırmızı Astarlı Seramik formlarının benzerleri, Anadolu’da pek çok kentte bulunmaktadır. Ancak kapalı bir form olan oinophoros (?) ise sadece Germanicia’da bulunmuş olup ünik bir eser olarak nitelendirilebilir. Bu kapsamda incelenen Germanicia buluntusu Afrika Kırmızı Astarlı Seramikleri MS IV. yüzyıl ile MS VII. yüzyıl arasını göstermektedir. Antik kentte bulunan bu seramikler, söz konusu tarihler içerisinde Kuzey Afrika ile ticari ilişkilerinin olduğunu göstermektedir.
Günümüzde, Denizli ili, Babadağ ilçesi, Bekirler mahallesi sınırları içerisinde yer alan Trapezopolis, Antik Dönem’de Karia ve Phrygia sınırını oluşturan Salbakos (Babadağ) Dağı eteklerinde kurulmuştur. Kent konumu itibariyle doğal bir kale görünümündedir. Nekropol alanı kentin dört tarafında yayılım göstermektedir. Günümüze kadar kentte herhangi bir kazı çalışması yapılmamış olmakla birlikte, Denizli Müze Müdürlüğü tarafından nekropol alanlarında kurtarma kazıları yapılmıştır. Mezar mimarisi olarak örgü tekne mezar, kline yerleştirilmiş mezar evler, tonozlu mezar tiplerinden oluşmaktadır. Bir başka mezar yapısı ise pişmiş toprak silindirik lahit mezarlardır. Mezarların benzerlerine Lykos Vadisi yerleşimlerinde de görülmektedir. Mezarın etrafı örgü taşlarla çevrelenmiş içerisinde silindirik lahit konularak üzeri kapatılmıştır. Mezar içerisinde in-situ olarak ele geçen pişmiş toprak ve cam eserler bulunmuştur. Mezar içerisinde ayrıca urne kabı da yer almaktadır. Bu eser silindirik mezarın ayrıca kullanımını göstermesi açısından önemlidir. Mezar yapısı karşılaştırmalar ve buluntular dikkate alınarak MS 1-2. yüzyılda kullanım görmüştür. Çalışma, Trapezopolis Nekropolü’nde in-situ şeklinde bulunan ve değerlendirilen, ayrıca Lykos Vadisi mezar mimarisi ve ölü gömme geleneğine katkı sağlaması açısından önemlidir.
Lydia Bölgesi sınırları içerisinde yer alan Tripolis’te yapılan kazı çalışmalarında, Geç Antik Çağ’a tarihlenen kırmızı astarlı mal gruplarına ait çok sayıda ve formda yerel/ithal seramikler bulunmuştur. Bu çalışmada ise kil, astar ve süsleme yönüyle farklı bir grup seramik incelenmiştir. Tripolis’te, kırmızı astarlı seramikler içerisinde en az buluntu gruplarından birini oluşturan Açık Kırmızı Astarlı seramiklerden 2012-2019 yıllarında toplam 11 adet ele geçmiştir. Geç Antik Çağ’da Tripolis seramik ticaretinde, Anadolu (Sagalassos, Phokaia, vd.) ile sınırlı kalmayıp Doğu Akdeniz’in kıyı kesimindeki yerleşimlerle de ticareti bilinmektedir. Kentte her ne kadar ithal seramik kullanımı var olsa da yerel atölyelerce üretilen seramiklere ait farklı form gruplarına ait örneklerin sayısı her geçen yıl artmaktadır. Bu çalışmada Tripolis’in Geç Antik Çağ’da ithal (Açık Kırmızı Astarlı Seramikler) seramik ticaretindeki rolü de açıklanmaktadır. Tripolis’te az sayıda ele geçen ve araştırmacılar tarafından üretimleriyle ilgili farklı görüşler önerilen bir grup seramik üzerinde durulmaktadır. Tripolis’te bulunan Açık Kırmızı Astarlı seramikler, kil ve astar yapısı dikkate alınarak daha önceki çalışmalar da dikkate alınarak, Kuzeybatı Anadolu çevresinden ithal edildiği düşünülmekte olup, MS 5- 7. yüzyılın başlarına tarihlendirilmektedir.
The present article addresses the potential usability of the Belevi clay from the Denizli region as a raw material in different ceramic applications and industrial products by investigating their mineralogical (X-ray diffraction), chemical (X-ray fluorescence), thermal (differential thermal analyzer-thermogravimetry), physical, firing, and geotechnical characteristics. For this context, cylindrical samples have been prepared and fired from 700 to 1200 °C; the mineralogical transformations during the firing process were obtained by X-ray diffraction. After that, linear firing shrinkage, bulk density (BD), water absorption (WA), unconfined compression strength (UCS), and ultrasonic pulse velocity (Vp) values of all of the samples were measured. In mineralogical point of view, samples were considered smectitic clays (56%) and rarely chlorite, illite, and kaolinite. In addition, calcite, quartz, feldspar, and dolomite minerals are observed in small quantities. Chemically, the major oxides of Belevi clay consist of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 and characterized by higher CaO contents. The studied samples are generally composed of fine particles (clayey-silty). The plasticity indices (PI) are determined with a high value as 19%; this suggests that the studied clays are highly plastic raw materials. Samples with the particle size < 2 μm are abundant in clay deposits (∼ 20%), which is suitable for the ceramic applications. The presence of silt fraction in Belevi clay material can be eliminated by crushing and sieving. The main transformations during firing processes of the samples were determined at 900 °C together with the appearance of new crystalline phases especially anorthite, diopside, gehlenite, and hematite. An increase in the firing shrinkage and bulk density values with decrease in water absorption values is determined at 1000 °C and above. UCS and Vp values are also started to increase significantly from 900 °C due to mineralogical transformation. Technical tests show that Belevi clays are suitable in manufacturing of porous structural ceramic products such as brick and tiles, and also in pottery production.
Pamukkale (Denizli) bölgesinin kuzeydoğusunda yüzeyleyen Asartepe (LE2) ve Kızılburun (LE3 ve LE4) formasyonlarından alınan üç adet kil örneğinin fiziko-kimyasal, mineralojik ve termal özelliklerini incelemek için X-ışını floresans, termal analiz, X-ışını kırınımı, Atterberg limitleri ve tane boyu analizi yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Farklı birimlerden alınan bu killerin kimyasal ve mineralojik bileşimleri arasında çok büyük farklılıkların olmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Mineralojik olarak, kırmızı killerin (LE2) kuvars, az oranda hematit, kil minerali olarak ise illit, az oranda kaolinit, klorit/simektit ve klorit içerdiği belirlenmiştir. Marnlı killerin ise (LE3 ve LE4) kuvars, kalsit ve piroksen içerdikleri kil minerali olarak da illit ve az klorit, kaolinit ve klorit/simektit içerdikleri tespit edilmiştir. Kimyasal bileşim açısından, kırmızı killer yüksek miktarda SiO2 (%52.0), Fe2O3 (%7.7) ve Al2O3 (%19.2) içermekte marnlı killer ise daha az oranda SiO2 (%40.1-44.5) ve Al2O3 (%12.7-14.0) ve yüksek oranda CaO (13.2-16.5) ve MgO (%3.6-3.8) içerdikleri gözlenmektedir. Tüm kil örneklerinin kızdırma kayıplarının (%14.2-17.7) yüksek olduğu belirlenmiştir. Endüstriyel uygunluk değerlendirilmeleri kırmızı killerin yaygın tuğla imalatı için yeterli özelliklere sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bununla birlikte, marnlı killer ise ince cidarlı delikli ürünlerin imalatı için yeterli özelliklere sahip olup, bazı değişikliklerle yaygın tuğla imalatında da kullanılabilirler.
Imported red slipped ceramics were found at Ancient City of Tripolis where is located on the banks of Maiandros during the excavation works between 2012 and 2017. Among these findings, red slipped ceramics were defined which date Early Roman Imperial Period such as Pergamon Sigillata and Eastern Sigillata A and B groups also Late Roman Period red slipped ware. Form diversity and numerical majority belongs to Sagalassos Sigillatas among the red slipped ceramic forms. 20 different forms and nearly 200 ceramic samples were idendified in Tripolis which belong to this group, Poblome’s study in 1999 detailed was taken definitions and evaluations as the form classification.
The Sagalassos Sigillatas which in production from the Late Hellenistic Period to the 7th century A.D were found in archaeological excavations in many ancient cities outside Sagalassos during the Ancient Ages. These ceramics were produced in the interior of Anatolia unlike other red slipped ceramic groups and exported to the different regions and geographies. In this study, it is seen that Sagalassos Sigillatas were also used intensively in Tripolis that is located in the western Anatolia borders. These ceramics found in Tripolis have a thick walled structure except a few samples. This supports as already mentioned in several publications that Sagalassos potters produce their products that are made for export at far distances and suitable for the land transportation.
Visible mineral additives of Sagalassos red slipped wares of Tripolis were examined and apart from that clay analysis of some ceramic samples. According to analytical study, considering the structure and content of the ceramic content, the ceramics could be produced with the clay from Çanaklı region where is near to City of Sagalassos.
Among Sagalassos Red Slip Ware in Tripolis, there are limited number of samples with ornamentation, especially the examples of samples dated to the 4th century AD indicate a commercial relation with Sagalassos in this period. This commercial relations is supported by the discovery of 1347 coins found on such dates in Tripolis Arched Building.
A detailed archaeometric study of pottery was made of a fifteenth-to-sixteenth-century kiln located inside the walls of the Castle of Alenquer. The locally collected sherds are lead glazed, and mostly exhibit a green or dark yellow decoration. Only in one case, a fragment of a bowl, tin oxide was detected in the white glaze. Pastes from the ceramics of the Alenquer kiln were spectroscopically characterized in terms of their mineralogical and elemental composition. This pottery was fired twice, the first time at high temperatures to produce the biscotto, and the second time at lower temperatures to glaze the ceramics. Although only one type of raw material collected locally was used, two types of ceramic pastes were detected and organized into two groups: one produced at about 850 °C and another at about 950 °C. Pastes from Group 1 were converted into Group 2 pastes whenever the temperature of the kiln was raised from 850 to 950 °C, as confirmed by firing Group 1 pastes in an oven. These results were compared with those obtained for coeval ceramics, namely at Santo António da Charneca and Mata da Machada. Both kilns were located on the south shore of the river Tagus (Lisbon), as previously reported.
Graphical abstract
The first archaeometric study of ceramics produced in the kiln of Alenquer, (Portugal, fifteenth to sixteenth centuries) is reported, with the use of surface spectroscopies techniques, namely micro-Raman. Significant differences were found from two coeval kilns also located at the Tagus basin, Santo António da Charneca and Mata da Machada.
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The book is a detailed, and in some cases an opinionated, account of the use of what are basically standard graphical statistical methods used for the presentation of archaeological data. The use of the software package R is advocated and is illustrated in detail - with data and R code available. This is contrasted with the common (mis)use of Excel which has resulted in some of the most unfortunate graphics that have sullied archaeological data presentation in the literature/
The chemometric method based on the EDS analysis has been utilized to classify archeological ceramic fragments from Arpakkam site (eight samples) in Kanchipuram district. EDS was used to determine their elemental composition and the results were treated statistically using two methods: factor analysis (FA) and cluster analysis (CA). This treatment revealed two main groups; the first one encompasses only the two samples (ARMP4 and ARMP8) and the second one comprises the remaining samples (ARMP1–ARMP7) (except ARMP4). Grouping of selected artifacts was carried out using the ratios of SiO2 to Al2O3 concentrations because of their non-volatile nature. The mineralogical compositions of the potteries were determined by means of X-ray powder diffraction and FT-IR spectroscopy. The firing temperature and the methods were assessed by SEM, FT-IR and XRD spectroscopic analysis. The present studies evaluate the mineralogical, chemical and microstructural characteristics and the grouping of potteries. These techniques might be useful methods for the material analysis of ceramics.
The excavation works being carried out since 1989 at Dorylaion (Eskişehir/Turkey) results in many findings belonging to different civilizations spanning from the First Bronze age to Ottoman period. One of the important groups of these findings is the mold made bowls, familiarly known as the Megarian bowls from the Hellenistic period (330-30 B.C.). In a frame of an archaeometry project work, these artifacts were characterized with different analytical techniques. Wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to study chemical and mineralogical composition of the bodies. Thermo gravimetric-differential thermal analyses (TG-DTA) were performed to make the estimation of firing temperature of the sherds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) were performed for the micro structural and micro chemical characterization of body and slip layers of the selected potsherds. Based on the analyses results, the bowls should have been prepared from carbonated and siliceous clays and fired at the temperatures from 600 to 1000 °C. They have also iron-rich slip layers with different colors indicating probable adjustment of the redox conditions during firing. In addition, the effect of maximum firing temperature on micro structural characteristics was evaluated.
Results are reported regarding laboratory-scale experimental work aiming to reproduce ceramic specimens with macro and micro characteristics similar to ancient sherds. Small differences in mineralogical composition between ancient sherds and experimental ceramics elucidated the effect of the firing conditions and the degree of post-burial alteration of ancient ceramics. Scarsity of gehlenite (Ca2Al2SiO7) in sherds for which firing temperature has been estimated between 800 to 950°C, led to higher Fs/Gh (fassaite/gehlenite) ratio in respect to that recorded for the ceramic specimens. This fact is attributed to the dissolution of gehlenite during the post-burial alteration, the ancient ceramics were subjected to, but also due to the short sintering duration (i.e. higher heating rate and/or low soaking time) applied by the potters in some cases.
The pieces of Late Roman Unguentaria, which are surface findings, bearingseal stamps, are the main content of this paper. The material has been found outon the south slope of the hill, where the theatre is leaning against; in the arcs thatformed by the rain water just back of the Bouleuterion. It is considered as animportant need to publish the material, as they are many and consist of qualified pieces and bear unique monograms to develop the repertory of the Late Romanunguentaria.During the first season of the investigations, the field that gives this materialhas been surveyed totally. As too many pottery shreds have been observed enoughamount of pieces have been collected. The Terra Sigillata pieces are forming themost part of the pottery. Also a notable amount of figured and floral decorated“Megara Bowls” and amphora shreds have been gathered. Beside this, the exist-ence of some production failures in 210 pieces of Unguentaria and the mouldsof Megara Bowls; show that Cibyra had a workshop which was active from theHellenistic period to the end of the 6
th
century A.D.There are monograms on 17 of the 210 sherds that are above. Three differentfabrics have been observed among these examples %8 of which are productionfailures. The studies on these monograms enlarged the dispersal area of similar monograms with Cibyra examples while developing the repertory. The monogramson the production failures have been studied in the same typology and pointed outCibyra as production centre of the similarly monogrammed examples of other set-tlements.
Some arguments about the shapes and the functions of Unguentaria have taken part in this paper and in the light of recent evidence some new suggestions have been mentioned. Beside this, it is determined; relying on the production failures,that this kind of pottery may not be produced in every city but in some central set-tlements of the regions like Cibyra or Ephesus. So the suggestions of the earlier publications that depend on the similarities of fabrics and offer that all of thesemust be produced in one centre, have lost their validity and the proposals that pointout south-western Anatolia get stronger.
The material discussed here was found in the western necropolis area during the 2007 excavation cam-paign in Tralleis. According to the analysis of the findings, the western necropolis was in use from the late 4 th century B.C. until the second half of the 4 th century A. D. The earliest unguentaria noted from the Tralleis dates from around the third quarter of the 4 th century B.C. The clay of the Tralleis unguentaria always contains some amount of mica. Clay and slip colors vary between 2.5YR 7/4, 5YR 6/6 or 5YR 7/3-4 according to Munsell Catalogue. Form and work-manship reflect general characteristics of the Anatolian customs. Tralleis unguentaria are non-decorated and the majori-ty of them were not carefully made. All of them are handleless. Most of them have been found intact or only partially damaged. One of the most important forms in the classification is the fusiform unguentaria and they are similar to the western Anatolian examples with their characteristic features. Forms of these examples can also be compared with the finds from the other contemporary settlements and contexts. Most of them are similar to examples from the 1 st and 2 nd centuries B.C with their long, thin forms and spindle-shaped bodies. The second group consists of twelve bulbous unguentaria. The majority of these samples have long necks, rounded bodies, and flat bases. In terms of technique and form, all of these examples are Roman products. This type of unguentarium was commonly found in most of the Medi-terranean cities. Özet: Burada ele alınan malzeme, Tralleis'de 2007 yılı kazı çalışmalarında batı nekropolis alanında bulunmuştur. Ele geçen eserler ışığında, batı nekropolis alanının MÖ 4. yüzyıl sonlarından MS 4. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar kullanıl-dığı anlaşılmaktadır. Tralleis'de bulunan en erken unguentariumlar yaklaşık olarak MÖ 4. yüzyılın üçüncü çeyreğine tarih-lenmektedir. Tralleis unguentariumlarının hamuru her zaman için bir miktar mika içermektedir. Hamur ve astar Munsell Kataloğu'na göre 2.5YR 7/4, 5YR 6/6 ve 5YR 7/3-4 renkleri arasında değişir. Form ile işçilik Anadolu geleneklerinin genel özelliklerini yansıtır. Tralleis unguentariumları bezemesizdir ve çoğunluğu özenli bir işçilik göstermez. Örneklerin tamamı kulpsuzdur. Büyük çoğunluğu sağlam ya da az hasarlı bulunmuştur. Sınıflandırmada en önemli formlardan biri iğ gövdeli unguentariumlardır ve genel özellikleri ile Batı Anadolu örnekleri ile benzeşir. Bu örneklerin formları diğer çağdaş merkezler ve kontekstlerdeki buluntularla karşılaştırılabilir. Bunların büyük çoğunluğu uzun ince formları ve iğ biçimli gövdeleriyle, MÖ 2. ve 1. yüzyıl örnekleriyle benzeşir. İkinci grubu 12 örnekle soğan gövdeli unguentariumlar oluşturur. Bu örneklerin çoğunluğu uzun boyunlu, yuvarlak gövdeli ve düz tabanlıdır. Teknik ve form açısından bu örneklerin tamamı Roma üretimidir. Unguentariumların bu tipi birçok Akdeniz kentinde bulunmuştur.
Magnificent images of rocks, used in buildings and monuments, are an indicator of power and wealth since ancient times. This situation always has attracted the attention of mankind. Having rich marble and natural stone source in Anatolia, several civilizations has created important works by using of this wealth throughout the history. The banded travertine blocks which are various colors and textures, have been used in the structures of Tripolis ancient city. In this study, minero-petrographic and geochemical characterizations of banded travertines have been examined and compared to ancient travertine quarries samples in order to define source area. All the banded travertine samples are mainly composed of carbonate minerals (calcite or aragonite?) in acicular or radiating form. In addition, some of the element ratios for Tripolis and ancient travertine quarries samples are very close to each other (Mg/Ca = 0.000284-0.002898 for Tripolis samples, 0.000288-0.001958 for ancient quarry samples; Mn/Sr = 0.000548-0.010348; 0.000281-0.052575; Rb/Sr = 0.000579-0.000818; 0.000581-0.001523; Zr/Ti = 5.29-20.24; 2.48-27.80; Nb/Y = 3.82-4.75; 2.93-5.00, respectively). According to the minero-petrographic and geochemical results, the most probable source of banded travertines in Tripolis is the ancient travertine quarries, about 3 km northeast of antique city.
Keywords: Tripolis, Banded Travertine, Geochemistry, Denizli, Element Ratio
The influence of firing conditions on the chemical composition of the major pyrometamorphic phases of Ca-, Fe-rich Plio-Pleistocene sediments of NW Peloponnese is studied. These sediments have been used in the production of ceramic artefacts for a large historical period and are still in use by the local heavy clay industry. Firing conditions were oxidising (CO/CO2, %, ranging from 0.2 to 4.4) or reducing atmosphere (CO/CO2, %, ranging from 11.2 to 23.0), for a temperature range 850–1050 °C. At 850 °C, for both atmospheres, fassaite and gehlenite are the predominant new minerals with anorthite and wollastonite also formed in a small quantity. Up to 950 °C, the chemistry of minerals in oxidising and reducing conditions does not exhibit considerable differences. Fe3+ is present even in reducing atmosphere entrapped in the structure of fassaite, gehlenite, anorthite. At 1050 °C, in reducing atmosphere, more hedenbergite component (CaFe2+Si2O6) incorporates in fassaite, whereas the ferrigehlenite component () is absent from gehlenite structure. Fe3+ is detected only in fassaite and anorthite structure. The work concludes with a summary of the results from Part I and Part II, in the form of a reverse engineering table for the determination of the firing conditions in a ceramic body by using analytical information. Three examples are given that compare ancient ceramic sherds with ones reproduced in laboratory conditions and demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach.
87Sr/86Sr ratios have been determined for glasses from four production sites, dated to between the sixth and the 11th centuries, in the Eastern Mediterranean region. On the basis of elemental analyses, the glasses at each location are believed to have been melted from different raw materials. Two glass groups, from Bet Eli‘ezer and Bet She‘an, in Israel, are believed to have been based upon mixtures of Levantine coastal sands and natron, and have 87Sr/86Sr ratios close to 0.7090, plus high elemental strontium, confirming a high concentration of modern marine shell (87Sr/86Sr ~ 0.7092) in the raw materials. The isotopic compositions of these two groups of glasses differ slightly, however, probably reflecting a varying ratio of limestone to shell because the sands that were utilized were from different coastal locations. Natron-based glasses from a workshop at Tel el Ashmunein, Middle Egypt, have 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.70794–0.70798, and low elemental strontium, consistent with the use of limestone or limestone-rich sand in the batch. High-magnesia glasses based on plant ash, from Banias, Israel, have 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.70772–0.70780, probably reflecting the isotopic composition of the soils that were parental to the plants that were ashed to make the glass. Strontium and its isotopes offer an approach to identifying both the raw materials and the origins of ancient glasses, and are a potentially powerful tool in their interpretation.
X‐ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), x‐ray imaging (XRI) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques were applied to characterize and differentiate surface paintings of archeological pottery from the Aguada Ambato and Portezuelo styles (Catamarca, Argentina). Standard procedures are not always appropriate for such samples (paint layers are porous, nonplanar and discontinue). Image processing is necessary when chemical contrast is not discriminated. Soft x‐ray lines (e.g. Fe L) are more revealing because those detected come from shallower depths, clearly depicting the composition of the paint layer.
These styles differ in mineralogy and chemistry suggesting that they are two distinctive entities not only on their designs but also on the materials chosen and the technology used. Aguada Portezuelo paints contain Ca (white), FeMn (black), FeMnCa (dark reddish) and FeCa (reddish). The white ones correspond to gehlenite, a firing product (possible firing temperature ≥900–1000 °C); calcite and CaO occur in cases of firing temperatures <900 °C.
Aguada Ambato presents difficulties for paint discrimination; only EDS spectra show slight differences. White paint from Tricolor Ambato contains mainly Pb‐phases (hatchite, anglesite, plumalsite), reddish paint resembles the paste (∼Fe, hematite); reddish surfaces may have not been painted but polished. Black paint has scarce Mn–minerals. On Black Incised sherds no particular phase was identified suggesting possible organic pigments or resulting from the firing technique.
The chemistry and mineralogy of the paste almost always overlap that of the paints; painted layer is irregular and partially worn by years of burial. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Scanning electron microscopy is used to examine sequences of pottery sherds from central and southeast Europe, Greece and the Near East spanning the period from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, in order to obtain information on the ceramic technologies employed in antiquity. On the basis of the vitrification observed and the chemical composition, the types of clay and firing procedures (temperature and atmosphere) employed in the manufacture of the pottery are defined. Two under-lying trends in the associated ceramic technologies are thus identified. The first is based on the use of non-calcareous or “unstable” calcareous clays fired in a reducing atmosphere at temperatures below 800 °C and the second on the use of “stable” calcareous clays fired in an oxidizing atmosphere at temperatures in excess of 800 °C.
The sandwich (black core) structure in the production of Etruscan-Padan type pottery was investigated. Petrographic, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Mössbauer data showed that colour changes from core to margin are related to differences in both Fe oxidation state and abundance of maghemite, hercynite and hematite. The occurrence of maghemite and hercynite and the higher quantity of Fe(II) in the cores suggest poor oxygen diffusion in the potsherds during firing. This is congruent with the occurrence of high fractions of paramagnetic Fe in octahedral sites, located in the amorphous phase probably derived from chlorite breakdown, and with the wide range of grain-size distribution of oxidic particles, indicated by the slowing down of superparamagnetic relaxation as temperatures are lowered.
Archaeological excavations performed in a funerary complex in Cuma (Campania region, Italy) unearthed excellently preserved common wares dated to the third century A.D. Archaeometric analyses were focused on Campanian pitchers, Aegean‐like cooking pots, and pyriform pitchers, the latter recorded for the first time in an Italian context. The local pitchers were manufactured with a high‐CaO clay (CaO = ca. 12 wt.%) and local volcanic temper, fired at ca. 800–850°C, as suggested by the presence of calcite. The Aegean‐like pots and the pyriform pitchers were made with low‐CaO clay (CaO ≤ 4.0 wt.%) mixed with a calcite‐bearing temper, along with volcanic and siliciclastic grains, and fired at 800–950°C. The comparison with raw materials inferred that local vessels were made with low‐CaO basinal clays which outcrop in the northern Campania region, and sands from the shoreline north of Cuma where carbonate, siliciclastic and volcanic phases mix together. Our results suggest that the Phlegraean Late Roman workshops produced their traditional vases along with imitations of Aegean‐like pottery. Thus, microregional production responded to a market demand requiring shapes and styles similar to imports from the eastern Mediterranean, with which commercial trade was still quite active.
Cambridge Core - Mineralogy, Petrology and Volcanology - Clays in the Critical Zone - by Paul A. Schroeder
Roman red slip ware uncovered at Tripolis, an ancient city of Lydia region in modern Denizli province, Turkey, was analyzed for geochemical and mineralogical properties in order to clarify their manufacturing technology. Samples were examined by optical microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and X-ray fluorescence. Results thus obtained indicate that the analyzed red slip wares can be divided into three groups based on the inclusion types, and grain sizes. Mineralogical compositions also reflect differences in production technology. The firing temperatures are estimated from the phase assemblages as <800 °C for the Group 1 and 2 samples and about 900 °C for Group 3 samples. Group 1 was probably produced from local clays (Lykos Valley) in Denizli region. Group 2 shows clear similarity with local clay but it is from different origin (probably from Meander Valley (Menderes Massif clays). Whereas Group 3 does not seem to be a local production of Tripolis, rather wares imported from possibly Sagalassos in ancient Pisidia of Turkey.
The coloured stones used in buildings and monuments were an indicator of power and wealth during the ancient times. In this study, Tripolis city samples have been compared with Tripolis quarry samples in order to recognise the provenance of the banded travertine blocks in the ancient city. The banded travertine samples have similar mineral compositions and mainly consist of calcite with minor amounts of dolomite, aragonite, clay and iron oxide minerals. These results are also supported by CRS studies. Calcite is in the form of needle-shaped crystals ranging between 0.163–1.418 mm (in city) and 0.303–1.270 mm (in quarry). Tripolis banded travertine samples show the similar compositional spread in terms of major oxide, trace elements. δ¹³CV-PDB values of banded travertines range from 1.93 to 5.25‰ (in city) and 2.99 to 3.99‰ (in quarry), δ¹⁸OV-PDB values change between (−16.93)–(−10.08) ‰ and (−15.93)–(−13.01)‰, respectively. The U–Th radiometric ages are determined between ∼267 and 9 ka in Tripolis city samples and ∼350 and 2 ka in Tripolis quarry samples. The minero-petrographic, geochemical, C–O and U–Th isotope results fairly matched with each other. It seems highly probable that the banded travertines in Tripolis city were extracted from the Tripolis quarry, which is located at the northeast of the antique city with a distance of 3 km.
Il presente lavoro ha per oggetto una classe di materiale ceramico, quella degli unguentari tardo antichi, solo recentemente venuta all’attenzione del mondo scientifico e piuttosto diffusa nel bacino del Mediterraneo e specialmente in quello orientale. Molte sono le problematiche connesse a questo tipo di contenitore fittile : di particolare importanza è la questione della sua produzione e diffusione. Il corpus degli unguentari tardo antichi dagli scavi del martyrion di Hierapolis qui presentato costituisce un contributo verso una maggior precisazione del quadro della distribuzione e circolazione di questi contenitori fittili in Anatolia e dunque, più in generale, nel Mediterraneo. Contemporaneamente i risultati preliminari d’analisi minero-petrografiche recentemente effettuate, permettono di impostare sul piano scientifico l’importante tema delle aree di produzione di questa classe di materiale.
Ceramic unguentaria are among the most common grave offerings of the Hellenistic and early Roman periods. The function of these vessels in funerary contexts, however, and their chronology have not yet been firmly established. A preliminary study of the unguentaria from the site of Stobi in Yugoslavian Macedonia suggests new directions of investigation. Information about the context, appearance, capacity, frequency, and chronology of unguentaria at Stobi and elsewhere indicates that 1) unguentaria were produced in many centers rather than in just a few, 2) any proposed chronology for unguentaria must take into account this regional or local variation, and 3) the function of unguentaria found in burials was closely connected to funerary ritual and not necessarily related to the commercial trade in perfumed oils and unguents.
This study is a geochemical analytical approach to the characterization of pottery samples from an archaeological site near Mošnje (Slovenia). Inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry and statistical analyses were used to determine detailed geochemical properties of the pottery sherds and to identify potentially individual groups among the samples studied. The geochemical results indicated the existence of four major groups of the pottery sherds: the first and second groups are assembled from eight samples, all generally characterized by their high CaO and TOT/C content; the third group comprised the samples with the highest SiO2 concentrations; and the fourth group is represented by the samples K3, K5 and K13. The principal component analysis and cluster analysis validated the existing groups and revealed a high degree of chemical similarity between these groups. The geochemical and statistical data confirmed the archaeologists’ hypothesis and interpretation of a similar origin/alteration of source material/probable local ceramic production for the majority of the pottery sherds; the imported origin of samples K3 and K13 was recognized, while sample K5 had been intentionally imported as a sample for comparative purposes.
For the characterization of archaeological ceramics, the study of thin sections under the polarizing microscope is a very efficient analytical technique. There are two properties of ceramics which can be analysed by thin sections, namely the mineralogical composition and the fabric. Both features show a considerable variety which permits a very detailed description of ceramic wares. With respect to the mineralogical composition, there is a wide variety of rock forming minerals, of heavy and ore minerals, fragments of stone, fossils, organic inclusions like straw or pieces of charcoal as well as artificial inclusions like slag or crushed pottery, which define with the temper of the pottery in much detail. The fabric also shows considerable differences in grain size, in the amount of temper, in the orientation of grains and other features, which provide further quantitative data on the properties of archaeological ceramics. From this information, the material can be well characterised, and conclusions as to the region of origin and the potter's techniques can often be drawn.
Roman pottery excavated from the remains of a villa rustica near Mošnje (Slovenia) was analyzed in terms of its mineralogical and basic geochemical characteristics, to elucidate the technologies of manufacture. Selected samples were examined with optical microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, SEM–EDS and ICP-OES. Results show that the studied pottery samples can be divided into two main groups based on the nature and size of grains; calcite-tempered pottery and pottery containing predominant fine quartz grains. This mineralogical distinction also reflects differences in production technology.
The Iron Age ceramic technology used in the manufacture of functional pottery from Galilee was studied. Applied methods included petrography, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy and chemical analyses. The results demonstrate that the potters in biblical times had knowledge of raw materials and manufacturing technologies, enabling them to select suitable ones, according to their advantages, for the manufacture of cooking pots, storage jars and tableware vessels. The paper describes the petrography of the pottery, the composition of the ceramic matrix, the firing temperature, the tempering of the cooking pots, the processes that allow consolidation of the ceramic and the origin of the pottery. The results are placed in an archaeological context.
This study is focussed on the behaviour of Permo-Triassic ceramic clays from the area around Castellon (Spain) having a large ceramic industry. The aim of this work is to establish the mineralogical composition of Permo-Triassic raw materials and fired ceramic bodies. Particular emphasis is placed on the compositional variations along the lithostratigraphic section. Bulk rock XRD analysis shows a homogeneous composition dominated by quartz, phyllosilicates and hematite. Minor components (< 5%) include potassium feldspar, dolomite and calcite. The clay minerals assemblage is formed by illite ± kaolin ± chlorite ± I/S ± C/S. Test samples have been prepared by extrusion and firing in the range of 900-1150 °C. Analysis of the fired samples was carried out by X-ray diffraction. The results from the study of mineralogical transformations show the persistence of illite up to at least 900 °C. From the destruction of illite, an intermediate phase between spinel and hercynite originates. Quartz and hematites are present in all samples. These clays are an excellent raw material for the formulation of low porosity ceramic stoneware.
Estimates of the average composition of various Precambrian shields and
a variety of estimates of the average composition of upper continental
crust show considerable disagreement for a number of trace elements,
including Ti, Nb, Ta, Cs, Cr, Ni, V, and Co. For these elements and
others that are carried predominantly in terrigenous sediment, rather
than in solution (and ultimately into chemical sediment), during the
erosion of continents the La/element ratio is relatively uniform in
clastic sediments. Since the average rare earth element (REE) pattern of
terrigenous sediment is widely accepted to reflect the upper continental
crust, such correlations provide robust estimates of upper crustal
abundances for these trace elements directly from the sedimentary data.
Suggested revisions to the upper crustal abundances of Taylor and
McLennan [1985] are as follows (all in parts per million): Sc = 13.6, Ti
= 4100, V = 107, Cr = 83, Co = 17, Ni = 44, Nb = 12, Cs = 4.6, Ta = 1.0,
and Pb = 17. The upper crustal abundances of Rb, Zr, Ba, Hf, and Th were
also directly reevaluated and K, U, and Rb indirectly evaluated (by
assuming Th/U, K/U, and K/Rb ratios), and no revisions are warranted for
these elements. In the models of crustal composition proposed by Taylor
and McLennan [1985] the lower continental crust (75% of the entire
crust) is determined by subtraction of the upper crust (25%) from a
model composition for the bulk crust, and accordingly, these changes
also necessitate revisions to lower crustal abundances for these
elements.
The effect on ceramic products of firing conditions in the presence of abundant organic matter is assessed here experimentally by reproducing two ancient firing techniques: pit firing, characterised by a high heating rate and short residence time in a reducing atmosphere; kiln firing, with a low heating rate and long residence time in an oxidising atmosphere. As expected, pit firing conditions produced uniformly reduced ceramics, and gehlenite, diopside and spinet occurred at suitable temperatures (above 900 degrees C). Interestingly, in kiln firing conditions, sandwich structures formed in the ceramics, in which mineral assemblages and Fe oxidation state turned out to be different in the black core with respect to the margin. Spinel, cordierite and metallic Fe formed in the core, whereas hematite and spinel, in addition to gehlenite and diopside, crystallised in the margin at suitable temperatures (above 800 degrees C). Therefore, despite the oxidising atmosphere of the firing, reducing conditions occurred in the core, suggesting sluggish oxygen diffusion within the pottery. In addition, decomposition of reactant mineral phases and crystallisation of new mineral products in pit firing conditions occurred at temperatures about 50 degrees C higher than in kiln firing conditions, indicating that residence time strongly controlled reaction kinetics, as higher temperatures (i.e., a higher degree of reaction overstepping) are required when residence time is lower. On the contrary, illite broke down at a lower temperature than expected in both sets of firing conditions. This is interpreted as the effect of reduced water fugacity caused by burning of the organic matter. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A selected assortment of Archaic-Hellenistic tableware samples from Solunto, a Phoenician-Punic site located 20 km east of Palermo (Sicily), has been subjected to thin-section petrography and chemical analysis (XRF). In this settlement several ceramic kilns remained operative over a long time period (7th to 3rd century B.C.). The main goal of this analytical study is to distinguish the ceramics manufactured locally from regional and off-island imports. Analytical results were matched to similar data concerning local natural clay sources and to coeval tableware productions from other sites in the same area. The ceramic pastes used by the ancient craftsmen of Solunto in the case of this class of pottery could be differentiated clearly by their petrochemical characteristics. We conclude that ceramics were locally produced far beyond satisfying just internal consumption needs, indicating interaction of Solunto with neighboring Greek colonies, indigenous people, and Phoenician-Punic colonies of Sicily. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Pottery from the Neolithic Mendandia site has been studied. The radiocarbon dating of the site corresponds to a range of dates from 7488–7546 cal bc to 5283–5437 cal bc: the first occurrence of pottery is dated at 5968–6040 cal bc for the lower level III, and up to 5386–5560 cal bc for level II. The antiquity of the potsherds places them within the oldest pottery production sequences in the Iberian Peninsula, which adds to the interest of this study. Ten potsherds from level II and five from level III are analysed for their petrographic and chemical characterization. The petrographic data show two different methods of raw materials manufacture—intentionally tempered pottery (ITP), using calcite and/or limestone and grog, and naturally or non-intentionally tempered pottery (NTP). According to the matrix paste features, on the basis of the amount, shape, and average or size range of the mineral inclusions, clayed (type A) and sandy (type B) paste types were established and related to two different source areas. The chemical features also indicate two raw material sources and are in agreement with the petrographic paste types. The absence of significant chemical and mineralogical differences between the pottery from levels II and III suggests two contrasting areas for raw materials supply that lasted for at least 600 years.
Ceramics from the late prehistoric periods at Sos Höyük, in Eastern Anatolia, located along a thoroughfare that connects the Trans-Caucasus, Iran and central Anatolia, were subjected to petrographic and X-ray fluorescence analysis in order to characterise the clay groups, with a view to determining provenance and production patterns. Dominated by Kura-Araxes Ware, the data from the sequence at Sos Höyük were compared with the previous studies from the neighbouring regions to understand commonalities in pottery production. The analyses reveal a local production of vessels, most probably for household use. Although Sos Höyük potters shared similarities in the procurement pattern of raw clays and production technique with their neighbours, differences can be also recognized.Highlights► We analyzed some Late Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze age ceramics of Kura-Araxes culture from Sos Höyük, in Eastern Anatolia using petrographic and geochemical methods. ► They were produced locally from different clay sources. ► No clear preference for any particular clay source for certain ceramic types and vice versa was determined. ► The ceramics were most likely produced for household use and local consumption. ► Our results show similarity in their pottery-making tradition, mode of production and production technique to the Kura-Araxes community in other regions.
The present study is a multi-analytical approach on the characterization of several potsherd samples, dated from prehistoric to hellenistic times, from Aiani, ancient Upper Macedonia, northern Greece. In particular, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy, coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray system (ESEM-EDX) were used for the determination of the morphological, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the potsherds. The preliminary results indicated a rather local provenance of the analyzed ancient pottery samples and a finer texture and thus better ceramic manufacture as getting to hellenistic era. The use of a silicious or calcerous raw material is probably related to the specific utilization of each ceramic vessel in ancient times. The presence of gehlenite or pyroxene minerals in the ceramic matrix indicated higher firing temperatures, while lower temperatures were deduced when finding phylosilicate minerals. The preliminary results of this study do not necessarily imply that all the pottery of this area, belonging to the same chronological type, have similar physicochemical characteristics.
Clay has always played a major role in human life. Clay raw materials are used and their value recognized in many economic branches, agriculture, civil engineering and environmental studies. This is largely because of their wide-ranging properties, high resistance to atmospheric conditions, geochemical purity, easy access to their deposits near the earth's surface and low price.Clay minerals, the essential constituents of argillaceous rocks, can be classified in seven groups according, to their crystal structure and crystal chemistry. Clay raw materials are divided in the same way into seven groups. An eighth group covers clay ochres and pigments. Further classification is based on the purpose-made technological application. Some examples show relations between the crystal structure or crystal chemistry of the dominant phyllosilicate and the technological properties. The chapter “Utilization of clay raw materials in industry and other human activities” is the most extensive. It gives information on the application of clay raw materials or individual clay minerals: in the production of foods, feedstuffs, beverages, paper, rubber, plastics, artificial leather, protective coatings for interior and exterior use, pharmaceutics, cosmetics, paints, pencils, pastels, porcelain, electro-porcelain and other fine ceramics, coarse ceramics and sialon ceramics; in the foundries, various branches of the chemical, petroleum and cement industries, agriculture and forestry; in the preparation of agrochemicals and special fertilizers, lubricating oils and gels, lightweight ceramics and effective sorbents; in the manufacture of mineral wool, in briquetting and pelletizing processes; as ingredients in grinding and polishing pastes, in the insulations of dumps of various kinds of waste (including toxic and radioactive waste), in thermally, electrically, acoustically and chemically resistant insulations, and in filters for the treatment of industrial, agricultural and similar outflows.The earth sciences use the clay minerals in the earth crust: (1) as indicators of the environment during weathering, allothi- and authigenesis in the sediments and in the study of the source areas of the detrital supply; (2) as pH indicators and indicators of processes in micro- and mega-environments and of changes in the course of diagenesis and metamorphosis. Mineralogical, petrological, geological and geochemical investigations directed to clay minerals serve as one of the correlation methods, in the recognition of processes in the petroleum-bearing sediments, coal-bearing formations, origin of riverine, lacustrine, marine and oceanic sediments and in the climatic, geodynamic, paleogeographical, stratigraphic and weathering rate interpretations.
Late antique unguentaria discovered at the Olba excavations
- Aydın
Aydın, S., 2019. Late antique unguentaria discovered at the Olba excavations. J. Ceram.
Res. 1, 97-135.
- M J Baxter
Baxter, M.J., 2003. Statistics in Archaeology. Arnold, London.