Content uploaded by Kamal Badar
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Kamal Badar on Dec 17, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
E
uropean J. International Managemen
t
, Vol. X, No. Y, XXXX
Copyright © 200X Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Cosmopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness
and green purchase intentions: mediating role of
green trust
Kamal Badar*
Brian Picot Chair of Ethical Leadership,
School of Management,
Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Email: kamal.badar@vuw.ac.nz
Email: kamal.badar1980@gmail.com
*Corresponding author
Amira Khattak
College of Business Administration,
Prince Sultan University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Email: akhattak@psu.edu.sa
Email: dramirakhattak@gmail.com
Muhammad Danish
Institute of Management Sciences (IMS),
University of Balochistan,
Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan
Email: muhammaddanis@googlemail.com
Adeel Tariq
Department of Management & HR, NUST Business School,
NUST Business School,
National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Email: atariq.adeel@gmail.com
Qasim Ali Nisar
Department of Business Administration and Management Sciences,
The Superior College,
Lahore, Pakistan
Email: qasimalinisar@yahoo.com
K
. Badar et al.
Abstract: Based on consumer culture theory and the theory of planned
behaviour, our study examines cosmopolitan orientation as an antecedent to
consumer awareness of the environment and health. The study examines the
impact of consumers’ environmental and health consciousness on their green
purchase intentions and the mediating effect of green trust on these
relationships. A questionnaire was distributed to 276 students in Karachi
and Islamabad using the convenient sampling approach. The results were
tested using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The findings reveal
that a cosmopolitan orientation positively impacts consumers’ environmental
consciousness but not health consciousness. Moreover, consumers’
environmental consciousness does not impact green purchase intentions
through green trust. However, consumers’ health consciousness does positively
impact green purchase intentions through green trust. The study contributes to
the literature by proposing and testing a model that integrates constructs from
two significant trends in the consumer market, namely, consumer
cosmopolitanism and green purchase behaviour.
Keywords: cosmopolitan orientation; environmental consciousness; health
consciousness; green purchase intention; green trust.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Badar, K., Khatttak, A.,
Danish, M., Tariq, A. and Nisar, Q.A. (xxxx) ‘Cosmopolitan orientation,
consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions: mediating role of green
trust’, European J. International Management, Vol. X, No. Y, pp.xxx–xxx.
Biographical notes: Kamal Badar is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow within
the Brian Picot Chair in Ethical Leadership. Before taking this role, he worked
as a Senior Researcher at the Prince Sultan University in Riyadh
(Saudi Arabia), as an Assistant Professor of Management at the University of
Balochistan in Pakistan and as a Visiting Scholar at the Brigham Young
University (BYU) in Provo, Utah, USA. He has a background in Business
Strategy, Ethics, and Organisational Behaviour/Misbehaviour. Previously, he
has published in Scientometrics, Aslib Journal of Information Management,
Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, Long Range Planning,
and European Journal of International Management.
Amira Khattak is an Associate Chair of the Marketing Department in the
College of Business Administration, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia.
She received her PhD degree from the University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Her areas of interest and research are environmental and social upgrading in
global value chains (GVCs). She is a Member of advisory and editorial boards
of various local and international journals.
Muhammad Danish is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Management
Sciences, University of Balochistan Quetta. He is also a PhD scholar in the
field of International Business and Marketing. His area of interest and research
are institutions and social upgrading in global value chains and green
marketing prospects in developing countries.
Adeel Tariq is an Assistant Professor of Innovation and Technology
Management at NUST Business School, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan. His research mainly focuses on green
product and process innovation, open innovation, new product development,
digital transformation and start-up financing. He has published papers in
internationally recognised journals such as Journal of Intellectual Capital,
European Journal of Innovation Management, Technology in Society, and
Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, among others.
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
Qasim Ali Nisar is an Assistant Professor at faculty of Business Administration
and Management Sciences, Superior University Lahore. He is the Director of
Research Solutions Consultancy, and organised more than 50 training
workshops on different statistical tools (Smart PLS, AMOS, SPSS, and NVivo)
in Malaysia, Indonesia and Pakistan. His carries out research in management,
organisational behaviours and leadership, human resource management and
hospitality and tourism management. He has published in reputed international
journals e.g. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, Land Use Policy,
European Journal of International Management, Asian Women, Sage Open,
Journal of Islamic Marketing and Global Business Review.
This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled
‘Cosmopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase
intention: mediating role of green trust’ presented at ‘IBA|ICM 2016’,
Malaysia, 2016.
1 Introduction
In recent years, two significant global trends have redefined consumer markets (Grinstein
and Riefler, 2015). The first trend relates to increased globalisation and the subsequent
emergence of consumer cosmopolitanism, and the second trend relates to green purchase
behaviours (Chen, 2009; Cleveland et al., 2009, 2011; Grinstein and Riefler, 2015; Leung
et al., 2015; Mondelaers et al., 2009; Steenkamp et al., 2003; Steenkamp, 2017, 2019;
Xie et al., 2015). Consumer cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitan orientation refers to
“the attitudinal and value orientations of individuals who immerse as part of the
globalised world” (Leung et al., 2015, p.1). According to Beck and Sznaider (2010),
“globalisation is something taking place ‘out there’, cosmopolitanisation happens ‘from
within’…The question, then, is: how would we operationalise this conception of the
world as a collection of different cultures and divergent modernities? Cosmopolitanisation
should be chiefly conceived of as globalisation from within, as internalised
cosmopolitanism” (p.9). The application of cosmopolitanism in the literature has been
largely theoretical, with limited empirical research on the antecedents or outcomes
of consumer cosmopolitanism (Cleveland et al., 2009). The theoretical foundation of
consumer cosmopolitanism is based on consumer cultural theory (Arnould and
Thompson, 2005, 2018). The core argument is that, in not-too-distant past, consumer
culture was predominantly local in content. However, in recent decades, consumer
culture has been increasingly shaped by the processes of globalisation (Steenkamp et al.,
2003; Steenkamp, 2017).
The theories around green purchase behaviours encompass concepts such as
sustainable/pro-environmental behaviour, consumers’ environmental and health
consciousness, green trust and green purchase intentions (Chen, 2009; Chen and Chang,
2012, 2013; Mondelaers et al., 2009). Sustainable/pro-environmental behaviour often
involves environmental activity and sustainable/green consumption (Simpson and
Radford, 2014). The motivation behind green consumption is that green products (e.g.
organic food, cosmetics, information and electronic products) are perceived as healthy
and environment-friendly (Chen, 2009, 2010; Zahid et al., 2018). However, consumers
still tend to follow non-sustainable behaviours and purchase non-environmentally
friendly alternatives (Cronin et al., 2011; Olson, 2013). For example, a recent study
K
. Badar et al.
indicates that although 40% of consumers report a willingness to buy green products,
only 4% actually do (Luchs et al., 2010). The reason for this discrepancy may be a lack
of green trust (Chen, 2010). The theoretical foundation of green purchase behaviours is
built on the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and the theory of
planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). The core argument associated with these theories
is that human behaviour is governed by behavioural intentions, which in turn, are
influenced by attitude (evaluation of the target behaviour), subjective norms (judgment
about others’ potential attitude towards the target behaviour) and perceived behavioural
control (perceived ability to perform the target behaviour) (Chen and Hung, 2016).
Research integrating these two trends in the consumer market (i.e. consumer
cosmopolitanism and green purchase behaviours) has been limited. For example,
Grinstein and Riefler (2015) showed that highly cosmopolitan consumers demonstrate
environmental concern and engage in sustainable behaviour. Leung et al. (2015) found
that the cosmopolitan orientation of an individual will predict his/her pro-environmental
behaviour. We extend this work of Grinstein and Riefler (2015) and Leung et al. (2015)
by positing that consumers’ cosmopolitan orientations will be antecedents to their
consciousness of the environment and health. Moreover, going beyond the other studies,
we posit that consumers’ environmental and health consciousness will lead to green
purchase intentions as mediated by green trust. While previous research has tested green
trust as a mediator between variables such as green perceived quality, green perceived
risk, green satisfaction, green brand image and green purchase intentions (Chen, 2010;
Chen and Chang, 2012; Gil and Jacob, 2018), they have not investigated the mediating
role of green trust in the consumer’s environmental and health consciousness. We have
good reason to believe that green trust may be a mediator between consumers’
environmental and health consciousness. Because companies sometimes make confusing,
or at worst fraudulent, claims about their green products and practices (Chen, 2010),
consumers may be unwilling to trust their products. Therefore, drawing on consumer
cultural theory (Arnould and Thompson, 2005, 2018; Slater, 1997) and the theory of
planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), our study proposes an integrated model that tests
the impact of a cosmopolitan orientation on consumer consciousness (both environmental
and health related) and further seeks to find the relationship between consumer
consciousness (environmental and health) and the green purchase intention of consumers
as mediated by green trust.
The remainder of the paper is organised as follows: A literature review and
hypotheses section presents the development of the hypotheses based on a review of
relevant literature. The research methods section presents the methodology and includes
a description of the data collected from 276 students and the measurement of relevant
variables. The results section presents the empirical results. The discussion section
presents a discussion of the results, the contribution of the study and its implications. The
limitations and recommendations section presents the limitations of the study and
provides recommendations for future research.
2 Literature review and hypotheses
Our research model draws on consumer cultural theory (Arnould and Thompson, 2005,
2018; Slater, 1997) and the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). Arnould
and Thompson (2005, p.869) define consumer culture as “a social arrangement in which
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
the relations between lived culture and social resources, and between meaningful ways of
life and the symbolic and material resources on which they depend, are mediated through
markets.” The consumer culture is about the consumption of commodities (including
tangible products and intangible products such as services, images, lifestyles, and
symbols) mediated by markets (Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Consumer culture is
closely associated with the principles of modernity, choice, individual freedom, and
market relations (Slater 1997, p.8). In recent years, consumer culture has been
increasingly shaped by the globalisation process, which, accompanied by societal and
technological developments, has led to the emergence of a growing segment of
cosmopolitan consumers (Cleveland et al. 2009, 2011; Grinstein and Riefler, 2015).
The theory of planned behaviour talks about human behaviour resulting from rational
choice rather than from wilful action (Chen and Hung, 2016). Ajzen (1985) argued that
the subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and attitude all affect intention, which
in turn, affects real behaviour. Ajzen (1991, p.188) further defines attitude towards
behaviour as “the degree to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation
or appraisal of the behaviour in question”, the subjective norm is defined as “the
perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behaviour”, and perceived
behavioural control is defined as “the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the
behaviour.” Rivis et al. (2009, p.2985) proposed that “the theory of planned behaviour is
perhaps the most influential theory in the prediction of social and health behaviours.”
The theory of planned behaviour therefore offers a clearly defined structure for the
investigation of the various factors leading to consumers’ green purchase intentions
(Al Mamun et al., 2018; Chen and Hung, 2016; Hsu et al., 2017; Yadav and Pathak,
2016, 2017).
2.1 Cosmopolitan orientation and consumer consciousness
(environment and health)
The recent expansion of globalisation, accompanied by the development and integration
of information and communication technologies, has significantly shaped consumer
culture (Steenkamp, 2019). The proponents of globalisation argue that the diffusion of
global social movements (climate change, health, human rights activities, relief
operations, etc.) contributes to the development of homogeneous thought processes that
converge to create a similar form of identity for people, irrespective of their culture,
norms, economic conditions and lifestyle (Pieterse, 2015). Although opponents of
globalisation disagree with the concept of cultural homogenisation, they agree that
globalisation has provided a mechanism whereby people can experience a sense of
attachment to global issues and humankind (Hite and Seitz, 2015). Both schools of
thought agree that globalisation is creating a sense of global citizenship, which in the
literature, is called a cosmopolitan orientation (Cleveland et al. 2009, 2011; Grinstein and
Riefler, 2015; Hull et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2015). Initially, cosmopolitan scholars
argued that a person needs to travel through different countries to become familiar with
their cultures and practices before consumer behaviour will alter (Hull et al., 2010). More
recently, globalisation in the form of social and electronic media has created a platform
for communication and interaction between diverse cultures without the need to travel.
Thus, a cosmopolitan orientation now suggests that people are global citizens and
follow global norms, practices, issues and lifestyles even without geographical exposure
(Leung et al., 2015).
K
. Badar et al.
In the vast literature on the cosmopolitan orientation, two major attributes are
identified (Leung et al., 2015). First, cultural openness means that people are more
receptive and likely to engage in connecting with people, places and experiences from
diverse cultures (Cleveland et al. 2009, 2011; Roudometof, 2005). The second
characteristic of the cosmopolitan orientation is the paradigm of justice, where people
recognise that all human beings are equal, regardless of their nationalities, cultures or
religion. Global norms are universally applicable and human rights and global awareness
are promoted for development, peace and reduced conflict in a better world (Bilsky et al.,
2011). This concept is called global pro-sociality, and this paper argues that people who
consider and promote human rights and global issues and are more likely to follow global
trends in their lifestyle and consumption decision making.
Environmental consciousness involves an awareness by consumers of the impact of
their consumption on ecology and the environment (Chen and Hung, 2016; Schlegelmilch
et al., 1996). Environment Consciousness (EC) includes three major streams. The first
stream deals with macro-marketing related to consumer attitudes and the behaviour of
dominant western societies, conceptualised as a conflict between materialism and green
values (Burroughs and Rindfleisch, 2002). The second stream focuses on micro-
marketing issues related to consumers’ awareness of environmental issues, and green
consumers are classified according to several variables including geographic, ethical,
cultural, socio-demographic and psychographic measures (such as tolerance, dogmatism,
attitude, values, personality, beliefs and lifestyle) that impact their green behaviour
(Azzurra and Paola, 2009; Chan et al., 2008; Chang, 2013). The third stream focuses on
the relationship between green attitudes and green behaviour from diverse perspectives
such as energy savings (Chetty et al., 2008; Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012),
product-related behaviours such as recycling and the supply chain (Das et al., 2010), the
price perspective, that is, paying extra for green products (Van Doorn and Verhoef, 2011,
2015), and greenwashing or scepticism related to consumer perceptions and actions
(Chen, 2009; Marquis et al., 2016). This paper follows the second of these streams in
studying the EC construct (Leung et al., 2015).
Health consciousness, on the other hand, is a personal awareness of a healthy lifestyle
(Michaelidou and Hassan, 2008). The basic driver of health consciousness is
information-seeking behaviour in individuals (De Choudhury et al., 2014; Dutta-
Bergman, 2004; Dutta, 2007) developed through traveling to different places, by reading
local and foreign newspapers and magazines, by using interpersonal networks on social
media, and by engaging in discussion on health-related issues with colleagues and friends
(Marquis et al., 2016).
The relationship between Cosmopolitan Orientation (CO) and consumer
consciousness (environment and health) is based on knowledge acquisition (Najam et al.,
2007). International humanitarian organisations vigorously spread knowledge about
environmental and health issues to firms and communities, emphasising the need to cut
carbon emissions by altering lifestyles and by moving towards green products (Goswami
and Ha-Brookshire, 2015; Jasanoff, 1997). These messages are vigorously spread
through all sorts of media that provide stimuli for cosmopolitan oriented individuals to
recognise the problems and to act to mitigate the damage (Williams et al., 2014). This is
because cosmopolitan oriented people are more inclined to follow the global community
online, to follow television (TV) channels and to read foreign magazines and
newspapers. In other words, they have a deeper awareness of global interdependence
(Laufer, 2003; Leung et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2014) by the virtue of knowledge
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
acquisition regarding an improved environment (Goh et al., 2013). A meta-analysis by
Hines et al. (1987) found a positive correlation between knowledge of environmental
issues and consequences involving pro-environmental behaviours. Hence, such
knowledge is regarded as a necessary condition when taking a pro-environmental stance.
A deeper awareness of the issues that people from all around the world are facing may
instil a still greater consciousness of the importance of global cooperation, enabling the
individual to become more conscious of the necessity for global action.
Similarly, the cosmopolitan oriented consumer uses several sources of media to
obtain health information (Dutta-Bergman, 2004; Dutta, 2007). The search for health-
related information on various global sites, or becoming part of global communities,
makes consumers aware of health issues as they encounter knowledge on health topics.
Consumers with a cosmopolitan orientation follow the media for information that can
improve their health and enable them to understand health issues, thereby to achieve a
better life. This information-seeking behaviour by consumers is shaped by their
connectivity with different sources of media, such as newspapers, magazines, social
media and electronic media (Dutta, 2007; Williams et al., 2014). Therefore, we
hypothesise that:
H1: The Cosmopolitan Orientation (CO) of a consumer positively impacts his/her
Environmental Consciousness (EC).
H2: The Cosmopolitan Orientation (CO) of a consumer positively impacts his/her Health
Consciousness (HC).
2.2 Consumer consciousness (environment and health) and green purchase
intentions: the mediating role of green trust
Purchase intention is considered a predisposition to behaviour by which consumers show
their willingness to purchase, although they have not yet purchased, making it an
important element in forecasting consumer behaviour in the marketing literature (Royne
et al., 2011). Drawing from the theory of planned behaviour, several factors can lead to
consumers’ purchase intentions for green products. These include ecological affect and
ecological knowledge, eco-literacy, self-efficacy, environmental consciousness, ethics,
beliefs, concerns, knowledge, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, perceived
value and perceived willingness to pay a premium (Al Mamun et al., 2018; Chen and
Hung, 2016; Hsu et al., 2017; Kanchanapibul et al., 2014; Karatu and Mat, 2013; Yadav
and Pathak, 2016, 2017). Green Purchase Intention (GPI) can be explained as the
willingness of a person to prefer green products over traditional products in their
purchase considerations (Chen and Chang, 2012). The concept of GPI has also been
explored using the lens of “political consumerism”, which involves situations when
people evaluate and choose producers and products because they want to change
ethically, environmentally or politically objectionable institutional or marketing practices
(Micheletti and Boström, 2014). This may be achieved by using boycotts (negative
shopping decisions), buycotts (positive shopping decisions), discursive political
consumerism (opinion formation based on views held by individuals and/or collectives)
and lifestyle political consumerism (using one’s private life sphere to comment on
consumption practices).
In our study, we argue that environmentally-conscious consumers are heavily
influenced by a cross-national mindset and by values that seek care and protective
K
. Badar et al.
responses for environmental concerns, and they hold positive attitudes towards green
products (Chen and Hung, 2016). The enhanced awareness of environmentally-conscious
consumers encourages them to contribute globally and nationally by boycotting non-
sustainable products and opting for green products (Micheletti and Boström, 2014). In
this context, researchers argue that consumers can respond aggressively and can boycott
products of a firm engaged in non-sustainable practices (Tariq et al., 2019a). Research
has shown that consumers who support green issues through interaction with global
ecological networks are more likely to have the intention to purchase green products
(Sheth et al., 2011; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996). Thus,
awareness of environmental challenges may enhance the environmentally-conscious
consumer’s green product purchase intentions. Second, researchers argue that green
products are better in quality, reliability and offer environmentally friendly attributes that
are valued by environmentally-conscious consumers (Tariq et al., 2019 a, 2019b).
Concerning green products, research shows that perceived health benefits are also
major reasons for consumers’ inclination to purchase green products (Chen, 2009;
Hughner et al., 2007; Mondelaers et al., 2009; Van Huylenbroek et al., 2009). For
example, prior research shows that people who have great concern for their health also
have positive attitudes towards organic products (Chen, 2009; Devcich et al., 2007;
Hughner et al., 2007; Magnusson et al., 2001; Mondelaers et al., 2009; Van Doorn and
Verhoef, 2015; Van Huylenbroek et al., 2009; Williams and Hammit, 2001). That is,
several studies show that individuals who are health conscious engage in organic
food purchase, which is perceived as environmentally friendly and healthier than
conventionally grown food (Magnusson et al., 2001).
The awareness that environmental and health consciousness brings to the consumer is
probably enough to increase green purchase intention, but we suspect there is an
additional indirect effect through green trust. Green trust is defined as “a willingness to
depend on one object based on the belief or expectation resulting from its credibility,
benevolence, and ability about environmental performance” (Chen, 2010, p.309). Trust is
a belief that can be undermined when a consumer perceives that all advertising messages
are similar or that they have purchased fraudulent products mistakenly (Delmas and
Burbano, 2011; Marquis et al., 2016). Companies with ambiguous messages about
green claims and exaggerated claims about their products can erode green trust
(Goh et al., 2013). Green trust may help transform consumers’ environmental and health
consciousness into green purchase intentions. Consumers who are more conscious about
the environment and health may have greater confidence regarding the attributes and
effects of green products in achieving environmental and health protection. This may
increase consumer trust in green products, which may lead to the possibility of
purchasing. Therefore, building on previous findings regarding the mediating effects of
green trust in linking green product knowledge to green purchase intention (Wang et al.,
2019), we propose an indirect effect of green trust between consumer consciousness (of
the environment and health) and green purchase intentions.
Thus, this study hypothesises that:
H3a: Green Trust (GT) mediates the relationship between consumers’ environmental
consciousness and green purchase intentions.
H3b: Green Trust (GT) mediates the relationship between consumers’ health
consciousness and green purchase intentions.
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
Figure 1 Research framework
Environment
Consciousness
Green Purchase
Intention
Cosmopolitan
Orientation (global
pro-sociality)
Green Trust
Health
consciousness
H1
H2
H3ab
3 Research methods
3.1 Sample
Our context is interesting because Pakistan is the 6th most populous country with 64%
of the population of Pakistan below the age of 30, and 29% between the ages of
15–29 years; the trend is forecasted to continue to increase until at least 2050 (see United
Nations Development Programme, 2017). With around 35 million internet users, it is the
5th-largest mobile phone market in Asia with 8 million Facebook, 2 million Twitter, and
1.2 million LinkedIn users (Express Tribune, 2016). These statistics indicate that the
major portion of the population is young and that they are inclined to interact with the
global world. Therefore, university students, aged between 18 to 30 years, representing
the young generation or millennial consumers (Gilal et al., 2019), were selected as a
sample for the current study. Young consumers, as compared to older consumers, are
more likely to be influenced by the latest global trends (Rafi et al., 2012) and more
sensitive to environment and health concerns (Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Deloitte
Global Millennial Survey, 2019). Moreover, prior research suggests that student sample
is reliable in studies of young consumers’ behaviour (Cheah and Phau, 2011;
DelVecchio, 2000; Yadav and Pathak, 2016). The top-ranked universities were selected,
based on the Higher Education Commission (HEC) ranking for 2014 because top-ranked
universities usually follow global trends, align with the latest developments in curricula
and encourage their students to participate in global events. Final year students from
different departments of three private and three public universities operating in Karachi
and Islamabad were requested to participate in the research. To serve our purpose, in the
departments identified in the selected `universities, data enumerators visited the head of
the department and requested to meet with the final year students. With the prior
permission of the teacher, a survey research method was used, and self-administered
questionnaires were distributed to a total of 300 students from the identified departments,
thereby applying the convenience sampling technique (Hamid et al., 2012). Out of
300 students, 276 students returned completed questionnaires (92% response rate). Of
these 276 students, 51% respondents (n=140) were males and 49% (n=136) were
females; additionally, 55% of respondents (n=152) were in public universities, and 45%
were in private universities (n=124).
K
. Badar et al.
3.2 Measures
The following variables were operationalised:
Cosmopolitan orientation: A Cosmopolitan Orientation (CO) is conceptualised as
global pro-sociality and it was measured on 5 items with an interval scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) as adapted from Leung et al. (2015).
Health consciousness (HC): Health Consciousness is defined as individual awareness
about health and lifestyle and measured on 5 items with an interval scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) as adapted from Dutta-Bergman (2004).
Environmental consciousness (EC): Environmental consciousness is the individual
awareness of environmental issues that can alter consumer decisions relating to green
products. Five items were measured using an interval scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) as adapted from Roberts and Bacon (1997).
Green purchase intention (GPI): Consumers’ willingness to purchase green products
was measured on three items using an interval scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
5 (strongly agree) as adapted from Chen and Chang (2012).
Green trust (GT): This study defines green trust as the willingness to depend on a
product, service or brand based on a belief or expectation resulting from its credibility,
benevolence and environmental performance. It is measured by five items using an
interval scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) as adapted from
Chen (2010).
4 Results
Table 1 reports the latent variable correlations. The results reveal some surprises. The
correlations between CO and EC (ρ=0.528), HC and GT (ρ=0.810), HC and GPI
(ρ=0.656) and GT and GPI (ρ=0.825) are positive and significant (at 0.01 and 0.05 levels
of significance), whereas the rest of the correlations are insignificant apart from the EC
and GPI correlation, which is negative and significant (ρ=–0.117).
Table 1 Latent variable correlations
1 2 3 4
1. Cosmopolitan orientation –
2. Environmental consciousness 0.528** –
3. Health consciousness –0.057 –0.072 –
4. Green trust –0.040 –0.016 0.810** –
5. Green purchase intentions –0.085 –0.117* 0.656* 0.825**
Notes: ** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level; * Correlation is significant at 0.05
level.
Table 2 reports the factor loadings, Composite Reliability (CR), Average Variance
Extracted (AVE) and Cronbach’s α that are used to check the convergent validity and
reliability of the constructs. The validity of the constructs is said to be convergent when
items load highly (>0.50) on their constructs (Hair et al., 2011) and the results reveal that
the values of the factor loadings are greater than 0.50. The convergent validity of the
constructs is measured by using the AVE and CR. The value of the AVE for all of the
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
constructs is above 0.50, and CR is greater than 0.8, indicating that the convergent
validity of the constructs is established. The minimum requirement for Cronbach’s α
coefficient is 0.7 (Hair et al., 2006). In Table 2, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of CO is
0.781, that of EC is 0.824, that of HC is 0.933, that of green trust is 0.821 and that of GPI
is 0.852. Because the Cronbach’s α coefficient of all constructs is more than 0.7, the
measurement of this study is acceptable for reliability.
Table 2 Confirmatory factor analysis
Constructs Items Loadings Cronbach’s α CR AVE
Cosmopolitan orientation
(CO)
CO1 0.801
0.781 0.851 0.536
CO2 0.699
CO3 0.811
CO4 0.725
CO5 0.606
Environmental
consciousness (EC)
EC1 0.821
0.824 0.877 0.589
EC2 0.727
EC3 0.856
EC4 0.719
EC5 0.703
Health consciousness (HC)
HC1 0.844
0.933 0.949 0.790
HC2 0.919
HC3 0.900
HC4 0.922
HC5 0.856
Green trust (GT)
GT1 0.781
0.821 0.874 0.582
GT2 0.760
GT3 0.716
GT4 0.814
GT5 0.739
Green purchase intentions
(GPI)
GP1 0.873
0.852 0.910 0.772 GP2 0.916
GP3 0.846
Notes: CR – Composite reliability; AVE – Average variance extracted.
Table 3 shows the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio, which is an effective approach to
access discriminant validity. Kline (2011) determined that the HTMT ratio should be less
than 0.85 to ensure the discriminant validity, and according to this criterion, all the ratio
values are greater than the minimum threshold that provides the evidence for
discriminant validity. Moreover, to test for the potential existence of common method
bias, we apply Harman’s (1976) single-factor test. The first factor accounts for only
31.41% of the overall variance, which indicates that the common method variance does
not affect the results (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). Furthermore, the standardised root
K
. Badar et al.
mean square residual (SRMR) value was less than 0.10 (0.08), which indicates that our
model has a good fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999).
Table 3 Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio
CO EC HC GT GPI
CO
EC 0.633
HC 0.074 0.104
GT 0.094 0.116 0.636
GPI 0.138 0.158 0.726 0.748
To understand the main relationship effects among the constructs, the SEM PLS
structural model analysis was conducted. The study used a bootstrapping procedure to
assess the significance of the path coefficients. Table 4 reports the direct effects. The
results reveal that CO has a positive and significant impact on EC (β= 0.528, t= 5.47),
providing support for H1. However, CO has a negative and insignificant impact on HC
(β= –0.057, t= 0.214), providing no support for hypothesis H2.
Table 4 Direct effects
Hypothesis Beta t-value Decision f square VIF
H1: COEC 0.528 11.707** Supported 0.387 1.000
H2: COHC –0.057 0.214 Not Supported 0.003 1.000
Table 5 indicates indirect effects based upon bootstrapping analysis. The results show
that GT does not significantly mediate the relationship between EC and GPI (β=0.037,
t= 1.053), providing no support for hypothesis 3a. GT does however, significantly
mediate the relationship between HC and GPI (β=0.706, t= 15.258) providing support for
H3b.
Table 5 Mediation analysis / Indirect effects
Hypothesis Beta t-value LL UL Decision
H3a: EC GT GPI 0.037 1.053 –0.021 0.093 Not Supported
H3b: HCGT GPI 0.706** 15.258 0.639 0.787 Supported
5 Discussion
The objective of this paper was two-fold. First was to substantiate the impact of a
cosmopolitan orientation on the consumer’s environment and health consciousness and
then to examine the impact of that environment and health consciousness on green
purchase intentions, with green trust acting as a mediator. The results pertaining to both
objectives led to some surprises. First, CO had an insignificant impact on HC
(Hypothesis 2 was not supported). This may be due to our focus on the global pro-
sociality dimension of the cosmopolitan orientation, which is characterised by a sense of
global justice, benevolence and generosity among human beings (Leung et al., 2015). It
may be that such an orientation in the individual does not necessarily lead to health
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
consciousness. Second, GT did not significantly mediate the relationship between EC and
GPI (Hypothesis 3a was therefore not supported). This finding is contrary to the findings
of earlier studies where GT significantly mediated the relationship between variables
such as green perceived quality, green perceived risk, green satisfaction, green brand
image and green purchase intentions (Chen, 2010; Chen and Chang, 2012; Gil and Jacob,
2018). This is possibly because the independent variables in those studies (green
perceived value, green perceived risk and green satisfaction) were associated with the
nature of the green products and the studies were focused on the consumers of specific
products, such as information and electronic products.
Further, the results revealed that CO has a positive impact on EC (Hypothesis 1 is
therefore supported). This result is consistent with prior work by Grinstein and Riefler
(2015) and Leung et al. (2015) who showed that consumers with a highly cosmopolitan
orientation demonstrate environmental concern. We have good reason to believe that
consumers with a highly cosmopolitan orientation are environmentally conscious.
Consumers with a high CO see global social responsibility as a sense of collective action
that does not benefit only their own nation but nature in its totality. “Cosmopolitans place
importance on equality and environmental protection” and feel “social responsibility”
(Riefler, 2012, p.150). Our focus on the global pro-sociality dimension of the
cosmopolitan orientation provides further impetus to these explanations, thus extending
prior literature (Kronrod et al., 2012; Strizhakova and Coulter, 2013; White and Simpson
2013). Moreover, GT significantly mediated the relationship between HC and GPI
(Hypotheses 3b is therefore supported). This particular finding extends previous literature
on the concern for health being a primary motive for purchasing organic food (Chen,
2009; Devcich et al., 2007; Hughner et al., 2007; Magnusson et al., 2001; Mondelaers
et al., 2009; Van Doorn and Verhoef, 2015; Van Huylenbroek et al., 2009; Williams and
Hammit, 2001). In particular, this finding extends the insights of Chen (2009), which
reveals the mediating role of a healthy lifestyle on the relationship between health
consciousness and the consumer’s attitude towards organic food and confirms that GT
mediates the relationship between HC and GPI.
5.1 Contributions
Our study contributes towards theoretical advancements in understanding consumer
behaviour by proposing and testing an integrated model that tests the impact of
cosmopolitan orientation on consumer consciousness (environment and health) and
further investigates whether the relationship between consumer consciousness
(environment and health) and green purchase intentions of consumers is mediated by
green trust. By testing this unique interplay of CO, EC, HC and GT in explaining the GPI
of consumers, our study integrates two current and significant trends in consumer
markets (consumer cosmopolitanism and green purchase behaviour).
5.2 Practical implications
The findings of our study may benefit the development of the green product sector in
Pakistan. Cosmopolitan consumers (particularly young or millennial consumers) may be
a target segment for green marketing activities. Firms may not only target this particular
segment but may also aim to build green trust to encourage the environmentally-
conscious consumer to buy green products. Moreover, health consciousness could be
K
. Badar et al.
promoted through firms’ marketing campaigns to help consumers develop positive
purchase intentions towards green products. Moreover, our study’s findings related to our
sample of Pakistani youth may have broader theoretical value for other emerging
markets. Recent literature informs that middle class consumers in emerging markets
mostly consist of the millennial generation (Cavusgil et al., 2018).
6 Limitations and recommendations
As is usually the case, limitations of this research open the door to asking new questions.
Some of the limitations are noted in relation to our empirical results: First, future
research could test similar hypotheses with a different conceptualisation and scale for
cosmopolitan orientation, for example, this might be Riefler and Diamantopoulo’s (2009)
conceptualisation and its subsequent operationalisation by Riefler et al. (2012). Second,
in our study, GT was tested as a mediator between EC and GPI, and our focus was on
young consumers and not on the consumers of a specific green product. Future research
could test this hypothesis using a different sampling frame, for example, the consumers
in cosmetic stores (Zahid et al., 2018). Third, growing academic and phenomenological
evidence suggests that globalisation may be stalling and we may be moving towards
de-globalisation (Witt, 2019). Therefore future research could propose and test different
models integrating constructs from the re-emerging trends in the consumer markets, for
example, exploring the impact of localisation on green purchase behaviour may prove
insightful (Riefler et al., 2012; Steenkamp, 2019).
References
Ajzen, I. (1985) ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, Action Control,
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp.11–39.
Ajzen, I. (1991) ‘The theory of planned behavior’, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp.179–211.
Al Mamun, A., Mohamad, M.R., Yaacob, M.R. and Mohiuddin, M. (2018) ‘Intention and behavior
towards green consumption among low-income households’, Journal of Environmental
Management, Vol. 227, pp.73–86.
Arnould, E.J. and Thompson, C.J. (2005) ‘Consumer culture theory (CCT): twenty years of
research’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp.868–882.
Arnould, E.J. and Thompson, C.J. (2018) Consumer Culture Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Azzurra, A. and Paola, P. (2009) Consumers’ Behaviours and Attitudes toward Healthy Food
Products: The Case of Organic and Functional Foods, 113th Seminar, 3–6 September,
Chania, Crete, Greece 57661, European Association of Agricultural Economists.
Beck, U. and Sznaider, N. (2010) ‘Unpacking cosmopolitanism for the social sciences: a research
agenda’, The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 61, No. S1, pp.381–403.
Bilsky, W., Janik, M. and Schwartz, S.H. (2011) ‘The structural organization of human values:
evidence from three rounds of the European Social Survey (ESS)’, Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, Vol. 42, No. 5, pp.759–776.
Burroughs, J.E. and Rindfleisch, A. (2002) ‘Materialism and well-being: a conflicting values
perspective’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp.348–370.
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
Cavusgil, S.T., Deligonul, S., Kardes, I., and Cavusgil, E. (2018) ‘Middle-class consumers in
emerging markets: conceptualization, propositions, and implications for international
marketers’, Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp.94–108.
Chan, R.Y., Wong, Y. and Leung, T.K. (2008) ‘Applying ethical concepts to the study of “green”
consumer behavior: an analysis of Chinese consumers’ intentions to bring their own shopping
bags’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp.469–481.
Chang, M.K. (2013) ‘Predicting unethical behavior: a comparison of the theory of reasoned action
and the theory of planned behavior’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 17, No. 16, pp.433–445.
Cheah, I. and Phau, I. (2011) ‘Attitudes towards environmentally friendly products: the influence
of ecoliteracy, interpersonal influence and value orientation’, Marketing Intelligence and
Planning, Vol. 29, No. 5, pp.452–472.
Chen, M.F. (2009) ‘Attitude toward organic foods among Taiwanese as related to health
consciousness, environmental attitudes, and the mediating effects of a healthy lifestyle’,
British Food Journal, Vol. 111, No. 2, pp.165–178.
Chen, S.C. and Hung, C.W. (2016) ‘Elucidating the factors influencing the acceptance of green
products: an extension of theory of planned behavior’, Technological Forecasting and Social
Change, Vol. 112, pp.155–163.
Chen, Y.S. (2010) ‘The drivers of green brand equity: green brand image, green satisfaction, and
green trust’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 93, No. 2, pp.307–319.
Chen, Y.S. and Chang, C.H. (2012) ‘Enhance green purchase intentions: the roles of green
perceived value, green perceived risk, and green trust’, Management Decision, Vol. 50, No. 3,
pp.502–520.
Chen, Y.S. and Chang, C.H. (2013) ‘Towards green trust: the influences of green perceived quality,
green perceived risk, and green satisfaction’, Management Decision, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp.63–82.
Chetty, M., Tran, D. and Grinter, R.E. (2008) ‘Getting to green: understanding resource
consumption in the home’, Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ubiquitous
Computing, pp.242–251
Cleveland, M., Erdoǧan, S., Arikan, G., and Poyraz, T. (2011) ‘Cosmopolitanism, individual-level
values and cultural-level values: a cross-cultural study’, Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 64, No. 9, pp.934–943.
Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. and Papadopoulos, N. (2009) ‘Cosmopolitanism, consumer
ethnocentrism, and materialism: an eight-country study of antecedents and outcomes’, Journal
of International Marketing, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp.116–146.
Cronin, J.J., Smith, J.S., Gleim, M.R., Ramirez, E., and Martinez, J.D. (2011) ‘Green marketing
strategies: an examination of stakeholders and the opportunities they present’, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp.158–174.
Das, S.K., Green, J.A., Kaufman, J.G., Emadi, D. and Mahfoud, M. (2010) ‘Aluminium recycling –
an integrated, industry wide approach’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp.23–26.
De Choudhury, M., Morris, M.R. and White, R.W. (2014) ‘Seeking and sharing health information
online: comparing search engines and social media’, Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference
on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Toronto, Canada.
Delmas, M.A. and Burbano, V.C. (2011) ‘The drivers of greenwashing’, California Management
Review, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp.64–87.
Deloitte Global Millennial Survey (2019) Deloitte Social impact, Innovation. Available online at:
https://www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/about-deloitte/articles/millennialsurvey.html
(accessed on 25 March 2020).
DelVecchio, D. (2000) ‘Moving beyond fit: the role of brand portfolio characteristics in consumer
evaluations of brand reliability’, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 9, No. 7,
pp.457–471.
Devcich, D.A., Pedersen, I.K. and Petrie, K.J. (2007) ‘You eat what you are: modern health worries
and the acceptance of natural and synthetic additives in functional foods’, Appetite, Vol. 48,
No. 3, pp.333–337.
K
. Badar et al.
Diamantopoulos, A., Schlegelmilch, B.B., Sinkovics, R.R., and Bohlen, G.M., (2003) ‘Can socio-
demographics still play a role in profiling green consumers? A review of the evidence and an
empirical investigation’, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 56, No. 6, pp.465–480.
Dutta-Bergman, M.J. (2004) ‘Primary sources of health information: comparisons in the domain of
health attitudes, health cognitions, and health behaviors’, Health Communication, Vol. 16,
No. 3, pp.273–288.
Dutta, M.J. (2007) ‘Health information processing from television: the role of health orientation’,
Health Communication, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp.1–9.
Express Tribune (2016) 30m Internet Users in Pakistan, Half on Mobile. Available online at:
http://tribune.com.pk/story/567649/30m-internet-users-in-pakistan-half-on-mobile-report/
Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975) ‘Strategies of change: active participation’, Belief, Attitude,
Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research, pp.411–450.
Gilal, F.G., Chandani, K., Gilal, R.G., Gilal, N.G., Gilal, W.G., and Channa, N.A (2019) ‘Towards
a new model for green consumer behaviour: a self‐determination theory perspective’,
Sustainable Development, pp.711–722. Doi: 10.1002/sd.2021.
Gil, M.T. and Jacob, J. (2018) ‘The relationship between green perceived quality and green
purchase intention: a three-path mediation approach using green satisfaction and green trust’,
International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.301–319.
Goh, K-Y., Heng, C-S., and Lin, Z. (2013) ‘Social media brand community and consumer
behavior: quantifying the relative impact of user- and marketer-generated content’,
Information Systems Research, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp.88–107.
Goswami, S. and Ha-Brookshire, J. (2015) ‘From compliance to a growth strategy: exploring
historical transformation of corporate sustainability’, Journal of Global Responsibility, Vol. 6,
No. 2, pp.246–261.
Grinstein, A. and Riefler, P. (2015) ‘Citizens of the (green) world? Cosmopolitan orientation and
sustainability’, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp.694–714.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. and Tatham, R.L. (2006) Multivariate Data
Analysis, (Vol. 6), Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Hair, J.F., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M. (2011) ‘PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet’, Journal of
Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp.139–152.
Hamid, S.A., Ghafoor, H.A. and Shah, T.Z. (2012) ‘Analysis of attitude towards green purchase:
Pakistan in context’, International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol. 3, No. 6,
pp.112–115.
Harman, H.H. (1976) Modern Factor Analysis, 3rd ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Hartmann, P. and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, V. (2012) ‘Consumer attitude and purchase intention toward
green energy brands: the roles of psychological benefits and environmental concern’, Journal
of Business Research, Vol. 65, No. 9, pp.1254–1263.
Hines, J.M., Hungerford, H.R. and Tomera, A.N. (1987) ‘Analysis and synthesis of research on
responsible environmental behavior: a meta-analysis’, The Journal of Environmental
Education, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp.1–8.
Hite, K.A. and Seitz, J.L. (2015) Global Issues: an Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex,
UK.
Hsu, C.L., Chang, C.Y. and Yansritakul, C. (2017) ‘Exploring purchase intention of green skincare
products using the theory of planned behavior: testing the moderating effects of country
of origin and price sensitivity’, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Vol. 34,
pp.145–152.
Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999) ‘Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
conventional criteria versus new alternatives’, Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 6, No. 1,
pp.1–55.
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
Hughner, R.S., McDonagh, P., Prothero, A., Shultz, C.J. and Stanton, J. (2007) ‘Who are organic
food consumers? A compilation and review of why people purchase organic food’, Journal of
Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 6, Nos. 2/3, pp.94–110.
Hull, G.A., Stornaiuolo, A. and Sahni, U. (2010) ‘Cultural citizenship and cosmopolitan practice:
global youth communicate online’, English Education, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp.331–367.
Jasanoff, S. (1997) ‘NGOs and the environment: from knowledge to action’, Third World
Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp.579–594.
Kanchanapibul, M., Lacka, E., Wang, X. and Chan, H.K. (2014) ‘An empirical investigation of
green purchase behaviour among the young generation’, Journal of Cleaner Production,
Vol. 66, pp.528–536.
Karatu, V.M. and Mat, N.K. (2013) ‘Modeling green purchase intention in Nigeria: a conceptual
proposition’, Management, Vol. 3, No. 7, pp.480–483.
Kline, R.B. (2011) ‘Convergence of structural equation modeling and multilevel modeling’, in
Williams, M. and Vogt, W.P. (Eds): Handbook of Methodological Innovation in Social
Research Methods, Sage, London, pp.562–589.
Kronrod, A., Grinstein, A. and Wathieu, L. (2012) ‘Go Green! Should environmental messages be
so assertive?’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 76, No.1, pp.95–102.
Laufer, W.S. (2003) ‘Social accountability and corporate greenwashing’, Journal of Business
Ethics, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp.253–261.
Luchs, G.M., Naylor, R.W., Irwin, J.R. and Raghunathan, R. (2010) ‘The sustainability liability:
potential negative effects of ethicality on product preference’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 74,
No. 5, pp.18–31.
Leung, A.K., Koh, K. and Tam, K.P. (2015) ‘Being environmentally responsible: cosmopolitan
orientation predicts pro-environmental behaviors’, Journal of Environmental Psychology,
Vol. 43, pp.79–94.
Magnusson, M.K., Arvola, A., Hursti, K.U‐K., Åberg, L. and Sjödén,P-O. (2001) ‘Attitudes
towards organic foods among Swedish consumers’, British Food Journal, Vol. 103, No. 3,
pp.209–227.
Marquis, C., Toffel, M.W. and Zhou, Y. (2016) ‘Scrutiny, norms, and selective disclosure: a global
study of greenwashing’, Organization Science, Vol. 27, No.2, pp.483–504.
Michaelidou, N. and Hassan, L.M. (2008) ‘The role of health consciousness, food safety concern
and ethical identity on attitudes and intentions towards organic food’, International Journal of
Consumer Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp.163–170.
Micheletti, M. and Boström, M. (2014) ‘Political consumerism: consumer choice, information,
and labeling’, Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics, Springer Netherlands,
pp.1508–1515.
Mondelaers, K., Verbeke, W. and van Huylenbroeck, G. (2009) ‘Importance of health and
environment as quality traits in the buying decision of organic products’, British Food
Journal, Vol. 111, No. 10, pp.1120–1139.
Najam, A., Runnalls, D. and Halle, M. (2007) Environment and Globalization: Five Propositions,
International Institute for Sustainable Development, Denmark.
Olson, E.L. (2013) ‘It’s not easy being green: the effects of attribute tradeoffs on green product
preference and choice’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 41, No. 2,
pp.171–184.
Pieterse, J.N. (2015) Globalization and Culture: Global Mélange, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham,
MD.
Podsakoff, N.P. and Organ, D.W. (1986) ‘Self-reports in organizational research: problems and
prospects’, Journal of Management, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp.531−544.
Rafi, A., Saqib, S., Choudhary, A.I., and Akhtar, S.A. (2012) ‘Exploring the purchasing motives of
young Pakistani consumers for foreign brands’, Information Management and Business
Review, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp.136–144.
K
. Badar et al.
Riefler, P. (2012) ‘Segmentation strategies for cosmopolitan consumers’, in Prince, M. (Ed.):
Globalization and the Cosmopolitan Consumer, Business Expert Press, New York,
pp.143–162.
Riefler, P. and Diamantopoulos, A. (2009) ‘Consumer cosmopolitanism: review and replication of
the CYMYC scale’, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 62, No. 4, pp.407–419.
Riefler, P., Diamantopoulos, A. and Siguaw, J.A. (2012) ‘Cosmopolitan consumers as a
target group for segmentation’, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 43, No. 3,
pp.285–305.
Rivis, A., Sheeran, P. and Armitage, C.J. (2009) ‘Expanding the affective and normative
components of the theory of planned behavior: a meta-analysis of anticipated affect and moral
norms’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 12, pp.2985–3019.
Roberts, J.A. and Bacon, D.R. (1997) ‘Exploring the subtle relationships between environmental
concern and ecologically conscious consumer behavior’, Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 40, No. 1, pp.79–89.
Roudometof, V. (2005) ‘Transnationalism, cosmopolitanism and glocalization’, Current Sociology,
Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, Vol. 53, No. 1, pp.113–135.
Royne, M.B., Levy, M. and Martinez, J. (2011) ‘The public health implications of consumers’
environmental concern and their willingness to pay for an eco‐friendly product’, Journal of
Consumer Affairs, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp.329–343.
Schlegelmilch, B.B., Bohlen, G.M. and Diamantopoulos, A. (1996) ‘The link between green
purchasing decisions and measures of environmental consciousness’, European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp.35–55.
Sheth, J.N. Sethia, N.K. and Srinivas, S. (2011) ‘Mindful consumption: a customer-centric
approach to sustainability’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 39, No. 1,
pp.21–39.
Simpson, B.J. and Radford, S.K. (2014) ‘Situational variables and sustainability in multi-attribute
decision-making’, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 48, No. 5–6, pp.1046–1069.
Slater, D. (1997) Consumer Culture and Modernity, Polity Press.
Steenkamp, J-B. (2017) ‘The Cambrian explosion of brands’, Global Brand Strategy, Palgrave
Macmillan UK, London, pp.1–13.
Steenkamp, J-B. (2019) ‘Global versus local consumer culture: theory, measurement, and future
research directions’, Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp.1–19.
Steenkamp, J.B., Batra, R. and Alden, D.L. (2003) ‘How perceived brand globalness creates brand
value’, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp.53–65.
Strizhakova, Y. and Coulter, R.A. (2013) ‘The “green” side of materialism in emerging BRIC and
developed markets: The moderating role of global cultural identity’, International Journal of
Research in Marketing, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp.69–82.
Tariq, A., Badir, Y.F. and Chonglerttham, S. (2019a) ‘Green innovation and performance:
moderation analyses from Thailand’, European Journal of Innovation Management, Vol. 22,
No. 3, pp.446–467.
Tariq, A., Badir, Y., Safdar, U., Tariq, W. and Badar, K. (2019b) ‘Linking firms’ life cycle,
capabilities, and green innovation’, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management.
10.1108/JMTM-08-2018-0257.
Van Doorn, J. and Verhoef, P.C. (2011) ‘Willingness to pay for organic products: differences
between virtue and vice foods’, International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol. 28,
No. 3, pp.167–180.
Van Doorn, J. and Verhoef, P.C. (2015) ‘Drivers of and barriers to organic purchase behavior’,
Journal of Retailing, Vol. 91, No. 3, pp.436–450.
Van Huylenbroek, G., Mondelaers, K., Aertsens, J., Mondelaers, K., Verbeke, W. and Van
Huylenbroeck, G. (2009) ‘Importance of health and environment as quality traits in the buying
decision of organic products’, British Food Journal, Vol. 111, No. 10, pp.1120–1139.
Co
s
mopolitan orientation, consumer consciousness and green purchase intentions
Vermeir, I. and Verbeke, W. (2006) ‘Sustainable food consumption: exploring the consumer
“attitude – behavioral intention” gap’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics,
Vol. 19, No. 2, pp.169–194.
United Nations Development Programme (2017) Pakistan National Human Development Report.
Available online at: https://www.undp.org/content/dam/pakistan/docs/HDR/PK-NHDR.pdf
(accessed on 6 June 2020).
Wang, H., Ma, B. and Bai, R. (2019) ‘How does green product knowledge effectively promote
green purchase intention?’, Sustainability, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp.1–13.
White, K. and Simpson, B. (2013) ‘When do (and don’t) normative appeals influence sustainable
consumer behaviors?’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp.78–95.
Williams, K.C., Page, R.A. and Petrosky, A.R. (2014) ‘Green sustainability and new social media’,
Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability, Vol. 9, No. 1/2, pp.11–33.
Williams, P.R. and Hammitt, J.K. (2001) ‘Perceived risks of conventional and organic produce:
pesticides, pathogens, and natural toxins’, Risk Analysis, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.319–330.
Witt, M.A. (2019) ‘De-globalization: theories, predictions, and opportunities for international
business research’, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 50, No. 7, pp.1053–1077.
Xie, Y., Batra, R. and Peng, S. (2015) ‘An extended model of preference formation between global
and local brands: the roles of identity expressiveness, trust, and affect’, Journal of
International Marketing, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.50–71.
Yadav, R. and Pathak, G.S. (2016) ‘Young consumers’ intention towards buying green products in
a developing nation: extending the theory of planned behavior’, Journal of Cleaner
Production, Vol. 135, No. 1, pp.732–739.
Yadav, R. and Pathak, G.S. (2017) ‘Determinants of consumers’ green purchase behavior in a
developing nation: applying and extending the theory of planned behavior’, Ecological
Economics, Vol. 134, pp.114–122.
Zahid, M.M., Ali, B., Ahmad, M.S., Thurasamy, R. and Amin, N. (2018) ‘Factors affecting
purchase intention and social media publicity of green products: the mediating role of concern
for consequences’, Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, Vol. 25,
No. 3, pp.225–236.
