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Developments in the global hydrogen market: The spectrum of hydrogen colours
Abstract
The fundamental reasons for considering the adoption of hydrogen as a fuel, industrial feedstock and energy storage medium are presented. Hydrogen production methods are outlined, with reference to the colour prefixes used to describe different types of hydrogen. The relative greenhouse gas emissions and economics of green and blue hydrogen production are considered for achieving a ‘net zero’ climate-neutral energy system by 2050. In general, it appears that green hydrogen will soon be cheaper than blue hydrogen due to the falling costs of renewable electricity and electrolysers, then cheaper than grey hydrogen, and in the long term potentially cheaper than natural gas.
... Renewable (or green) hydrogen is produced from water electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources. Blue hydrogen refers to the hydrogen produced using fossil fuels and a carbon capture and storage (CCS) unit used to capture carbon emissions [45] . The carbon captured during this process can be used in applications like enhanced oil recovery [46] or valuable chemical production [47] . ...
... The carbon captured during this process can be used in applications like enhanced oil recovery [46] or valuable chemical production [47] . Hydrogen produced using fossil fuels without capturing the associated carbon emissions is called grey hydrogen ( Fig. 2 ) [45] . The hydrogen produced can be used as a standalone energy storage alternative or as raw material for ammonia production. ...
... These results reveal that the top five long-term storage alternatives relate to water electrolysis using renewable energies (i.e., green hydrogen and ammonia). Although green hydrogen and ammonia are still very expensive compared with grey and even blue ones, it is expected that future cost reduction of renewable energy sources will help them to become the cheapest options [45] . As will be further discussed later, other options like green hydrogen using hydropower, ammonia produced by water electrolysis using grid mix energy, and ammonia produced by chemical looping processes have a certain chance of being efficient despite displaying median efficiencies below one: 0.53, 0.44, and 0.39, respectively. ...
... Production of hydrogen is not part of the scope of this survey. The requirement for shipping is significantly lower GHG emissions on a well-to-wake scope which is generally the case for green hydrogen, produced through electrolysis (breaking down water molecules to hydrogen and oxygen), and blue, which primarily comes from natural gas where the production plant has a carbon capture and storage system [10]. ...
... The vertical space above the deck that must be kept clear to ensure safe operations is an important operational parameter called air clearance. 10. Ships cannot undergo any major modifications outside of shipyards. ...
... However, most often, green hydrogen is associated with electrolysis powered by renewable energy [7,374]. Moreover, biohydrogen has the potential to achieve a negative carbon footprint [375] as an analogy to bioenergy carbon capture and storage (BECCS) in the energy sector. ...
... Potentially, BCCCS could provide the market with hydrogen associated with a negative carbon footprint [375]. This would require adding another colour to the existing palette of colours, which would still serve in various future regulations as a practical means of differentiation between hydrogen from different sources. ...
A significant increase in the use of hydrogen, expected to reach between 667 and 4000 TWh, is forecasted for the whole EU in 2050. Electrolysis is believed to be a "silver bullet" due to its synergy with the needs of the grid. However, biohydrogen generation could be complimentary to electrolysis since it does not depend on electricity prices. This review presents a comprehensive picture of the landscape in biohydrogen production, showing state-of-the-art research on different biohydrogen production processes and highlighting potential problems and shortcomings for different processes, including microbial-based production and thermal processes. The work shows that "colour coding" used nowadays is insufficient in terms of providing accurate information regarding the sustainability of particular biohydrogen production technologies. Instead, LCA can provide substantial information for each investigated process. However, there is a need for a wider scope of LCA studies since currently published studies present a syndrome of "carbon tunnel vision", often ignoring impacts other than global warming. Moreover, studies often tend to exclude the impact of capital goods production, which might provide an incomplete overview of such technologies. Moreover, it should not be overlooked that biohydrogen is capable of achieving negative values of CO 2 emissions if CCS is implemented.
... Grey hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas or pure methane (Grid 2022;Newborough and Cooley 2020). The main processes used for Grey Hydrogen are steam methane reformation (SMR) and some autothermal reformation (ATR) both of which result in the production of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. ...
... This is usually done by electrolysis of water using 'clean' electricity from surplus renewable electricity from one source or a combination of sources, such as wind, solar or wave power. The key feature is that no carbon dioxide is emitted from the electrical power generation (Grid 2022;Newborough and Cooley 2020;Bulletin 2022; Velazquez Abad and Dodds 2020). Electrolysis of water is described by the following equation. ...
The origins of the book are introduced. The book derives from a knowledge exchange set of meetings primarily between industrial experts and academics. The chapter introduces the principal issues around hydrogen as an energy carrier. In particular its potential role in a low carbon energy system is described. The concept of the ‘rainbow colours of hydrogen’ is introduced and key colours of hydrogen denoting various production methods are explained.
... Electrolytic hydrogen generation ensures purity levels exceeding 99.95%, free from hydrocarbon contamination (Burton et al., 2021;Newborough and Cooley, 2020). Electrolytic hydrogen production, unless powered by electricity from fossil fuel stations, is not associated with CO 2 or methane emissions, thereby obviating the necessity for carbon capture and storage. ...
... Without substantial government subsidies or incentives, green hydrogen may struggle to penetrate the market . Despite efforts to reduce electrolyzer technology costs since 2020 (Newborough and Cooley, 2020), the costs remain relatively high. For African countries, which often have limited financial resources, the high cost of green hydrogen production further complicates investment in its development. ...
Hydrogen is an abundant element and a flexible energy carrier, offering substantial potential as an environmentally friendly energy source to tackle global energy issues. When used as a fuel, hydrogen generates only water vapor upon combustion or in fuel cells, presenting a means to reduce carbon emissions in various sectors, including transportation, industry, and power generation. Nevertheless, conventional hydrogen production methods often depend on fossil fuels, leading to carbon emissions unless integrated with carbon capture and storage solutions. Conversely, green hydrogen is generated through electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources like solar and wind energy. This production method guarantees zero carbon emissions throughout the hydrogen’s lifecycle, positioning it as a critical component of global sustainable energy transitions. In Africa, where there are extensive renewable energy resources such as solar and wind power, green hydrogen is emerging as a viable solution to sustainably address the increasing energy demands. This research explores the influence of policy frameworks, technological innovations, and market forces in promoting green hydrogen adoption across Africa. Despite growing investments and favorable policies, challenges such as high production costs and inadequate infrastructure significantly hinder widespread adoption. To overcome these challenges and speed up the shift towards a sustainable hydrogen economy in Africa, strategic investments and collaborative efforts are essential. By harnessing its renewable energy potential and establishing strong policy frameworks, Africa can not only fulfill its energy requirements but also support global initiatives to mitigate climate change and achieve sustainable development objectives.
... The transition from fossil energy sources to renewable ones is largely associated currently with hydrogen, called frequently the "fuel of the future" [13][14][15]. In turn, its generation and use are most efficiently carried out by electrochemical devices, i.e., electrolyzers and power sources [16,17]. Among the latter, fuel cells (FCs) based on the use of atmospheric oxygen as the oxidizing agent are currently the most developed ones [18]. ...
... The calculation algorithm in this study uses the former variant. Then, after determination of the evolution of the solution composition, one can calculate the variation in the redox charge, Q, as well as of the average Br-atom oxidation degree, x, in the course of the process owing to Equation (16). ...
The passage of cathodic current through the acidized aqueous bromate solution (catholyte) leads to a negative shift of the average oxidation degree of Br atoms. It means a distribution of Br-containing species in various oxidation states between 1 and +5, which are mutually transformed via numerous protonation/deprotonation, chemical, and redox/electrochemical steps. This process is also accompanied by the change in the proton (H+) concentration, both due to the participation of H+ ions in these steps and due to the H+ flux through the cation-exchange membrane separating the cathodic and anodic compartments. Variations of the composition of the catholyte concentrations of all these components have has been analyzed for various initial concentrations of sulfuric acid, cA0 (0.015–0.3 M), and two values of the total concentrations of Br atoms inside the system, ctot (0.1 or 1.0 M of Br atoms), as functions of the average Br-atom oxidation degree, x, under the condition of the thermodynamic equilibrium of the above transformations. It is shown that during the exhaustion of the redox capacity of the catholyte (x pass from 5 to 1), the pH value passes through a maximum.
Its height and the corresponding average oxidation state of bromine atoms depend on the initial bromate/acid ratio. The constructed algorithm can be used to select the initial acid content in the bromate catholyte, which is optimal from the point of view of preventing the formation of liquid bromine at the maximum content of electroactive compounds.
... In current research and publications, further colors in most cases highly specific in terms of hydrogen production mode are proposed [1] . Details of the various processes have been reported and reviewed elsewhere [4][5][6][7][8] , and some of the reports should be considered with care because of substantial misunderstandings [1] . ...
... Further methods like coal gasification are of relatively minor importance [14] . Electrochemical water splitting, i.e. electrolysis, has been around for decades [15][16][17] with localized applications deployed for specific reasons [5,7] . During electrolysis of water isotope enrichment processes can be run, production of heavy water D2O is thus connected with electrolyzers. ...
Compared with electricity, more precisely electric energy, as a secondary form of energy, hydrogen as an energy carrier, an energy storage material, and a chemical reagent are of growing importance. This change is driven mostly by ecological reasons with hydrogen replacing fossil fuels and materials finally reducing the emission of greenhouse gases, it is also relevant because of its conceivable use as an energy carrier in transportation. This update starts with a brief collection of common definitions and terminology and moves across a critical assessment of common misunderstandings towards current and future uses of hydrogen on to future perspectives with a particular focus on efficiency.
... Meanwhile, renewable hydrogen, produced primarily by water electrolysis using RES, faces its own difficulties: high capital expenditure for electrolyzers, variable electricity costs, and competition for renewable resources from direct electrification of other sectors [7,28,29]. Achieving meaningful cost reductions in either pathway-SMR + CCS or renewable-requires government-supported financing mechanisms, policy certainty, and enough market "pull" to unlock economies of scale and competitive position as compared to fossil fuel-based production methods or even natural gas [30,31]. ...
The European Union continues to lead global efforts toward climate neutrality by developing a cohesive regulatory and market framework for alternative fuels, including renewable hydrogen. This review article critically examines the recent evolution of the EU’s policy landscape specifically for hydrogen as a renewable fuel of non-biological origin (RFNBO), highlighting its growing importance in hard-to-abate sectors such as industry and transportation. We assess the interplay of market-based mechanisms (e.g., EU ETS II), direct mandates (e.g., FuelEU Maritime, RED III), and support auction-based measures (e.g., the European Hydrogen Bank) that collectively shape both the demand and the supply of hydrogen as RFNBO fuel. The article also addresses emerging cost, capacity, and technical barriers—ranging from constrained electrolyzer deployment to complex certification requirements—that hinder large-scale adoption and market rollout. The article aims to discuss advancing and changing regulatory and market environment for the development of infrastructure and market for hydrogen as RFNBO fuel in the EU in 2019–2024. Synthesizing current research and policy developments, we propose targeted recommendations, including enhanced cross-border coordination and capacity-based incentives, to accelerate investment and infrastructure development. This review informs policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers on critical success factors for integrating hydrogen as a cornerstone of the EU’s climate neutrality efforts.
... Each component's specification and economic and operational parameters were inputted into HOMER, and a comprehensive techno-economic analysis was conducted to determine the most economical method of hydrogen production. [30,[37][38][39][40] ...
Despite Iran's considerable renewable energy (RE) potential and excellent wind capacity and high solar radiation levels, these sources contribute only a small fraction of the country's total energy production. This paper addresses the techno-economic viability of gray hydrogen production by these renewables, with a particular focus on solar energy. Given the considerable potential of solar energy and the strategic location of Shahrekord, it would be an optimal site for a hydrogen generation plant integrated with a solar field. HOMER Pro 3.18.3 software was utilized to model and optimize the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) of steam reforming using different hydrocarbons in various scenarios. The results of this study indicate that natural gas (NG) reforming represents the most cost-effective method of gray hydrogen production in this city, with an LCOH of −0.423 USD/kg. Other hydrocarbons such as diesel, gasoline, propane, methanol, and ethanol have a price per kilogram of produced hydrogen as follows: USD −0.4, USD −0.293, USD 1.17, USD 1.48, and USD 2.15. In addition, integrating RE sources into hydrogen production was found to be viable. Moreover, by implementing RE technologies, CO2 emissions can be significantly reduced, and energy security can be achieved.
... If the CO 2 is retained permanently, the H 2 produced is known as blue H 2 and minimizes direct CO 2 emissions. 128 The CO 2 sequestration method could be before, post, and oxyfuel combustion. In precombustion sequestration, fuel carbon is converted to CO 2 and captured before burning. ...
Rapid urbanization and population growth have intensified global energy demand, with fossil fuel consumption aggravating air pollution and climate change. Hydrogen, a clean energy carrier, is essential for transitioning to a low-carbon economy. This study examines the color-coded classification of hydrogen production pathways, derived from both renewable and non-renewable sources, and examines their emission profiles. Additionally, it delves into the critical aspects of hydrogen storage and transportation, highlighting the need for robust infrastructure to ensure the effective integration of hydrogen into the energy system. The study concludes that traditional hydrogen production methods, such as coal gasification and steam methane reforming (SMR), significantly contribute to air pollution due to their reliance on fossil fuels and lack of carbon capture. While blue hydrogen, utilizing carbon capture and storage (CCS), offers a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, turquoise and green hydrogen, produced via methane pyrolysis and water electrolysis, respectively, present cleaner alternatives with zero GHG emissions. With regard to hydrogen storage, metal and complex hydrides emerge as cost-effective options, while compressed hydrogen is suitable for large-scale storage. For applications demanding high energy density, liquefied and cryo-compressed hydrogen are viable, despite their associated costs and complexities. For hydrogen transportation, pressurized tanks, cryogenic liquid hydrogen tankers, and gas pipelines are considered. Pipelines are favored for long-distance transportation due to their cost-effectiveness, while cryogenic liquid hydrogen tankers are preferred for short distances, despite higher costs and infrastructure requirements.
... Based on the method of the hydrogen production and the amount of carbon released, the types of hydrogen are classified and named with different colors [1,2]. Green hydrogen is produced through the electrolysis process, the electricity required by the electrolyzer is supplied through renewable sources. ...
This study investigates the production of green hydrogen in the southern coastal cities of Iran, leveraging local advantages. These include the high potential for photovoltaic generation, the need for desalination power plants, and access to the sea and ports, all of which make the southern coasts of Iran favorable for green hydrogen production. However, the approach presented in this paper can also be applied to similar regions.
... Due to the fact that a fossil raw material is used, residual carbon will arise in the form of carbon dioxide. In diametric contrast to this is green hydrogen, which is produced by electrolysis of water with the aid of renewable energies and is therefore carbon-free [19,20]. When hydrogen is produced via electrolysis, deuterium is separated, which means the resulting gaseous hydrogen is deuterium depleted [21,22,23]. ...
div class="section abstract"> The use of carbon-free fuels, such as ammonia or hydrogen, or at least carbon neutral fuels, such as green methane or methanol is one of the most important paths in the development of low-carbon internal combustion engines (ICE). Especially for large, heavy-duty engines, this is a promising route, as replacing them with battery electric or fuel cell drives poses even greater challenges, at least for the time being. For some applications or areas of the world, small ICEs for trucks, passenger cars or off-road vehicles, operated with alternative fuels will still remain the means of choice. One of the biggest challenges in the development of hydrogen combustion engines is achieving high compression ratios and mean effective pressures due to combustion anomalies, caused by the low ignition delay and broad flammability limit of hydrogen. Oil droplets are considered to be one of the main triggers for pre-ignition and knocking. This paper will give a brief introduction, showing the results of studies on the contribution of oil droplets to combustion anomalies. In this study, oil droplets were artificially injected into the intake manifold in order to trigger pre-ignition. As the correlation between these two phenomena was clearly seen, the second part of the paper will focus on the measurement of oil consumption, which is an important way to combat combustion anomalies. To this end, three innovative measurement technologies were compared. The first method is based on the balance of carbon entering and leaving the combustion chamber. The second method is based on the use of deuterium, which is added to the engine oil as a tracer. The third method is based on measuring the unburnt portion of hydrocarbons with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF-MS). All methods provide very similar qualitative results. The deuterium and the carbon method show very good quantitative congruence as well and are therefore considered to be very precise and. The respective advantages and disadvantages are shown in the discussion chapter.
Additionally, measurement data will show the influence of the hydrogen production (green vs. grey) on its isotopic ratio. This can be a measure for classifying hydrogen without knowing the exact source.
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... In Karnataka, the prevalent use of cogeneration in sugar industries, typically employing bagasse, aligns with renewable energy standards, as acknowledged by the Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Limited (Website of Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Limited n.d.). Newborough and Cooley (2020) suggest that green hydrogen may soon become more affordable than blue hydrogen, owing to the declining renewable electricity costs and electrolysis technologies. Ultimately, it is suggested that green hydrogen could become more costeffective than grey hydrogen and, in the long term, may even be cheaper than natural gas. ...
Hydrogen can be a clean energy carrier, the utilization of which can help to reduce emissions and can potentially help in decarbonization of various sectors. The current study presents a technoeconomic analysis of hydrogen production using three electrolyzer technologies—alkaline electrolysis, polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis. The study considers the electricity system of Karnataka, a leader in renewable energy in India. The work considers hydrogen from solar, wind, hydro, mini hydel, biomass and cogeneration sources of electricity as green, that from thermal, net Central Generating Stations (CGS) import (coal) as grey and nuclear as purple. The work presents an analysis of the Karnataka grid for the year 2022. Seasonal variation in electricity and its effect on the amount of hydrogen production is discussed. A detailed discussion on the green and grey hydrogen production costs is presented. When the demand of electricity is less than the maximum electricity that can be generated, excess electricity can be used for hydrogen production. The study presents an approach for quickly estimating the minimum selling price of hydrogen, based on the type of electrolysis. For the conditions considered in the present study, the average cost of grey hydrogen can be obtained to be about Rs. 356, Rs. 326 and Rs. 215 for alkaline electrolysis, polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis, respectively, and green hydrogen, with 10% subsidy, can even be about Rs. 275, Rs. 252 and Rs. 166 for alkaline electrolysis, polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis, respectively. The work points to the possibility of generating green hydrogen in a cost-effective way, by suitable management of the energy grid. This study points to the need for effective grid management strategies for high renewable resource electricity grids, to meet the energy demands, and to achieve carbon neutrality. Suitable electrolysis technologies can be selected, based on Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operation Expenditure (OPEX), and can be operated on cheaper green electricity for clean hydrogen generation.
... The process can result in minimal carbon emissions entering the atmosphere which have been deemed acceptable due to the life cycle assessments and audits showing the practice is near carbon neutral (Newborough & Cooley, 2020). Solar thermolysis, solar thermochemical cycle, solar gasification, solar cracking and electrolysis can be used to produce green hydrogen. ...
The objectives of this research are to define the properties of hydrogen, its production from different sources, its different uses, and challenges in establishing a hydrogen economy. Furthermore, the research identifies key opportunities and roles for development finance institutions (DFIs) in the establishment of the green hydrogen economy in South Africa with reference to the broader Southern Africa context. The study found that DFIs have significant roles to play in the green hydrogen economy such as scaling up renewable energy capacity to produce green hydrogen; creating an enabling environment for green hydrogen investments; hydrogen infrastructure development; green hydrogen project preparation facilities and scaling up innovative financing instruments to catalyse green hydrogen investment.
... The colors of hydrogen framework categorizes hydrogen production pathways based on carbon emissions to inform choices for using hydrogen in transition to more sustainable forms of energy. 61 Table 3 illustrates production methods and carbon emissions for each major pathway for hydrogen production, along with connections to undergraduate chemistry concepts. ...
... This study will focus on hydrogen. Hydrogen is commonly categorised into a series of colours based on how it is produced (Dincer, 2012;Dawood et al., 2020;Newborough and Cooley, 2020). The most common colours are listed below: ...
Methodologies for storage assessment developed for basins with dense data coverage are typically not optimally applicable to underexplored sedimentary basins. To address this, a methodology and workflow for storage assessment in underexplored basins is presented which uses existing datasets to identify structural traps and populate a fluid-in-place equation which can be used for a variety of gases including CO 2 and H 2 . This is then applied to the Irish Atlantic margin; Jurassic, Triassic and Carboniferous reservoirs are investigated to understand their reservoir quality and extent, and related seals. Structural trap types are described and the theoretical capacities of three candidate sites with varying data coverage are calculated. The results highlight the potential for underexplored sedimentary basins on the Irish Atlantic margin to support offshore renewable energy projects and reduce Ireland's CO 2 emissions. This workflow is applicable to a variety of underexplored sedimentary basins and emphasises the utility of legacy hydrocarbon datasets for early-stage subsurface storage assessment. Other aspects of energy storage are also discussed, including man-made salt caverns, other candidate reservoir-seal pairs, and the potential for collaborative infrastructure development with CO 2 emitters and renewable energy projects.
... A different color can represent each spectrum of hydrogen generation to indicate its environmental effect and manner of production [106]. Grey, blue, and green hydrogen spectrums are the three most well-recognized types [107]. ...
To address the world’s energy concerns and make the transition to a sustainable future, hydrogen, as a clean and adaptable energy carrier, has enormous promise. The drawbacks of hydrogen are thoroughly examined in this article, including production-related carbon emissions and security issues. To overcome these obstacles and realize a hydrogen-based economy that contributes to sustainable development objectives and mitigates climate change, interdisciplinary partnerships, legislative interventions, and technological developments are required. Moreover, numerous hydrogen production techniques are discussed, including standard and unconventional ways. In terms of unconventional methods, photocatalytic water splitting stands out as a cutting-edge innovation that makes use of nanomaterials as catalysts to collect solar energy and fuel the water-splitting reaction. The review focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and hydrogen production efficiency of current developments in photocatalytic materials. A thorough overview of hydrogen generation techniques is provided, mainly focusing on photocatalytic water-splitting using nanomaterials. It offers valuable insights for academics, policymakers, and stakeholders looking to promote the integration of hydrogen into a sustainable energy landscape by looking at the color coding of hydrogen production, storage systems, hydrogen utilization, and related issues.
... b Installing a CCS device to sequester emissions from grey hydrogen production facilities, such as C l G, which converts coal into carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is a widely recognized practice in blue hydrogen production [63]. c Green hydrogen derives its name from using renewable (e.g., 19% wind power, 15% solar power and <1% biomass) and clean energy sources (i.e., 55% hydroelectricity, 15% nuclear energy), resulting in a reduced carbon footprint compared to traditional hydrogen production methods that rely on fossil fuels [64]. ...
Hydrogen power and electric vehicle rollout are among the global mitigation efforts for net-zero emission targets. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) is a promising embodiment of these two climate-neutral levers. Nevertheless, insufficient investigation of the life cycle of hydrogen production pathways and supply-demand mismatching jeopardize the optimal implementation of HFCV. A novel integrated framework combining life cycle greenhouse gas assessment and intra-regional supply-demand optimization method is developed to (1) evaluate the emissions performance for six typical HFCV hydrogen production pathways and (2) map out the optimal intra-regional hydrogen supply-demand allocation based on the trade-off between resource flow and geographical proximity. As one of the world’s largest HFCV producers and consumers, China is chosen as the case study. The life cycle emissions assessment reveals that the Natural Gas Steam Methane Reforming (NG_SMR) pathway emits the most greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (i.e., 0.215 g CO2-eq/kJ H2) while the Clean Energy_Water Electrolysis (CE_WE) pathway emits the least GHG emissions (i.e., 0.02 g CO2-eq/kJ H2), stretching a 10-times emission difference. For intra-regional supply-demand optimization, provinces like Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong act as the main suppliers (>50% of the total hydrogen source in China) to provinces like Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Sichuan,
suggesting a north-to-south (N-S) regional hydrogen transmission. A sensitivity analysis is conducted based on the variation in production efficiency among different hydrogen production technologies in the HFCV value chain. The results inferred that the Coal Gasification & Carbon Capture and Storage (ClG & CCS) and CE_WE pathways are insensitive to efficiency improvement. In the scenario analysis, the outcome suggested urgently phasing out grey hydrogen pathways and accelerating the transition of grey-to-green hydrogen production pathways with the buffering of blue hydrogen pathways between 2015 and 2040 for the net-zero emission ambition by 2060. This study enlightens the decision-makers to endorse green hydrogen production for HFCV while securing hydrogen energy security.
... It is restricted to processing agricultural products, some energy crops, sewage sludge, and food processing. Compared to solar-or wind-based electrolysis, this method of producing low-carbon hydrogen is more expensive (Newborough and Cooley 2020). ...
In a hydrogen economy, the primary energy source for industry, transportation, and power production is hydrogen gas. Green hydrogen can be generated and utilized in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner; it seeks to displace fossil fuels. Finding a clean alternative energy source is becoming more crucial due to the depletion of fossil fuels and the major environmental pollution issues they bring when utilized extensively. The paper’s objective is to analyze the factors affecting the economy of green hydrogen production pathways for sustainable development to decarbonize the world and the associated challenges faced in terms of technological, social, infrastructure, and people’s perceptions while adopting green hydrogen. To achieve this, the research looked at a variety of areas relevant to green hydrogen, such as production techniques, industry applications, benefits for society and the environment, and challenges that need to be overcome before the technology is widely used. The most recent methods of producing hydrogen from fossil fuels, such as steam methane, partial oxidation, autothermal, and plasma reforming, as well as renewable energy sources including biomass and thermochemical reactions and water splitting. Grey hydrogen is now the least expensive type of hydrogen, but, in the future, green hydrogen’s levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is expected to be less than $2 per kilogram of hydrogen.
... When electricity is used to provide the heat needed for methane cleavage, MP is considered a potential bridge technology for climate-friendly hydrogen production [6,55,56] as the process itself does not emit carbon dioxide (CO2) per se. According to the color code associated with hydrogen of different origin, H2 from MP is categorized as turquoise [6,57]. An overview of the different colors of hydrogen can be found in Hermesmann et al. [6] and Newborough et al. [6]. ...
A peer-reviewed version of this publication can be found on Applied Energy: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125276
... Although a number of sophisticated formal systems exist for this purpose, a simple "colour" system has emerged as an accessible and widely understood means for classification of H 2 depending upon production method, feedstock, and by-products despite the primary energy source used for generation being the dominant factor in this system [23,24]. Equipment vendors sometimes create new or hybrid colours to describe their specific process [25], and there are several hydrogen colours that are widely accepted: -Gray: generated using fossil-fuel feedstock(s) and energy in processes that generate greenhouse gases. -Blue: generated as described above but with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) being used to arrest greenhouse emissions. ...
The demand for green hydrogen as an energy carrier is projected to exceed 350 million tons per year by 2050, driven by the need for sustainable distribution and storage of energy generated from sources. Despite its potential, hydrogen production currently faces challenges related to cost efficiency, compliance, monitoring, and safety. This work proposes Hydrogen 4.0, a cyber–physical approach that leverages Industry 4.0 technologies—including smart sensing, analytics, and the Internet of Things (IoT)—to address these issues in hydrogen energy plants. Such an approach has the potential to enhance efficiency, safety, and compliance through real-time data analysis, predictive maintenance, and optimised resource allocation, ultimately facilitating the adoption of renewable green hydrogen. The following sections break down conventional hydrogen plants into functional blocks and discusses how Industry 4.0 technologies can be applied to each segment. The components, benefits, and application scenarios of Hydrogen 4.0 are discussed while how digitalisation technologies can contribute to the successful integration of sustainable energy solutions in the global energy sector is also addressed.
... Yellow hydrogen is a relatively new phrase for hydrogen made through electrolysis using solar power (Newborough & Cooley, 2020). ...
Hydrogen has emerged as a promising energy source for a cleaner and more sustainable future due to its clean-burning nature, versatility, and high energy content. Moreover, hydrogen is an energy carrier with the potential to replace fossil fuels as the primary source of energy in various industries. In this review article, we explore the potential of hydrogen as a part of the global energy mix and the current state of its development. The majority of hydrogen production currently occurs through steam methane reforming, which produces significant greenhouse gas emissions and limits the potential of hydrogen as a clean energy source. Significant investment and advancements in renewable hydrogen production through electrolysis are necessary to overcome this limitation. There is also a growing demand for hydrogen infrastructure, including hydrogen refueling stations and storage and transportation systems, which are crucial for the growth and success of the hydrogen industry. The future of hydrogen as a part of the global energy mix will depend on continued investment and commitment to develop and commercialize this promising energy source. Our review also explores the relationship between eco-industrial parks and hydrogen production, including the benefits and challenges of hydrogen production in EIPs and the various technologies being developed to facilitate this process.
... Grey hydrogen is currently the most widely used form of hydrogen production, but it comes with significant environmental drawbacks due to its carbon emissions. As the world seeks to transition to a more sustainable energy system, there is a growing focus on developing and scaling up cleaner forms of hydrogen production, such as green and blue hydrogen [24]. Using Libya's natural gas to produce gray hydrogen has a major drawback in the form of substantial carbon dioxide emissions during the hydrogen generation process. ...
the world is currently facing energy-related challenges due to the cost and pollution of non-renewable energy sources and the increasing power demand from renewable energy sources. Green hydrogen is a promising solution in Libya for converting renewable energy into usable fuel. This paper covers the types of hydrogen, its features, preparation methods, and uses. Green hydrogen production is still limited in the world due to safety requirements because hydrogen has a relatively low ignition temperature and an extensive ignition range and is considered a hazardous element, the lack of infrastructure in Libya, as well as the high cost of production currently. However, the production costs of one megawatt of green hydrogen and fossil fuels are insignificant. This suggests that electricity production from green hydrogen could become an economic competitor to fossil fuels in Libya. This is due to the cost of adding renewable energy to the public electricity grid. Also, the production of gray hydrogen is possible in Libya because of oil through the installation of systems for converting methane gas and capturing carbon dioxide gas.
... Hydrogen production involves various methods, each with its own set of advantages and challenges [63]. Additionally, ongoing research and technological advancements continue to shape the landscape of hydrogen production. ...
This perspective article delves into the critical role of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier in the context of the ongoing global energy transition. Hydrogen, with its potential to decarbonize various sectors, has emerged as a key player in achieving decarbonization and energy sustainability goals. This article provides an overview of the current state of hydrogen technology, its production methods, and its applications across diverse industries. By exploring the challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen integration, we aim to shed light on the pathways toward achieving a sustainable hydrogen economy. Additionally, the article underscores the need for collaborative efforts among policymakers, industries, and researchers to overcome existing hurdles and unlock the full potential of hydrogen in the transition to a low-carbon future. Through a balanced analysis of the present landscape and future prospects, this perspective article aims to contribute valuable insights to the discourse surrounding hydrogen’s role in the global energy transition.
... Environmentally, electrolysis-based green hydrogen is a preferable option to blue hydrogen, where indirect CO 2 emissions due to the extraction of the feedstock fossil fuels are unavoidable [32]. On the other hand, green hydrogen is more expensive than blue hydrogen, although this may be reversed if green hydrogen electrolyzers and renewable energy costs for powering these electrolyzers drop sufficiently in the future [33,34]. ...
Recently, worldwide, the attention being paid to hydrogen and its derivatives as alternative carbon-free (or low-carbon) options for the electricity sector, the transport sector, and the industry sector has increased. Several projects in the field of low-emission hydrogen production (particularly electrolysis-based green hydrogen) have either been constructed or analyzed for their feasibility. Despite the great ambitions announced by some nations with respect to becoming hubs for hydrogen production and export, some quantification of the levels at which hydrogen and its derived products are expected to penetrate the global energy system and its various demand sectors would be useful in order to judge the practicality and likelihood of these ambitions and future targets. The current study aims to summarize some of the expectations of the level at which hydrogen and its derivatives could spread into the global economy, under two possible future scenarios. The first future scenario corresponds to a business-as-usual (BAU) pathway, where the world proceeds with the same existing policies and targets related to emissions and low-carbon energy transition. This forms a lower bound for the level of the role of hydrogen and its penetration into the global energy system. The second future scenario corresponds to an emission-conscious pathway, where governments cooperate to implement the changes necessary to decarbonize the economy by 2050 in order to achieve net-zero emissions of carbon dioxide (carbon neutrality), and thus limit the rise in the global mean surface temperature to 1.5 °C by 2100 (compared to pre-industrial periods). This forms an upper bound for the level of the role of hydrogen and its penetration into the global energy system. The study utilizes the latest release of the annual comprehensive report WEO (World Energy Outlook—edition year 2023, the 26th edition) of the IEA (International Energy Agency), as well as the latest release of the annual comprehensive report WETO (World Energy Transitions Outlook—edition year 2023, the third edition) of the IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). For the IEA-WEO report, the business-as-usual situation is STEPS (Stated “Energy” Policies Scenario), and the emissions-conscious situation is NZE (Net-Zero Emissions by 2050). For the IRENA-WETO report, the business-as-usual situation is the PES (Planned Energy Scenario), and the emissions-conscious situation is the 1.5°C scenario. Through the results presented here, it becomes possible to infer a realistic range for the production and utilization of hydrogen and its derivatives in 2030 and 2050. In addition, the study enables the divergence between the models used in WEO and WETO to be estimated, by identifying the different predictions for similar variables under similar conditions. The study covers miscellaneous variables related to energy and emissions other than hydrogen, which are helpful in establishing a good view of how the world may look in 2030 and 2050. Some barriers (such as the uncompetitive levelized cost of electrolysis-based green hydrogen) and drivers (such as the German H2Global initiative) for the hydrogen economy are also discussed. The study finds that the large-scale utilization of hydrogen or its derivatives as a source of energy is highly uncertain, and it may be reached slowly, given more than two decades to mature. Despite this, electrolysis-based green hydrogen is expected to dominate the global hydrogen economy, with the annual global production of electrolysis-based green hydrogen expected to increase from 0 million tonnes in 2021 to between 22 million tonnes and 327 million tonnes (with electrolyzer capacity exceeding 5 terawatts) in 2050, depending on the commitment of policymakers toward decarbonization and energy transitions.
Fosil yakıtların büyük ölçüde tükenmesi, atmosferdeki karbondioksit seviyesinin artması ve buna bağlı olarak gelişen çevresel tehlikeler insanlık için giderek artan bir endişe kaynağıdır. Bu nedenle son yıllarda hidrojen ekosisteminin kurulmasına yönelik önemli çabalar sarf edilmektedir. Hidrojen, sıfır veya sıfıra yakın emisyona yol açabilen, yüksek verimle enerji dönüşümü sağlayabilen bir enerji taşıyıcısıdır. Öte yandan, ulaşım, ısınma ve enerji üretimi gibi farklı alanlarda çok yönlü olarak kullanılabilme potansiyeline sahiptir. Hidrojen, mavi, yeşil, gri gibi farklı üretim yöntemleriyle elde edilmektedir. Yeşil hidrojen, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından üretildiğinden çevre dostu bir seçenek sunmaktadır. Ancak, mevcut durumda hidrojen ekonomisinin gelişimi ve yaygın kullanımıyla ilgili birtakım zorluklarla karşılaşılmaktadır. Bu zorluklar arasında üretim maliyetleri, depolama ve taşıma teknolojilerinin geliştirilmesi, altyapı entegrasyonu ve güvenlik önlemleri gibi konular yer almaktadır. Bu bağlamda, Dünya genelinde birçok ülke hidrojenin enerji dönüşümündeki rolünü değerlendirerek kendi yol haritalarını oluşturmuşlardır. Bu yol haritalarıyla ülkeler, ulusal enerji bağımsızlığını, çevresel sürdürebilirliği ve ekonomik büyümeyi desteklemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu mini derleme kapsamında da sürdürülebilir bir enerji geleceği için hidrojenin rolü ele alınmaktadır.
A közlekedési ágazat környezetterhelése és energiaigénye az elmúlt időszakban paradigmaváltásra késztette az ágazat meghatározó gyártóit és fejlesztőit. A kutatások olyan új megoldások kidolgozására irányulnak, amelyek az ágazat negatív környezeti mutatóit, fokozott energia szükségletét hivatottak mérsékelni. A kutatási fókuszterületek egyik kiemelkedő szegmense a hidrogéngazdaság és a hidrogén meghajtású gépjárművek fejlesztése. A tanulmány az ezzel kapcsolatos legújabb kutatási eredményeket foglalja össze, rávilágítva a technológia piaci térnyerését befolyásoló legfontosabb tényezőkre.
The aviation sector is responsible for 2.4 % of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Based on current growth predictions, air traffic is expected to increase by 3.7 % annually, making the aviation sector one of the largest long-term emitters of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Counteracting this trend is a crucial challenge the aviation sector has set itself with the Flightpath 2050 strategy. While offsetting mechanisms, optimized flight management, and improved propulsion concepts have already led to a slight reduction in emissions, technological innovations in propulsion concepts and energy sources will be necessary to achieve the Flightpath 2050 goal. One promising approach for regional-, short- and medium-range flights is the use of green hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier. Its production from renewable energy sources and subsequent use releases no carbon dioxide emissions. However, it is unknown much hydrogen will be needed for the aviation sector and how this demand will change over time.
To this end, this paper develops forecasting approaches for the hydrogen demand of the German aviation sector until 2050. Growth forecasts for the aviation sector until 2050 are developed in the first step. Subsequently, market entry scenarios for hydrogen-based propulsion concepts are developed before determining the hydrogen demand for different flight distances. Based on the growth forecasts, the market entry scenarios, and the hydrogen demand per flight, demand forecasts for green hydrogen until 2050 are developed. Our analyses show that the demand for green hydrogen in the German aviation sector cannot be met with current production capacities. However, green hydrogen is also needed in other sectors for a transformation process towards a low-emission industry, making hydrogen imports mandatory to meet the overall demand.
This study models the geomechanical deformation of a depleted gas field, wherein gaseous hydrogen is stored in a North Sea reservoir, and is cyclically injected and withdrawn. A fault is modeled within the underburden, and its slip is investigated during a three year storage period. Parametric simulations are conducted to study the influence of the underburden mechanical properties, such as Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and permeability on induced seismicity. The fault is predominantly in stick during the bulk of the injection, storage, and withdrawal periods, but minor fault slip (<4 mm) occurs shortly after a change in operational regime. The Young’s modulus of the underburden unit has the strongest control on fault slip. To reduce the seismic hazard, an underburden with low Young’s modulus (<15 GPa), high Poisson’s ratio (>0.25), low Biot coefficient, and low permeability (<1×10−19 m²) is found to be most suitable for hydrogen storage.
To develop a H2 production and CO2 fixation process using scrap iron, the characteristics of iron and steel particles that react efficiently were investigated. The reaction of commercial pure iron and alloyed steel powders were compared, and their reactivity was evaluated based on the specific surface area, apparent density, and crystal lattice strain. The efficient reactivity in porous iron powders was attributed to crevice corrosion. To investigate the effect of alloy composition, we added Ni to pure iron powder by pretreatment, which resulted in enhanced H2 production and CO2 fixation. The results indicated that galvanic corrosion contributes to Fe oxidation, because Fe is less noble than Ni based on their electrode potentials. This study provides guidelines for improving the efficiency of reactions that produce H2 while fixing CO2 using steel scrap.
Bioenergy has raised significant interest and expectations due to its potential as a renewable, low-carbon and domestic energy source. Its expansion has given rise to worries regarding negative environmental and socio-economic impacts such as land-use conflict and food insecurity, deforestation and biodiversity loss, subsidies and market distortions. To reduce adverse impacts and tradeoffs, bioenergy systems need to demonstrate their technical and economic efficiency, environmental sustainability and societal acceptability compared with other energy sources. Various criteria, measures and synergies are discussed within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), improving the energy and carbon balance; land, water and food security; biodiversity and ecological footprint; socio-economic standards and political acceptance. Advanced and innovative technologies, practices and policies include development of integrated biorefineries, optimizing infrastructures and lifecycles, using organic waste, residues, byproducts and co-products, based on integrated
assessment and decision-making.
The green hydrogen economy is the answer to making zero carbon emissions in multiple sectors including, transportation, shipping, energy market, carbon credit, and other industrial sectors. The various methods of hydrogen production technologies from renewable and non-renewable sources of energy and their Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) of different methods of production of hydrogen are done in this paper. Different type of colors of hydrogen is classified according to their sources of production and there are mainly three types of hydrogen: Grey, Blue, or Green. The latest technologies used for hydrogen production from fossil fuels, including reforming (steam methane, partial oxidation, auto thermal, plasma) and renewable sources (Biomass, thermochemical, and water splitting). This review paper focuses on types of hydrogen production methods and provides insight into the cost of producing hydrogen and the factors affecting its production. The most influential factors that affect the production cost of green hydrogen in the technologies of photo fermentation, dark fermentation, thermolysis, and photolysis are CAPEX, water and algae, photo bioreactor, electrolyser, electricity respectively. Producing hydrogen by water electrolysis is a high-purity, environmentally benign, and sustainable process. Also analyzed the challenges faced in terms of technical, economical, and social and how to mitigate these challenges. At present the grey hydrogen cost is the cheapest but in the future, green hydrogen cost is estimated at around 2–1 per kg of hydrogen, and this can be possible by reducing the cost of electrolyzers, fuel cells, and green electricity.
A prospective life cycle assessment was performed for global ammonia production across 26 regions from 2020 to 2050. The analysis was based on the IEA Ammonia Roadmap and IMAGE electricity scenarios model for three climate scenarios related to a mean surface temperature increase of 3.5 °C, 2.0 °C, and 1.5 °C by 2100. Combining these models with a global perspective and new life cycle inventories improves ammonia's robustness, quality, and applicability in prospective life cycle assessments. It reveals that complete decarbonisation of the ammonia industry by 2050 is unlikely from a life cycle perspective because of residual emissions in the supply chain, even in the most ambitious scenario. However, strong policies in the 1.5 °C scenario could significantly reduce climate impacts by up to 70% per kilogram of ammonia. The cumulative greenhouse gas emissions from the ammonia supply chain between 2020 and 2050 are estimated at 24, 21, and 15 gigatonnes CO2-equivalent for the 3.5 °C, 2.0 °C, and 1.5 °C scenarios, respectively. The paper examines challenges in achieving these scenarios, noting that electrolysis-based (yellow) ammonia, contingent on electricity decarbonisation, offers a cleaner production pathway. However, achieving significant GHG reductions is complex, requiring advancements in technologies with lower readiness, like carbon capture and storage and methane pyrolysis. The study also discusses limitations such as the need to reduce urea demand, potential growth in ammonia as a fuel, reliance on CO2 transport and storage, expansion of renewable energy, raw material scarcity, and the longevity of existing plants. It highlights potential shifts in environmental impacts, such as increased land, metal, and mineral use in scenarios with growing renewable electricity and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage.
The power of incumbent actors to affect sustainability transitions is increasingly recognised as a central issue associated with systemic change. However, incumbent’s approaches and the outcome of their influence is rarely examined in academic literature. Using a novel approach which combines the lens of ‘discourse coalitions’ with an explicitly critical discursive stance, in which the coalition’s storyline is scrutinised, this interdisciplinary analysis investigates a pro-gas, incumbent led coalition present in the Great Britain (GB) energy system. In response to the threat of electrification, the coalition presents decarbonising the gas grid with replacement gases as the optimal route for heat decarbonisation. However, much analysis suggests a significant need for heat electrification and our review highlights major uncertainties with a decarbonised gas pathway. Incumbents are over-selling 'green-gas' to policy makers in order to protect their interests and detract from the importance and value of electrification. Policy and research recommendations are made.
Fossil fuels have to be substituted by climate neutral fuels to contribute to CO2 reduction in the future energy system. Pyrolysis of natural gas is a well‐known technical process applied for production of, e. g., carbon black. In the future it might contribute to carbon dioxide‐free hydrogen production. Production of hydrogen from natural gas pyrolysis has thus gained interest in research and energy technology in the near past. If the carbon by‐product of this process can be used for material production or can be sequestrated, the produced hydrogen has a low carbon footprint. This article reviews literature on the state of the art of methane / natural gas pyrolysis process developments and attempts to assess the technology readiness level (TRL).
Hydrogen can be produced from many different renewable and non-renewable feedstocks and technological pathways, with widely varying greenhouse gas emissions. For hydrogen to have a role in future low-carbon energy systems, it is necessary to demonstrate that it has sufficiently low carbon emissions. This paper explores how green hydrogen has been defined, reviews nascent green hydrogen characterisation initiatives, and highlights the main challenges that standards and guarantee of origin schemes must overcome to develop a market for green hydrogen.
Most existing green hydrogen initiatives are in Europe. In anticipation of a future market for green hydrogen, international standards are starting to be discussed by national and international standardisation organisations and policy makers. A range of approaches have been taken to defining green hydrogen and guarantees of origin. These vary on whether green hydrogen must be produced from renewable energy, on the boundaries of the carbon accounting system, the emission thresholds at which hydrogen is considered green, and on which feedstocks and production technologies are included in the scheme. Decisions on these factors are often influenced by other national and international standards, and the legal framework in which the green hydrogen supply chain operates.
Atmospheric methane grew very rapidly in 2014 (12.7 ± 0.5 ppb/year), 2015 (10.1 ± 0.7 ppb/year), 2016 (7.0 ± 0.7 ppb/year), and 2017 (7.7 ± 0.7 ppb/year), at rates not observed since the 1980s. The increase in the methane burden began in 2007, with the mean global mole fraction in remote surface background air rising from about 1,775 ppb in 2006 to 1,850 ppb in 2017. Simultaneously the ¹³C/¹²C isotopic ratio (expressed as δ¹³CCH4) has shifted, now trending negative for more than a decade. The causes of methane's recent mole fraction increase are therefore either a change in the relative proportions (and totals) of emissions from biogenic and thermogenic and pyrogenic sources, especially in the tropics and subtropics, or a decline in the atmospheric sink of methane, or both. Unfortunately, with limited measurement data sets, it is not currently possible to be more definitive. The climate warming impact of the observed methane increase over the past decade, if continued at >5 ppb/year in the coming decades, is sufficient to challenge the Paris Agreement, which requires sharp cuts in the atmospheric methane burden. However, anthropogenic methane emissions are relatively very large and thus offer attractive targets for rapid reduction, which are essential if the Paris Agreement aims are to be attained.
You read about it every day: How can we create a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy supply? Does a local water supply play a role in this? Why don’t we drive hydrogen cars that are powered by the sun and rain? The availability of cheap green energy is increasing. We have solar and wind power, and even energy derived from ambient heat. At the same time we have very diverse energy needs: fuel for cars, electricity, heat for buildings, feedstock for industrial processes, to name just a few. Energy supply and demand do not match, which means that we have to match resources, storage and consumption in an intelligent way. Solar Power to the People casts a thoughtful vision on sustainable energy. We have to bring the power of the sun to the people. That is what sustainable energy and water is all about. The authors believe we have to act quickly. The matter is urgent.
A leaky endeavor
Considerable amounts of the greenhouse gas methane leak from the U.S. oil and natural gas supply chain. Alvarez et al. reassessed the magnitude of this leakage and found that in 2015, supply chain emissions were ∼60% higher than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency inventory estimate. They suggest that this discrepancy exists because current inventory methods miss emissions that occur during abnormal operating conditions. These data, and the methodology used to obtain them, could improve and verify international inventories of greenhouse gases and provide a better understanding of mitigation efforts outlined by the Paris Agreement.
Science , this issue p. 186
According to European Directive 2014/94/EU, hydrogen providers have the responsibility to prove that their hydrogen is of suitable quality for fuel cell vehicles. Contaminants may originate from hydrogen production, transportation, refuelling station or maintenance operation. This study investigated the probability of presence of the 13 gaseous contaminants (ISO 14687-2) in hydrogen on 3 production processes: steam methane reforming (SMR) process with pressure swing adsorption (PSA), chlor-alkali membrane electrolysis process and water proton exchange membrane electrolysis process with temperature swing adsorption. The rationale behind the probability of contaminant presence according to process knowledge and existing barriers is highlighted. No contaminant was identified as possible or frequent for the three production processes except oxygen (frequent for chlor-alkali membrane process), carbon monoxide (frequent) and nitrogen (possible) for SMR with PSA. Based on it, a hydrogen quality assurance plan following ISO 19880-8 can be devised to support hydrogen providers in monitoring the relevant contaminants.
Opportunities exist to utilise excess electricity from renewable and nuclear power generation for producing hydrogen. France in particular has a very high penetration of nuclear power plant, some of which is regularly turned down to follow the electricity demand profile. This excess nuclear electricity could be utilised via the electrolysis of water to satisfy the emerging French market for low-carbon hydrogen (principally for mobility applications and the injection of synthetic gas into the natural gas grid). The described analysis examines the use of electrolysers to progressively ‘valley fill’ nuclear load profiles and so limit the need for turning down nuclear plant in France. If an electrolyser capacity of approximately 20 GW is installed, there is already sufficient excess nuclear electricity available now to meet the predicted hydrogen mobility fuel demand for 2050, plus achieve a 5% concentration (by volume) of hydrogen in the gas grid, plus produce approximately 33 TWh p.a. of synthetic methane (via the methanation of hydrogen with carbon dioxide). The pattern of electrolyser utilisation requires operation mostly at a variable part load condition, necessitating the adoption of flexible, efficient, rapid response electrolysers. The proposed approach more fully utilises the substantial existing nuclear power assets of France and provides an additional pathway to renewables for reducing the CO2 emissions of hydrogen production.
Global warming and climate change concerns have triggered global efforts to reduce the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) is considered a crucial strategy for meeting CO2 emission reduction targets. In this paper, various aspects of CCS are reviewed and discussed including the state of the art technologies for CO2 capture, separation, transport, storage, leakage, monitoring, and life cycle analysis. The selection of specific CO2 capture technology heavily depends on the type of CO2 generating plant and fuel used. Among those CO2 separation processes, absorption is the most mature and commonly adopted due to its higher efficiency and lower cost. Pipeline is considered to be the most viable solution for large volume of CO2 transport. Among those geological formations for CO2 storage, enhanced oil recovery is mature and has been practiced for many years but its economical viability for anthropogenic sources needs to be demonstrated. There are growing interests in CO2 storage in saline aquifers due to their enormous potential storage capacity and several projects are in the pipeline for demonstration of its viability. There are multiple hurdles to CCS deployment including the absence of a clear business case for CCS investment and the absence of robust economic incentives to support the additional high capital and operating costs of the whole CCS process.
This article explores the importance of renewable hydrogen in achieving a ‘climate neutral’ energy system, which will require a large amount of renewable electricity and a very large amount of renewable hydrogen. Because of the fundamental need for energy storage to match supply and demand, a two-carrier approach needs to be adopted, where both electricity and hydrogen are derived from renewable energy. National hydrogen strategies, electrolyser deployment plans and the actions required by governments to overcome the current policy vacuum are discussed. It is recommended that a cross-sector ‘green electrons and green molecules’ strategy is taken, and that policies are developed urgently for advancing the adoption of renewable hydrogen.
Hydrogen is produced on a large scale by a wide variety of processes starting with feedstocks like natural gas, crude oil products to coal as well as water-using processes like steam reforming, partial oxidation, coal gasification, metal-water processes and electrolysis. Hydrogen is also recovered from various gas streams especially in refineries.Depending on the basic energy scenarios to be used, steam reforming natural gas will remain the major hydrogen source from today till tomorrow, i.e. the turn of the century. Coal gasification will significantly increase in its share for hydrogen production. This will be achieved via newly developed coal gasification processes.The development of thermochemical hydrogen production technology as well as biological hydrogen production technologies will progress, but their widespread application remains to be seen in the next century.
This book represents an attempt to put the whole energy picture for the future into perspective and to make suggestions and recommendations for the development and use of the inexhaustible energy sources of the sun and wind. Impetus for the book was provided by the 1973-74 international meetings concerning hydrogen as a medium of energy. Because many of the considerations depend upon the original energy source, a presentation of the hydrogen economy is coupled with that of various energy sources, omitting nuclear energy. A separate abstract was prepared for each of the 19 chapters. (LMT)
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