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Developing and testing a theory of change for Boy Scouts of America
Abstract
Positive youth development programs such as those offered by Boy Scouts of America (BSA) provide sources of support and opportunities for leadership and character development. Programmatic experts from BSA collaborated with researchers to develop a visual theory of change (pathway model) for youth development in Scouts BSA and for adult volunteer leader development. The pathway model was then validated through focus groups with Scouts BSA youth and adult leaders across the country. Practice mapping was employed to assess the consistency of pathway models with core adult training curricula. The models were aligned with research literature through evidence mapping. The theory of change embedded in the Scouts BSA program was aligned with the Big Three features of positive youth development programs.
... The BSA BEST Study examined the BSA system to identify the existing trainings and other adult experiences that lead to the strongest youth character outcomes in Scouts. The primary goal of the initial phase of the BSA BEST Study was to develop and verify the theory of change for Scouts BSA (Urban et al., 2019), the BSA program for youth ages 11-17 years old. ...
... The evaluation team also developed a youth interview protocol. Constructs from the pathway model were selected to be included in the youth interview if: (1) researchers determined the constructs would be best addressed through interviews, and/or (2) constructs would contribute to triangulating interview questions and survey items to address youth character outcomes in Scouting (Urban et al., 2019). ...
Background: Cognitive interviewing is a pretesting tool used by evaluators to increase item and response option validity. Cognitive interviewing techniques are used to assess the cognitive processes utilized by participants to respond to items. This approach is particularly appropriate for testing items with children and adolescents who have more limited cognitive capacities than adults, vary in their cognitive development, and have a unique perspective on their life experiences and context. Purpose: This paper presents a case example of cognitive interviewing with youth as part of a national program evaluation, and aims to expand the use of cognitive interviewing as a pretesting tool for both quantitative and qualitative items in evaluation studies involving youth. Setting: Youth participants were located in four regions of the United States: Northeast, Central, Southern, and Western. Interviewers were located at Montclair State University. Intervention: Not applicable. Research design: A cognitive interview measure was designed to include a subset of survey items, interview questions, and verbal probes, to evaluate if these items and questions would be understood as intended by both younger and older youth participants. An iterative design was used with cognitive interviewing testing rounds, analysis, and revisions. Data Collection and Analysis: The cognitive interview was administered by phone to 10 male youth, five from the 10-13-year-old age range and five from the 15-17-year-old age range. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, reviewed, and coded. Survey items and interview questions were revised based on feedback from the participants and consensus agreement among the evaluation team. Item revisions were included in further testing rounds with new participants. Findings: As a result of using cognitive interviewing to pretest survey and interview items with youth, response errors were identified. Participants did not understand some of the items and response options as intended, indicating problems with validity. These findings support the use of cognitive interviewing for testing and modifying survey items adapted for use with youth, as well as qualitative interview items. Additionally, the perspective of the youth participants was valuable for informing decisions to modify items and helping the evaluators learn the participants’ program culture and experiences. Based on the findings and limitations of the study, we give practice recommendations for future studies using cognitive interviewing with a youth sample.
... The study of specific character virtues such as purpose (Damon, 2008), grit (Duckworth et al., 2007), and gratitude (Froh et al., 2011) have notably increased. The OST context serves as a particularly important venue for promoting positive youth development and character by engaging youth in skill-building activities with caring and responsive adults who provide opportunities for youth leadership (Urban et al., 2022). Such a developmental context is ideal for fostering character growth. ...
... They are encouraged to engage in prosocial activities, such as community service, as part of program requirements for advancement. Furthermore, the Scouts BSA programmatic theory of change highlights the expectation that youth participants will demonstrate increased empathy, compassion for others, and a beyond-the-self sense of purpose (Urban et al., 2022). ...
This modified sequential explanatory mixed methods study explores how the components of purpose (personal meaningfulness and a beyond-the-self orientation) impact youth mental health outcomes (depressive and anxiety symptoms) in the context of COVID-19. We hypothesized that youth with higher scores on the components of purpose (goal-directedness, personal meaningfulness, and beyond-the-self orientation) would be less likely to experience anxiety and depressive symptoms during COVID-19. We also explored in what ways youths’ descriptions of their own prosocial behavior align with the relation between purpose and mental health. Data are from two waves of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) Building Evidence in Scouting Together study. Quantitative data are from 4,896 youth and a subsample of 94 youth completed qualitative personal communication Results indicate the personal meaning component of purpose is protective against depressive and anxiety symptoms. However, the beyond-the-self orientation of purpose is associated with higher levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms. In addition, differences were found between youth who reported higher and lower levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms, and personal meaning and a beyond-the-self orientation for the following themes: 1) Empathy for others, 2) Desire to change the situation, 3) Solutions to change the situation, 4) Helping at home, 5) Following health advice, and 6) Scouting-specific examples. Taken together, this study provides useful insights into how each component of purpose can uniquely promote or provide a buffer for depression and anxiety among youth.
... The development of interview questions were informed by a pragmatic approach and were guided by a detailed theory of change (i.e., pathway model) that was co-developed with Scouts BSA staff at the National BSA office (Urban et al., 2020). A program's theory of change identifies how a program's activities contribute to changes that build toward the program's short-, mid-, and long-term outcomes (Urban et al., 2020). ...
... The development of interview questions were informed by a pragmatic approach and were guided by a detailed theory of change (i.e., pathway model) that was co-developed with Scouts BSA staff at the National BSA office (Urban et al., 2020). A program's theory of change identifies how a program's activities contribute to changes that build toward the program's short-, mid-, and long-term outcomes (Urban et al., 2020). Open-ended questions and probes focused on Scout's perceptions of their BSA scouting-related experiences, including opportunities to experience novel activities and pursue new interests, develop skills, and serve in leadership roles. ...
Youth purpose was investigated using a two-phase embedded design with youth participating in Scouts BSA ( N = 3,943), ages 9–20 ( M = 14.0, SD = 1.9). Participating Scouts were mostly White (91%) and male (98%). In Phase 1, we conducted a two-step cluster analysis on Scouts’ survey responses to three purpose dimensions (personal meaning, goal-directedness, beyond-the-self orientation). Four clusters emerged: Purposeful, Explorers, Dreamers, Nonpurposeful. In Phase 2, we explored qualities of purpose within each cluster and programmatic features and relationships within the scouting context fostering youth purpose with a Scout subsample ( N = 30) who completed semi-structured interviews. Results demonstrated that adults supporting scouting, inspiration from older peers, and opportunities to help others and explore new activities supported youth purpose.
... The evaluated aspects include the platform's usability, educational impact, clarity, and interactivity. By assessing these areas, the study seeks to identify the factors that contribute to an effective digital scouting experience and how these factors can support character development (Urban et al., 2022). Through comprehensive evaluation, this study seeks to provide empirical insights into the application of AI technology in non-formal education, particularly in scouting, and to expand knowledge on the potential of ethnopedagogy in supporting character education and sustainability in Indonesia. ...
This study evaluates e-ScoutHix, an AI-based learning platform integrating ethnopedagogical principles into scouting education at Al Hikmah Full Day Junior High School, Surabaya. Designed to enhance student engagement with local cultural values, e-ScoutHix features interactive and personalized modules. Using a qualitative approach and survey data, the study examines validity, compatibility, usability, educational impact, clarity, and interactivity. The results show that e-ScoutHix is effective in increasing student engagement in scout learning, 85% of students reported higher engagement, and 90% of teachers observed improved social skills and cultural understanding. The platform effectively embeds values like gotong royong and sustainability, enriching the scout curriculum. e-ScoutHix enhances interactivity and fosters character development through a culturally relevant learning experience. This research highlights its potential for broader implementation as an inclusive, scalable, and sustainable technology-based education model, particularly in schools aiming to integrate cultural and ethical values into their curricula.
... The Big 3 have been validated across adolescent age [5,6], individual characteristics (e.g., chronic illness [7], youths at risk [8], and ethnic background [9,10]), contexts (e.g., in-school activities [11], community-based programs [12], sports/recreation programs [13], and service-oriented programs [14]), and more recently, cultures (e.g., the Caribbean [15], East Africa [16]; South Africa [17], and Central America [18]). Examples of PYD programs that incorporate the Big 3 include Scouts BSA (formerly Boy Scouts [19]) and 4-H [20]. Some PYD programs, such as Scouts BSA, incorporate "high-adventure" activities. ...
High-adventure programs typically take place outdoors in remote locations and include several days of challenging activities. Research on high-adventure programs consistently finds positive outcomes for youths. Most high-adventure programs feature 10 key principles that are closely aligned and sometimes overlap with the three defining features of positive youth development (PYD) programs: adult–youth connection, allowing youths to lead, and youths learning new skills. The present study uses data from a large national-scale study of youth and adult leaders in Scouts BSA to assess the connection between participation in high-adventure programs and PYD outcomes. Using a concurrent embedded mixed-methods design, we found that participation in high-adventure activities was associated with higher mean levels of youth communication, citizenship, sense of purpose, and leadership when compared with youths who only participated in summer camp programs or those who did neither high-adventure nor camp programs. No differences between activity groups were found for the ability to make ethical/moral decisions, connection, joy/fun, or perceived cultural humility. Both significant and null findings are discussed in light of PYD literature.
In this paper, we present six case studies that illustrate the application of the Systems Evaluation Protocol (SEP) in different real‐world implementation conditions. The SEP is a step‐by‐step guide for how to implement Relational Systems Evaluation (RSE), accounting for the complex factors inherent in the larger systems within which a given program is embedded. We discuss the specific SEP steps used and products developed in each case study project, including an emphasis on how decisions were made to include particular SEP elements in different contexts. The six cases differ in terms of the scale of the programs involved, the nature of the SEP delivery or facilitation process, and the balance among multiple desired outcomes reflecting differential emphases on evaluation capacity building. As such, the cases reported here demonstrate that RSE, as implemented using the SEP, is a widely applicable approach to evaluation and ECB.
In this paper, we present a comprehensive integrative approach to evaluation planning based on Relational Systems Evaluation (RSE). We describe the major implementation approaches and the tools and resources that support evaluation planning in RSE embodied in the Systems Evaluation Protocol (SEP), a step‐by‐step guide to the tasks that every evaluation should address. The SEP provides both a conceptual framework for thinking about evaluation and a set of specific methods and tools that expand awareness of the influences of multiple parts of complex systems. The SEP is implemented through a partnership approach, joining evaluators and program professionals in an iterative, phased approach to evaluation planning, which also often emphasizes evaluation capacity building (ECB) as an intentional goal. This paper provides a practice‐oriented overview of the specific steps comprising the three stages outlined in the SEP: preparation, model development, and evaluation plan development.
In this paper, we present six case studies that illustrate the application of the Systems Evaluation Protocol (SEP) in different real‐world implementation conditions. The SEP is a step‐by‐step guide for how to implement Relational Systems Evaluation (RSE), accounting for the complex factors inherent in the larger systems within which a given program is embedded. We discuss the specific SEP steps used and products developed in each case study project, including an emphasis on how decisions were made to include particular SEP elements in different contexts. The six cases differ in terms of the scale of the programs involved, the nature of the SEP delivery or facilitation process, and the balance among multiple desired outcomes reflecting differential emphases on evaluation capacity building. As such, the cases reported here demonstrate that RSE, as implemented using the SEP, is a widely applicable approach to evaluation and ECB.
Engagement in youth development programs reflects the quality of young people’s program-related experiences. However, more research is needed that explores cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of engagement in programs that serve underrepresented youth of color. The present cross-sectional and mixed-methods study assessed potential relations among dimensions of engagement in the Boston-area Scoutreach initiative, character attributes, self-perceived school competence, and intentional self-regulation. We analyzed data from 32 Scouts (Mage = 9.97 years, SD = 2.46, Range = 6 to 14), 32 parents/guardians, and five Scoutreach leaders. Scouts demonstrated that they were cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally engaged in Scoutreach, and these dimensions were related differentially to indicators of healthy development. Qualitative data elucidated key aspects of Scoutreach (e.g., camping, peer relationships) that were linked to youth engagement. We discuss limitations of the present study and implications for future research and practice.
A growing number of adolescents are more sedentary and have fewer formal opportunities to participate in physical activity. With the mounting evidence that sedentary time has a negative impact on cardiometabolic profiles, health related fitness and physical activity, there is a pressing need to find an affordable adolescent physical activity intervention. One possible intervention that has been overlooked in the past is Boy Scouts of America. There are nearly 900,000 adolescent boys who participate in Boy Scouts in the United States. The purpose of this research study was to evaluate the effect of the Personal Fitness merit badge system on physical activity, health-related fitness, and cardio-metabolic blood profiles in Boy Scouts 11–17 years of age. Participants were fourteen (N = 14) Boy Scouts from the Great Salt Lake Council of the Boy Scouts of America who earned their Personal Fitness merit badge. Classes were held in the Spring of 2016 where boys received the information needed to obtain the merit badge and data were collected. Results from the related-samples Wilcoxon signed rank test showed that the median of differences between VO2 peak pre-test and post-test scores were statistically significant (p = 0.004). However, it also showed that the differences between the Pre-MetS (metabolic syndrome) and Post-MetS scores (p = 0.917), average steps taken per day (p = 0.317), and BMI (p = 0.419) were not statistically significant. In conclusion, the merit badge program had a positive impact on cardiovascular endurance, suggesting this program has potential to improve cardiovascular fitness and should be considered for boys participating in Boy Scouts.
Youth development programs represent key tools in the work of youth-serving practitioners and researchers who strive to promote character development and other attributes of youth thriving, particularly among youth who may confront structural and social challenges related to their racial, ethnic, and/or economic backgrounds. This article conducts secondary analyses of two previously reported studies of a relatively recent innovation in Boy Scouts of America (BSA) developed for youth from low-income communities, Scoutreach. Our goal is to provide descriptive and admittedly preliminary exploratory information about whether these data sets-one involving a sample of 266 youth of color from socioeconomically impoverished communities in Philadelphia (M age = 10.54 years, SD = 1.58 years) and the other involving a pilot investigation of 32 youth of color from similar socioeconomic backgrounds in Boston (M age = 9.97 years, SD = 2.46 years)-provide evidence for a link between program participation and a key indicator of positive development; that is, character development. Across the two data sets, quantitative and qualitative evidence suggested the presence of character development among Scoutreach participants. Limitations of both studies are discussed and implications for future longitudinal research are presented. We suggest that future longitudinal research should test the hypothesis that emotional engagement is key to creating the conditions wherein Scoutreach participation is linked to character development.
The importance of engaging in high quality program evaluation is a generally accepted principle underscored by external pressure from funders. High quality evaluation necessarily begins with good evaluation planning. This paper outlines Evolutionary Evaluation and specifically the Systems Evaluation Protocol, an approach that emphasizes practitioner-evaluator collaboration, results in tangible products for programs, and culminates in an evaluation plan appropriate for a specific program’s lifecycle stage. A case study of Inspire>Aspire, a program developed by Character Scotland and used widely in Scotland’s schools and elsewhere is presented and includes a discussion of creative breakthroughs, or ‘Aha!’ Moments, that occurred.
Triangulation is the practice of obtaining more reliable answers to research questions through integrating results from several different approaches, where each approach has different key sources of potential bias that are unrelated to each other. With respect to causal questions in aetiological epidemiology, if the results of different approaches all point to the same conclusion, this strengthens confidence in the finding. This is particularly the case when the key sources of bias of some of the approaches would predict that findings would point in opposite directions if they were due to such biases. Where there are inconsistencies, understanding the key sources of bias of each approach can help to identify what further research is required to address the causal question. The aim of this paper is to illustrate how triangulation might be used to improve causal inference in aetiological epidemiology. We propose a minimum set of criteria for use in triangulation in aetiological epidemiology, summarize the key sources of bias of several approaches and describe how these might be integrated within a triangulation framework. We emphasize the importance of being explicit about the expected direction of bias within each approach, whenever this is possible, and seeking to identify approaches that would be expected to bias the true causal effect in different directions. We also note the importance, when comparing results, of taking account of differences in the duration and timing of exposures. We provide three examples to illustrate these points.
This study examined character attributes associated with participation in ScoutReach, Boy Scouts of America’s recent program innovation created to deliver Scouting curriculum to underserved populations. Participants were predominantly Black/African American (72.9%; N = 266, Mage = 10.54, SD = 1.58) and resided in low-income urban communities. Youth completed surveys assessing how much they embody different character attributes (e.g., kindness, helpfulness, hopeful future expectations), and a subset of youth (n = 22) also participated in semi-structured interviews examining character-shaping experiences within the program. Results replicated an eight-factor character structure established with youth involved in traditional Scouting programs, and indicated that involvement in ScoutReach may positively contribute to the development in youth of prosocial behaviors, future career goals, tolerance beliefs, and the manifestation of character attributes across Scouting and non-Scouting contexts. Together, these findings have implications for measuring character constructs among youth of color from low-SES backgrounds, and for the conduct of youth-serving character development programs more generally.
Understanding program components that contribute to positive youth outcomes following camp experiences can help program providers bring a greater level of intentionality to their efforts. The purposes of this study were twofold: (a) to develop reliable and valid measures of life skill development, elements of positive youth development (PYD), and antecedents of change within the context of camp and (b) to examine potential relationships between life skill development, elements of PYD, and antecedents of change to better understand elements that influence youth outcomes in camp. Data were collected from 429 camp alumni using an online survey. Exploratory factor analysis was used to explore the reliability and validity of the three proposed scales, and hierarchical multiple regression was used to examine how selected variables contributed to the participants’ outcomes scores. Study results suggest three psychometrically sound instruments were developed to measure these constructs. Implications for research and practice are explored.
Background
Adult–child relational interactions constitute an essential component of out-of-school-time programs, and training staff to effectively interact with children is key to improving program quality. Efficient staff training, that meets the limited time availability of out-of-school time staff, is particularly needed. Objective
This pilot study introduces Simple Interactions (SI), an innovative, strengths-based, and interaction-based professional development approach. Rather than attempting to teach generic competencies or targeting weakness areas for improvement, SI is designed to help program staff build from their strengths. Methods
In two cohorts over the course of 10 months, ten afterschool programs (N = 70 staff) participated in a pilot of SI. Program staff watched short video clips of themselves working with children and used the intuitive, 1-page SI Tool to guide discussion of adult–child interactions; specifically, connection (affective intune-ness), reciprocity (balanced roles of engagement), participation (involving all children), and progression (incremental challenge). ResultsResults suggest that participants valued the professional development process, the strengths-based approach, and the use of self-video despite initial apprehension, and reported perceived improvements in their professional learning communities. Pre-post videos of Cohort 2 staff (n = 20), coded blind to time point (pre or post), indicate significant and substantive improvements in staff–child connection, reciprocity, and participation. Conclusion
These results support the use of this simple, practical, and potentially effective model of supporting quality improvement for and by local staff.
A successful component of programs designed to deliver youth leadership develop programs are youth educators who understand the importance of utilizing research-based information and seeking professional development opportunities. The purpose of this study was to determine youth educator’s perceived confidence in leading youth leadership development programs. Study objectives included describing types of youth leadership development training received by youth educators, describing the number of hours of youth leadership development training received by youth educators, describing the perceived importance of youth leadership development training received by youth educators, describing youth leadership development training delivery mode preferences of youth educators, determining if the addition of hours of training received and the perception of the importance of youth leadership training improved the prediction of perceived confidence beyond that provided by differences in selected demographic variables (gender, age, years of service, education level, office location). The target population for this study was southern region 4-H youth development educators. Results of this study indicate that perceived importance of youth leadership development training is predictive of youth educator’s confidence level in teaching youth leadership development.
Youth leadership development programs are a cornerstone of many youth serving organizations. The importance of youth leadership development to the core goals of programs is illustrated by its explicit inclusion in program logic models as well as its implicit presence when older youth serve in teaching and mentoring roles for younger youth. The success or failure of a youth leadership development program may be linked to many factors, one of which is the educator who leads the program. Youth educators influence program success in many ways. The focus of this study is to explore educators’ prior experiences as well as their perceived confidence in delivering youth leadership development programming. Given the strong connections between a person’s beliefs and behaviors, it is important to understand youth educators’ beliefs within the context of their prior experiences (Ajzen, Joyce, Sheikh, & Cote, 2011). This study seeks to expand the literature about youth educators’ youth leadership development training beliefs. It has practical implications for developing professional development trainings for youth educators as well as theoretical implications for advancing a deeper understanding of educators’ core beliefs about training specifically related to youth leadership development.
As part of a longitudinal, mixed-method study with Boy Scouts of America, we conducted five focus groups with a diverse group of 46 program leaders in order to better understand their perceptions of how they influence youth. Drawing from grounded theory analysis methods, we found that leaders believed they promoted positive youth outcomes, including character and self-confidence, through caring youth-leader relationships and facilitating opportunities for youth to participate in and lead skill-building activities and apply skills in different contexts. Leaders differed in the particular outcomes that they emphasized. Implications of these findings for future research and practice are discussed.
Because challenges are ubiquitous, resilience is essential for success in school and in life. In this article we review research demonstrating the impact of students’ mindsets on their resilience in the face of academic and social challenges. We show that students who believe (or are taught) that intellectual abilities are qualities that can be developed (as opposed to qualities that are fixed) tend to show higher achievement across challenging school transitions and greater course completion rates in challenging math courses. New research also shows that believing (or being taught) that social attributes can be developed can lower adolescents’ aggression and stress in response to peer victimization or exclusion, and result in enhanced school performance. We conclude by discussing why psychological interventions that change students’ mindsets are effective and what educators can do to foster these mindsets and create resilience in educational settings.
In recent years, scholars have become concerned about the effects that declining levels of social capital are having on community life in the United States. Data suggest that Americans are less likely to interact with neighbors and less likely to participate in community groups than they were in the past. Nevertheless, researchers have found that participation in some types of organizations has a positive impact on social capital and civic involvement. Each year, millions of American youth participate in programs designed to promote positive youth development. Here, we examine the effect that participation in one of the largest youth organizations, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), has on adult social capital and community involvement.
Utilizing a national survey of adult males, we compare measures of social capital and community involvement for former Scouts and non-Scouts.
Our findings suggest that level of involvement in the Boy Scouts is significantly related to measures of adult social capital and community engagement.
Scouting tends to have a significant impact on the lives of its most committed members. Future research must continue to explore the long-term effects of participation in youth organizations.
Recent research shows that camp counselors, including those in 4-H, benefit from the experience by developing important life skills. However, because research regarding the perception of workforce skill
development in this context has yielded inconsistent findings, the present study used focus groups to examine 4-H camp counselor alumni perceptions about the skills gained and transfer of these skills to other settings. Overall, 4-H camp counselor alumni thought their experience was fun and enjoyable, yet challenging. They believed they developed important life and workforce skills. Not only did alumni learn these skills, but the skills transferred beyond the camp setting. Leadership was noted as the skill most frequently applied to other contexts. Alumni believed that their counseling experiences had both indirect and direct impacts on their career choice. This study suggests many practical applications for those who work with camp programs.
The field of psychology has been slow to recognize the importance of purpose for positive youth development. Until recently, purpose was understood, if at all, as a means of adapting to threatening conditions rather than as a motivator of good deeds and galvanizer of character growth. Moreover, in most psychological studies, purpose has been conflated with personal meaning, a broader and more internally oriented construct. This article offers a new operational definition of purpose that distinguishes it from meaning in an internalistic sense, and it reviews the existing psychological studies pertinent to the development of purpose during youth. The ar- ticle identifies a number of urgent questions concerning how—and whether—young people today are acquiring positive purposes to dedicate themselves to and, if so, what the nature of today's youth purposes might be. When Victor Frankl published the English edition of Man's Search for Meaning in 1959, the book's instant influence forced psychology to come to terms with the primary importance of high-level belief systems that had been considered derivative or epi-phenomenal by the major theories.1 The notion that ethereal constructs such as "meaning" and "purpose" could make a differ- ence—that they could motivate someone to do some- thing, or even shape a person's basic choices about how to live—seemed impossibly soft-headed and sentimen- tal to mainstream psychologists of that time. If the be- haviorist and psychoanalytic schools (the two best-known bodies of psychological work at midcentury) agreed on anything at all, it was that mean- ing, purpose, and other such belief systems were the products of more fundamental drives; that they were de- pendant on the drives for their shape, substance, and very existence; and that meaning and purpose were no more than marginal factors in behavioral development. To this entrenched materialist position, Frankl (1959) wrote (in the non-"degenderized" language of his day): Man's search for meaning is a primary force in his life and not a "secondary rationalization" of instinctual drives. This meaning is unique and specific in that it must and can be fulfilled by him alone; only then does it achieve a significance which will satisfy his own will to meaning. There are some authors who contend that meanings and values are "nothing but defense mechanisms, reaction formations and sublimations." But as for myself, I would not be willing to live merely for the sake of my "defense mechanisms," nor would I be ready to die merely for the sake of my "reaction for- mations." Man, however, is able to live and even to die for the sake of his ideals and values! (p. 121)
This paper reviews empirical research on the use of evaluation from 1986 to 2005 using Cousins and Leithwood’s 1986 framework for categorizing empirical studies of evaluation use conducted since that time. The literature review located 41 empirical studies of evaluation use conducted between 1986 and 2005 that met minimum quality standards. The Cousins and Leithwood framework allowed a comparison over time. After initially grouping these studies according to Cousins and Leithwood’s two categories and twelve characteristics, one additional category and one new characteristic were added to their framework. The new category is stakeholder involvement, and the new characteristic is evaluator competence (under the category of evaluation implementation). Findings point to the importance of stakeholder involvement in facilitating evaluation use and suggest that engagement, interaction, and communication between evaluation clients and evaluators is critical to the meaningful use of evaluations.
Although moral development of children has long been ascribed predominantly to the effects of parenting, there has been little systematic examination of the specific nature of this relation. In this paper, we identify four foundational components of children's moral development (social orientation, self‐control, compliance, self‐esteem) and four central aspects of moral functioning (empathy, conscience, moral reasoning, altruism). The parenting roots of each of these eight psychological characteristics are examined, and five core parenting processes (induction, nurturance, demandingness, modelling, democratic family process) that are related empirically to the development of these eight child characteristics are identified and discussed. Finally, we consider the implications of our analysis for teaching parents to influence positively their children's moral development.
The study investigates the experiences of emerging adults who had worked as counselors at overnight summer camps; identity-related issues emerge as most salient in the analysis of in-depth interviews conducted with 12 women and 8 men from 8 camps. Their descriptions portray the identity exploration that took place within the camp context, through opportunities to try out roles and responsibilities ranging from the adult-like role model to the more child-like entertainer, and many counselors specifically remark on the role of camp experiences in their identity development. The role of camps as one type of facilitative venue for emerging adults’ identity exploration is discussed.
At present, oral communication and presentation skills are important components of accounting education. Students can improve their oral presentation skills when they know the expectations for effective presentations, give multiple group and individual presentations, and experience consistent instructor feedback. The authors use a case study methodology to describe a systematic approach to embed team and individual presentations in undergraduate and graduate accounting courses, include presentation competency descriptors, present an oral presentation assessment rubric with selected outcomes, and conclude with a discussion of the observed strengths and weaknesses of the case study. (Contains 2 tables.)
Program evaluation and planning is at the heart of efforts to integrate the domains of practice and research. Traditionally, research and practice have operated in independent spheres with practitioners focused on the implementation of programs that affect individual behavior and researchers focused on the development and testing of theory. Evidence-based practice (EBP), practice-based evidence, and translational research have attempted to unite these worlds, and although significant advances have been made, there is a continued need to find mechanisms that enable a seamless connection between knowledge generation and application. We propose a method that builds on the traditions of theory-driven evaluation, logic modeling, and systems science and uses evaluation and program planning as the bridging mechanism between research and practice. Included in this approach are methods that aid in the explicit expression of implicit theories, management of evaluation resources, and linkage of program theory and evaluation measures to a research evidence base. (Contains 2 figures and 1 note.)
To examine antecedents and consequences of learning in the context of mentoring relationships, we developed a new measure of personal learning, relational job learning and personal skill development. The presence of a mentor and mentoring functions were found to be antecedents of personal learning. Job satisfaction, role ambiguity, intentions to leave a job (turnover intentions), and actual leaving (turnover) were found to be consequences of personal learning. This study also explored personal learning as a mediator between mentoring functions and organizational consequences. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
This study examines experiences and associated meanings of 38 family groups participating in developed camping. The analysis is guided by discursive social psychology in which expressed meanings reflect interpretive frames campers use to explain experiences. Key elements of camping experience include nature, social interaction, and comfort/convenience. The most common associated meanings are restoration, family functioning, experiencing nature, special places, self-identity, social interaction, and children's learning. Comparing these experiences and meanings to findings from the 1960s and 1970s suggests that meanings associated with experiencing nature, social interaction, and family have evolved to reflect their greater discursive importance in contemporary society.
Thriving and Spirituality Among Youth empirically explores the connections between spirituality and positive youth development through the research of a set of scholars from the wide array of scientific fields including biology, sociology, and theology. This unique handbook shows how to foster positive development during adolescence, including youth contributions to families and communities in civil society. The material draws on research conducted with various populations including immigrant Hispanic, Chinese, Israeli, and Muslim-American youth. Social workers and mental health professionals will find a new, developmentally rigorous data base for a science of "adolescent spirituality".
Meeting the diverse needs of young people who are coping with such problems as delinquent behaviors or poor academic performance is an urgent issue today. This paper aims to demonstrate the benefits of introducing intergenerational mentoring activities into educational programs for supporting "at risk" adolescents by highlighting some innovative and effective methods. Among various types of mentoring activities, this paper will focus on ones in which older adults take on the role of mentors. The significance of mentoring activities in which older adults give emotional support to at risk adolescents has been recognized since the late 1980s in the United States. An important component of this type of "intergenerational mentoring" initiative involves establishing a sense of mutual trust between the older adult mentors and the at risk youth mentees. This paper consists of the following parts. Firstly, the author will describe the rationale and some of the societal factors that are contributing to the emergence of the mentoring activities for at risk adolescents in contemporary society. Secondly, the author will describe key characteristics of intergenerational mentoring activities designed to support at risk adolescents. The primary focus will be on lessons learned from an intergenerational mentoring program called "Across Ages" which is operated by Temple University's Center for Intergenerational Learning. In analyzing this model program, the author will focus on challenging issues related to how the mentor role is constructed and how the mentors function in the context of program goals to produce benefits for the participants. Finally, in concluding this paper, the author will point out that such intergenerational mentoring endeavors not only expand informal helping resources for at risk adolescents but also help in establishing a circulative mentoring process that has implications for the enrichment of the lives of people of all ages in the community.
Replication is not enough. Marcus R. Munafò and George Davey Smith state the case for triangulation.
School performance and school improvement are in the spotlight. A plethora of policy driven initiatives including the prescription of standards, enhanced self-management opportunities, organisational restructuring, professional development of staff and statutory interventions, such as literacy development, have underlain the pressure and support offered by government to raise standards in schools. Coaching, mentoring and peer-network mechanisms, which have had prevalence outside education, are being seen as important within education as a means of assisting the raising of standards and attainment. This article concerns itself with the use of coaching, mentoring and peer-network mechanisms in schools as a means to enhance professional development, embed changed practice and encourage the transmission of teacher learning to pupil learning within classrooms. The potential benefits of the deployment of such mechanisms within schools are reviewed, and the article highlights management issues within schools likely to emerge should individual schools adopt or give additional prominence to the use of such mechanisms as a means to enhance professional development.
Our behaviors are regulated by our perception of the future based on past experiences and knowledge. Children from a disadvantaged background might encounter obstacles more frequently when they plan their future. It is possible that a good relationship with an adult volunteer who provides assistance and guidance in the disadvantaged youth's development may facilitate their future-planning style and career goal setting. The present study investigated the role of a good mentoring relationship in promoting a disadvantaged youth's future-planning style and goal-setting ability. It focused on children from a disadvantaged background who participated in the Child Development Fund (CDF) in Hong Kong. In the study, 187 CDF participants (93 with high mentoring-relationship quality [MRQ] and 94 with low MRQ) and 208 comparison group participants were able to complete all four times of the survey. Repeated-measures analyses of covariance showed that Group main effects were observed for both future-planning style, F(2, 374) = 5.92, p < .01, and career goal-setting self-efficacy, F(2, 376) = 6.07, p < .01. Main Time effect was also found for the latter, F(3, 1128) = 7.99, p < .01. A significant Group × Time interaction effect was observed for future-planning style only, F(5.78, 1081.21) = 2.17, p < .05. Our results suggest that participants with high MRQ outperformed the comparison group in both future-planning style and career goal-setting self-efficacy. Multiple regression analyses revealed that mean MRQ score accounted for 3.9% (p < .01) of the variance in future-planning style and 4.1% (p < .01) of the variance in career goal-setting self-efficacy, supporting the role of a good mentoring relationship. Mentors have introduced new resources to the disadvantaged youths with high MRQ and have promoted the development of various skills through modeling.
The purpose of this article is to discuss the use of logic models as a tool and consider how logic models can best be used to strengthen research and evaluation studies. We define logic models as a range of visual depictions of a project or program's theory of change or theory of action. The article provides examples of logic models, suggests some historical roots, discusses the development of logic models and how they can be used, and offers a list of their strengths and weaknesses.
Liberty: Thriving and Civic Engagement Among America’s Youth examines what it means to develop as an exemplary young person - that is, a young person who is thriving within the community and on the rise to a hopeful future. The book explores several key characteristics of positive youth development such as competence, character, confidence, social connections, and compassion that coalesce to create a young person who is developing successfully towards an "ideal" adulthood, one marked by contributions to self, others, and the institutions of civil society. In this unique work, author Richard M. Lerner brings his formidable knowledge of developmental systems theory and facts on youth development to analyze the meaning of a thriving civil society and its relationship to the potential of youth for self-actualization and positive development.
Frontline managers (FMs) are able to establish a positive rapport with their staff through the use of effective communication. Managerial communication (MC) is one mechanism that can assist FMs with cultivating an environment of mutual respect and high productivity, thus, achieving organizational goals and objectives. In this study, the related literature is reviewed. The emergent theme throughout the research conducted is that, managerial communication (MC) is one of the most important tools that FMs can utilize to influence goodwill among employees. MC assists in crafting healthier relations between FMs and their employees and the entire organization ultimately benefits from this relationship. We make a series of recommendations for FMs, who seek to establish and retain good relations with their staff.
Organized activities (including afterschool programs, extracurricular activities, sports, community service, summer camps, and other activities outside of the regular school day) account for a significant segment of children and adolescents' lives. These activities often provide hands-on, child-driven experiential learning that often involve youth working collaboratively with peers. Although research on organized activities is comparatively recent, it suggests that these types of activities support the development of self-direction, initiative, teamwork, and emotional skills, as well as cognitive and academic skills. In this chapter, bioecological and sociocultural theories are used to guide our understanding of organized activities. Methodological strategies and common assessments used to study organized activities are reviewed. Key parameters and processes, including dosage, type of activities, and program quality, are described. We consider individual, family, peer, and school/community factors that predict participation in organized activities. We also evaluate evidence of links between organized activities and child developmental outcomes. Finally, youth experiences and outcomes associated with unsupervised settings are juxtaposed to experiences and outcomes found in organized activities.
Youth development programs, such as the Boy Scouts of America, aim to develop positive attributes in youth (e.g., character virtues, prosocial behaviors, and positive civic actions), which are necessary for individuals and societies to flourish. However, few developmental studies have focused on how specific positive attributes develop through participation in programs such as the Boy Scouts of America. As part of the Character and Merit Project, this article examined the developmental trajectories of character and other positive attributes, which are of focal concern of the Boy Scouts of America and the developmental literature. Data were collected from 1398 Scouts (M = 8.59 years, SD = 1.29 years, Range 6.17-11.92 years) and 325 non-Scout boys (M = 9.06 years, SD = 1.43 years, Range 6.20-11.81 years) over five waves of testing across a two-and-half-year period. Latent growth-curve analyses of self-report survey data examined the developmental trajectories of the attributes. Older youth rated themselves lower than younger participants on helpfulness, reverence, thriftiness, and school performance. However, all youth had moderately high self-ratings on all the attributes. Across waves, Scouts' self-ratings increased significantly for cheerfulness, helpfulness, kindness, obedience, trustworthiness, and hopeful future expectations. Non-Scout boys' self-ratings showed no significant change for any attributes except for a significant decrease in religious reverence among non-Scout boys from religious institutions. We discuss implications for positive youth development and for the role of the Boy Scouts of America programming in character development.
Full text available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-015-0340-y?wt_mc=10.CON1020.CTW_C3_70
Although much is known about the individual-level predictors of volunteering, charitable giving, and informal helping, less is known about how the characteristics of communities shape generosity. In this article, we assess the predicted effects of both individual- and contextual-level social capital (social networks and generalized trust) on three forms of generous behavior using the European Social Survey, which provides complete data on over 30,000 respondents in 160 regions in 19 countries. The results suggest that regional-level trust is associated with more volunteering and donating to charities. In addition, regional-level social capital (the combination of trust and social ties) predicts greater volunteering. The relationship between contextual-level social capital and informal helping is weaker.
This study examined the relationship of adult 4-H volunteers’ perceived leadership styles of 4-H Youth Development Educators to the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. There were 498 Oregon adult 4-H volunteers randomly selected to participate. Participants rated the leadership style of their 4-H Youth Development Educator (YDE) using Bass and Avoilio’s (1990) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and self assessed their sense of empowerment using Spreitzer’s (19915) Psychological Empowerment Instrument. In the structural model, transformational leadership style was shown to have a significant positive relationship ( = 0.031) to adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. The 4-H YDEs who were rated as using transformational leadership were very likely to be empowering adult 4-H volunteers.
Keeping volunteers committed and engaged is one of the toughest challenges for NPOs. The aim of the present study is to investigate the individual and organizational factors that promote volunteer satisfaction and, vice versa, foster intentions to quit. Two hundred forty-seven volunteers operating in four different NPOs were asked to fill in a self-report questionnaire that aimed to explore their motivations to volunteer, their degree of satisfaction and their perception of the organizational climate in the NPO they worked with, in addition to providing details of the activities which they were involved in. Results showed that the organizational climate mediates the relationship between autonomous motivation and satisfaction, as well as that between external motivation and intentions to leave an organization.
Current conceptualizations of the nature of character development, including its content, structure, and function, are consistent with the relational developmental systems metatheory. However, there is more conceptual consensus than empirical support for these ideas. With the intention of promoting programmatic research about the nature of character development, we present ideas pertinent to devising a relational developmental systems-derived model of character development, and we suggest ways in which research testing such a model might proceed. We discuss the implications of tests of this model for the enhancement of theory and for programs aimed at promoting different facets of character. (C) 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between volunteers' motivation and affective commitment in non-profit sport organizations. Design/methodology/approach: A mail survey was conducted with a sample of 214 individuals who volunteered at 22 non-profit sport organizations in a Midwestern state of the USA. Findings: Results from structural equation modeling analysis supported the partial mediation role of job satisfaction. The values factor of volunteers' motivation had a significant direct impact on affective commitment, and job satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between values and affective commitment. Research limitations/implications: Although volunteer motivation influences the level of organizational commitment, volunteers who are motivated by their values would be more satisfied with their volunteer experience and consequently be more committed to the non-profit sport organization. Originality/value: Little research has specifically addressed volunteer commitment and its links to volunteer motivation and job satisfaction in the context of non-profit sport organizations. Therefore, the study contributes to the understanding of volunteers' motivation and how it influences commitment toward non-profit sport organizations.
There is great interest in leveraging video games to improve student engagement and motivation. However, educational games are not uniformly effective, and little is known about how in-game rewards affect children's learning-related behavior. In this work, we argue that educational games can be improved by fundamentally changing their incentive structures to promote the growth mindset, or the belief that intelligence is malleable. We present "brain points," a system that encourages the development of growth mindset behaviors by directly incentivizing effort, use of strategy, and incremental progress. Through a study of 15,000 children, we show that the "brain points" system encourages more low-performing students to persist in the educational game Refraction when compared to a control, and increases overall time played, strategy use, and perseverance after challenge. We believe that this growth mindset incentive structure has great potential in many educational environments.
Boy Scout geoscience education is not "desk" education-it is an informal, hands-on, real-world education where Scouts learn through activities, trips, and the outdoors, as well as in meetings and in the merit badge program. Merit badge requirements, many of which meet National Science Education Standards for Earth and Space Science, give boys foundational experiences and familiarity with geoscience topics. Earning a Geology merit badge at any location resulted in a significant gain of content knowledge (P < 0.001). The combined treatment groups for all location types had a 9.2% gain in content knowledge, but the amount of content knowledge acquired through the merit badge program varied with location. The longitudinal posttest scores, with a 15.0% increase from the attributed average pretest score, were higher than the posttest scores from any location except summer camp. No gains were seen in the control group; age and grade were not significant factors. Combining interview data with quantitative data indicates that Scouts who participate in the Geology merit badge are better prepared for school geoscience classes. Participation in the Geology merit badge provides geoscience experiences and "familiarity" with geoscience concepts that allow Scouts to create and retain geoscience knowledge.
The purpose of this study was to clarify the role of shared leadership in self-directed teams by testing its relationship with teamwork mental models and team performance. Data from 40 intact, naturally occurring teams involved in highly interdependent tasks demonstrated that the distribution of informal leadership and whether or not perceptions of leadership were reciprocated among leaders were related to the degree of similarity and accuracy of team mental models as well as subsequent team performance. Specifically, teams with a coordinated type of shared-leadership perception demonstrated significantly higher levels of team mental model similarity, team mental model accuracy, and team performance than teams with a distribution of leaders that failed to recognize each other as leaders as well as teams with no leaders. However, teams with distributed-coordinated leadership were significantly different than teams with centralized leadership only with respect to team mental model accuracy scores. Finally, this study builds on prior research by demonstrating that the team mental model accuracy contributes more to team performance than team mental model similarity.
This study combines research documenting the benefits of positive relationships between youth and caring adults on a young person’s positive development with studies on youth voice to examine the mechanisms through which participation in youth programs contributes to positive developmental outcomes. Specifically, the study explores whether youth’s perceived quality relationships with adults contribute to strengthening of youth voice and in turn how the two combine to affect youth’s perception of the benefits of program participation. The findings derived from survey data regarding 748 youth who participated in youth—adult partnership programs in 29 states suggest that young people who develop positive relationships with adults perceive they have more voice in the program and in turn perceive more benefits to program participation. Implications for research and practice are presented.
School performance and school improvement are in the spotlight. A plethora of policy driven initiatives including the prescription of standards, enhanced self-management opportunities, organisational restructuring, professional development of staff and statutory interventions, such as literacy development, have underlain the pressure and support offered by government to raise standards in schools. Coaching, mentoring and peer-network mechanisms, which have had prevalence outside education, are being seen as important within education as a means of assisting the raising of standards and attainment. This article concerns itself with the use of coaching, mentoring and peer-network mechanisms in schools as a means to enhance professional development, embed changed practice and encourage the transmission of teacher learning to pupil learning within classrooms. The potential benefits of the deployment of such mechanisms within schools are reviewed, and the article highlights management issues within schools likely to emerge should individual schools adopt or give additional prominence to the use of such mechanisms as a means to enhance professional development
Scholars theorize that engaging young people in organizational governance promotes positive youth development and organizational effectiveness. To explore this prediction, the study discussed here, based on interview data from 16 youth and 24 adult organizational leaders representing 8 organizations, mapped the developmental processes that occur when youth and adults share governance responsibilities. It was found that engaging youth in decision making secured the commitment of young people to their organizational communities, and additionally, contributed positively to youth development. Further, the adult leaders reported that the experience of working with youth had a positive effect on their own development and contributed to the overall efficacy of their organizations. These data indicate that organizational governance may offer a viable context through which youth can be active producers of their own development and of the communities in which they interact. Implications for future research and practice are discussed in light of these findings.
Due to its increasing popularity, youth development (YD) has become a buzzword that is attached to a variety of programs. Several attempts have been made to articulate a unified definition of YD that would enable the field to progress toward measuring the effectiveness of YD programs. In order to determine what constitutes a YD program, we must establish the criteria for inclusion. This is an exploratory study of a collaborative approach to understanding the components and characteristics of YD programs. The objective of this study is to compare and contrast responses across four participant groups (policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and youth) using a community-based participatory approach, in order to reach consensus and explore the perceived hierarchy of key characteristics for YD programs from multiple stakeholder perspectives. (Contains 5 tables, 2 figures and 6 footnotes.)
To describe the use of methodological triangulation in a study of how people who had moved to retirement communities were adjusting.
Methodological triangulation involves using more than one kind of method to study a phenomenon. It has been found to be beneficial in providing confirmation of findings, more comprehensive data, increased validity and enhanced understanding of studied phenomena. While many researchers have used this well-established technique, there are few published examples of its use.
The authors used methodological triangulation in their study of people who had moved to retirement communities in Ohio, US.
A blended qualitative and quantitative approach was used.
The collected qualitative data complemented and clarified the quantitative findings by helping to identify common themes. Qualitative data also helped in understanding interventions for promoting 'pulling' factors and for overcoming 'pushing' factors of participants. The authors used focused research questions to reflect the research's purpose and four evaluative criteria--'truth value', 'applicability', 'consistency' and 'neutrality'--to ensure rigour.
This paper provides an example of how methodological triangulation can be used in nursing research. It identifies challenges associated with methodological triangulation, recommends strategies for overcoming them, provides a rationale for using triangulation and explains how to maintain rigour. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH/PRACTICE: Methodological triangulation can be used to enhance the analysis and the interpretation of findings. As data are drawn from multiple sources, it broadens the researcher's insight into the different issues underlying the phenomena being studied.