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Nutritional quality traits of raw and cooked Ark shell (Bivalvia: Arcidae): balancing the benefits and risks of seafood consumption
Abstract
Biochemical composition and fatty acid profile of raw Ark shells (RA) were compared to Ark shells submitted to three different cooking methods (BA: baking in the oven; PF: pan-frying in butter and MW: cooking in a microwave). Moisture (%) was significantly higher in RA (79.66) with respect to PF (65.09), BA (48.63) and MW (47.02). Protein (mg/g of flesh) decreased significantly from 18.62 in RA to 15.40 in MW, 13.76 in PF and 13.33 in BA. However, lipids significantly increased in MW (43.32 mg/g of flesh) and PF (63.63 mg/g of flesh) with respect to RA (35.05 mg/g of flesh). Pan-frying affected considerably triacylglycerol (TAG) and the fatty acid composition (FA) of Ark shell flesh. The most changes occurred in saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acid fractions after this process. The n-3 PUFA decreased significantly from RA (16.40 mg/g dry weight) to PF (10.02 mg/g DW). While, the opposite trend was observed for n-6 PUFA, revealing that this cooking method had considerable effects on the nutritional characteristics of this edible shellfish. The analysis of lipid peroxidation markers such as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, free fatty acid and peroxide value confirmed that both heat treatment and time of cooking caused lipid degradation, which had been more accentuated during pan-frying treatment. For the populations who consume Ark shells occasionally or frequently, baking and microwave cooking could be then considered as wiser and healthier cooking methods since they conserve better the nutritional value of this marine product. The present study will be of practical value from a health perspective for Mediterranean populations.
... Also, Vieira et al. [36] reported that higher temperatures and deep-frying with soybean caused greater lipid oxidation in fish (Arapaima gigas). It is recently demonstrated that lipid peroxidation generation affect the lipids of frying and cooking seafood [37]. The observed change in the lipid content of fried clams could probably be influenced by the exchange/absorption of used fats or due to the loss of water during this frying treatment [38]. ...
... Nowadays a few range of studies carried out on the amount of CHL in fresh and cooked seafood [37]. Our present work revealed important changes of the CHL composition in fried clam with margarine that increased more after pan frying. ...
This investigation was aimed to assess and evaluate the effect of frying process with three different oils (corn, olive and margarine) on fatty acids and lipid classes’ composition of clam and their impact on the nutritional value and tissues quality. The results indicated that the contents of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids varied significantly in fried clams and frying oil. Our data demonstrated that all lipid classes’ contents increased significantly after all frying processes. It was concluded that the frying process decreased the n-3/n-6 and DHA+EPA and increased the levels of atherogenic; thrombogenic indices. Additionally, these culinary processes promoted lipid peroxidation through the enhancement of TBARs, PV and FFA. These changes were more significant and intensive after frying with margarine and corn oils followed by virgin olive oil. These results suggest that clam fried with olive oil can be classified as highly nutritive in regard to its lipid content, major fatty acid profile; and nutritional value.
... Bivalve mollusks, including oysters, have a remarkable filtering capacity with low selectivity, leading them to accumulate biological contaminants such as S. aureus 24,[28][29][30] . This accumulation represents a significant risk to consumers, especially when consuming raw or undercooked oysters 31 . ...
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major challenge for food safety and public health. This study aimed to investigate the potential role of oysters sold in Egypt as a source for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), MRSA, and multidrug-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDR-MRSA). It also examined the occurrence of tsst-1 virulence gene and assessed the associated zoonotic risks. Thirty-three pooled fresh oyster samples were acquired from different retail fish markets in Egypt. S. aureus was identified by conventional culture-based and molecular methods. Antimicrobial resistance was performed by the disk-diffusion method, and the multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) was calculated. Antimicrobial resistance (mecA and mecC) and virulence (tsst-1) genes were screened using polymerase chain reaction. The clustering of virulent MDR-MRSA isolates was performed using R with the pheatmap package. The prevalence of S. aureus was 39.4% (13 /33), and 77% of them (10/13) were classified as MDR with MARI values greater than 0.2. Notably, 46.2% (6 /13) of isolates were identified as MRSA and all MRSA isolates displayed MDR. Of the MDR-MRSA isolates, 66.7% (4 /6) possessed the mecA gene, while 16.7% (1 /6) tested positive for the mecC gene. Additionally, the tsst-1 gene was identified in one isolate (16.7%). Interestingly, two MDR-MRSA isolates exhibited a clustered pattern. The study sheds light on the emergence of virulent MDR-MRSA isolates in Egyptian oysters. It highlights oysters as a potential source for spreading these isolates within aquatic ecosystems, posing a threat to food safety and public health.
... Ark clam, Anadara kagoshimensis, is intensively farmed in South-Eastern Asia and is considered prospective for farming in the Black Sea region. Ark clams have a higher market value comparing to traditional aquaculture species (Crassostrea gigas and Mytilus galloprovincialis) due to high carotenoid content (Ghribi et al., 2021). Natural distribution of ark clams comprises waters with salinity between 14 ‰ and 39 ‰ (Strafella et al., 2017;Bondarev, 2020). ...
This study describes the analysis of antioxidant enzymatic activities (catalase and superoxide dismutase) in gills and functional state of hemocytes (osmotic stability, mitochondrial membrane potential) of ark clams (Anadara kagoshimensis) from the Black Sea basin exposed to salinity stress. For this, the effects of 48 h periods of exposure to low (8 ‰, 14 ‰) and high (35 ‰, 45 ‰) salinity were assessed. Our results showed that ark clams, A. kagoshimensis, possessed pronounced tolerance to hypersalinity stress and are sensitive to a short-time hyposalinity treatment. Salinity 35 ‰ inhibited production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by hemocytes and did not affect their levels of mitochondrial membrane potential. Acclimation to 45 ‰ salinity caused significant increase in mitochondrial membrane potential accompanied with recovery of intracellular ROS levels up to controls levels. Acclimation to low salinity (8 ‰) induced an increase in both ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential levels in hemocytes. Catalase and superoxide dismutase activity in gills decreased following acclimation to low (8 ‰) and high (35 ‰) salinity. Exposure to the highest salinity levels (45 ‰) led to a decrease of superoxide dismutase activity levels, but did not influence the levels of catalase activity. Acclimation to low and high salinity was not accompanied with changes in osmotic fragility of hemocytes despite osmotic fragility curve according to changes in hemolymph osmolarity. Based upon these results, we postulate the involvement of cellular osmoregulatory mechanisms in the adaptation of the ark clam to short-term fluctuations of environmental salinity.
... Consequently, the study of the nutritional quality changes of steamed mussel tissues is more appropriate than the raw ones. Currently the benefit-risk evaluation assumed from the toxic and essential elements contents and omega-3 PUFA levels are mostly based on the analysis of raw mussel tissues (Barbosa et al., 2018;Ghribi et al., 2021). The studies concerning this topic are mainly focused on various fish species and only few data (Barbosa et al., 2018;Biandolino et al., 2021) are available on mollusks, especially M. galloprovincialis as well as the benefit-risk ratio. ...
Abstract Steaming process is the most popular method for cooking mussels worldwide. The effect of this cooking process on some toxic (Cd, Ni, Pb), essential (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) elements, minerals (Na, K, Ca, Mg), total lipids, and fatty acid profiles in the Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) harvested from the Black Sea was studied. Different approaches to assess the benefits and risks (n‐6/n‐3, PUFA/SFA, AI, TI, h/H, EDI, THQ, HI, TR, and HQEFA) were employed. In general, steaming process significantly modified some essential elements and minerals concentrations as well as the fatty acid profiles. Compared to the raw samples, this culinary practice resulted in an increased concentration of Na, Mg, Zn, and saturated fatty acids and a decrease of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Significant changes in the lipid quality indices (PUFA/SFA, AI, TI, and h/H) from the raw samples were observed. No effect on the DHA content was found. However, the significant increase in the absolute content of EPA + DHA indicates that steaming does not compromise the nutritional quality of mussels. Target hazard quotients (THQs) and hazard index (HI) from elemental intake were below 1, indicating that the steamed M. galloprovincialis pose no hazard for the consumers. The target risk (TR) values for Pb, Cr, and Ni were calculated, evaluated, and showed acceptable or negligible levels. In addition, the benefit–risk ratio indicated that the steamed M. galloprovincialis are safe for human consumption.
The emergence of critical-priority E. coli, carrying a wide array of resistance and virulence factors through food sources, poses a significant challenge to public health. This study aimed to investigate the potential role of oysters sold in Egypt as a source for E. coli, identify their resistance and virulence-associated gene profiles, and assess associated zoonotic risks. A total of 33 pooled fresh oyster samples were obtained from various retail fish markets in Egypt and examined bacteriologically for the presence of E. coli. Antimicrobial resistance was performed by the disk-diffusion method, and the multiple antibiotic resistance index (MAR) was calculated. All isolates were screened for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) (blaTEM, blaSHV, blaCTX−M, and blaOXA−1), plasmid-mediated AmpC blaCMY−2, and carbapenemases (blaKPC, blaNDM, blaVIM, and blaOXA−48) genes by Polymerase chain reaction. Moreover, the presence of virulence-encoding genes was investigated. The virulent MDR strains were clustered using R with the pheatmap package. The prevalence of E. coli was 72.7% (24 out of 33), with 66.7% of the isolates classified as multi-drug resistant, and 75% exhibited MAR values exceeding the 0.2 threshold. Different antimicrobial sensitivity phenotypes and genotype profiles were identified in E. coli isolates. The most prevalent gene detected among all isolates was blaTEM (22/24, 91.7%). Notably, all non-ESBL producers were positive for blaCMY2. Carbapenem-resistant and carbapenem-intermediate strains were carbapenemase producers, with the predominance of the blaKPC gene (11/24, 45.8%). Remarkably, twelve out of sixteen virulence genes were identified, with papC (21/24, 87.5%) and sfa (16/24, 66.7%) genes being the most prevalent. Most isolates carry virulence genes primarily associated with extra-intestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) (87.5%) and enteropathogenic (EPEC) (70.8%) pathotypes. Four E. coli isolates exhibit cluster patterns. This study provides the first insight into the emergence of virulent MDR E. coli among oysters in Egypt. It underscores the potential role of oysters as a source for disseminating these strains within aquatic ecosystems, presenting a possible threat to public health.
Raw-bivalves consumption is a wide trend in Mediterranean countries. Despite the unambiguous nutritional value of seafood, raw consumption of bivalves may involve risks that could pose a significant threat to consumers’ health. Their filter-feeding behavior is responsible for the potential hosting of a wide variety of microorganisms, either pathogenic for the bivalves or public health threats. Under this prism, the current study was conducted in an effort to evaluate the risk of eating raw bivalves originating from the two biggest seafood markets in Thessaloniki, the largest production area of bivalves in Greece. Both microbiological and molecular methodologies were applied in order to assess the presence of various harmful microbes, including noroviruses, Bonamia, Marteilia, Esherichia coli, Salmonella, and Vibrio. Results indicated the presence of several Vibrio strains in the analyzed samples, of which the halophilic Vibrio harveyi was verified by 16S rRNA sequencing; other than this, no enteropathogenic Vibrio spp. was detected. Furthermore, although Esherichia coli was detected in several samples, it was mostly below the European Union (EU) legislation thresholds. Interestingly, the non-target Photobacterium damselae was also detected, which is associated with both wound infections in human and aquatic animals. Regarding host pathogenic microorganisms, apart from Vibrio harveyi, the protozoan parasite Marteilia refrigens was identified in oysters, highlighting the continuous infection of this bivalve in Greece. In conclusion, bivalves can be generally characterized as a safe-to-eat raw food, hosting more bivalve pathogenic microbes than those of public health concern.
The present study aimed to evaluate the biochemical status of Venerupis decussata collected seasonally from two Tunisian coastline lagoons (Ghar El Melh and Boughrara) submitted to different anthropogenic levels. Trace elements were significantly higher in clams from Boughrara, especially during the warm season. Fatty acids, proximate compositions, and nutritional value of both clam populations were higher, appearing to be the best for human consumption principally during the spring season. The principal component analysis was determined, including phospholipids and reserve lipids, revealing a great variation with the exogenous and endogenous factors. Generally, clams from Boughrara had a significant alteration in biochemical composition principally due to the anthropogenic levels and physicochemical fluctuation of this lagoon. Our results reflected the healthy benefit of clam consumption and the use of energy reserves and essential fatty acids as a great biomarker to assess ecological risk in lagoons and other coastal ecosystems.
Proximate composition and fatty acid profile of raw cupped oysters (RA) were compared to conspecific submitted to two different cooking preparations (SA: cooking using extra virgin olive oil in a pan; GR: “gratin”). Moister content was significantly higher in RA (81.7%) with respect to SA (81.1%) and GR (81%). Protein rate significantly decreased from RA (8.8%) to SA (8.3%) and GR (8.4%). Lipids significantly increased in the two cooked GR (2.8%) and SA (2.7%) with respect to RA (2%). Ashes ranged from GR (1.98%) to RA (2%). In the two cooking methods, 18:0 was significantly higher (GR 6.99% and SA 6.15%) than in the raw oysters (RA 4.87%). C18:1 was largely doubled in GR (14.43%) and SA (13.77%) with respect to RA (6.81%). Among n-3 PUFA, 22:6 showed the highest percentage in all the three samples with a significant decrease passing from RA (21.39%) to SA (18.45%) and GR (17.95%). 20:5n-3 had the highest content in RA (17.53%) and significantly decreases in SA (14.09%) and GR (14.54%). Considering the trend of n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA, the n-3/n-6 ratio significantly decreased from RA (5.33) to SA (3.58) and GR (3.29). Although proximate composition and fatty acid profile changed after the cooking process, as consequence of the heat treatment and extra virgin olive oil added to the plates, the culinary preparations did not negatively compromise the quality traits of the cooked and gratin oysters.
This study aimed to provide information about the changes in fatty acid composition and quality in Ruditapes decussatus tissue after four culinary treatments (steamed, baked, grilled and fried). All treated samples showed a significant decrease in moisture and protein. In contrast, a significant increase in fat content resulted from the grilled and fried treatments. Saturated fatty acid was significantly higher in fresh clams than all cooking processes, except in fried ones. Monounsaturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid varied significantly between fresh and cooked clams with high values recorded for fried clams. The n-3/n-6 ratio, peroxide index, EPA+DHA and atherogenicity index decreased significantly after the cooking processes particularly in fried clams. The mineral levels (Mg, Ca and Mn) of cooked clams decreased considerably with grilled and fried treatments. The impacts of cooking on the fatty acid composition and protein content in clam tissue was evaluated by lipid peroxidation (TBARS, PV, FFA, TOR) and protein oxidation (AOPP and PCO), which varied statistically in fried, steamed, grilled and baked samples; indicating alterations in cooked clam tissues structure. Based on our results, steaming is recommended for the preparation of clams because it preserves the most nutritional tissue quality.
Unlabelled:
French consumers' perceptions of nutrition and health claims (NHC) are studied using both qualitative (n = 89) and quantitative (n = 1000) methods. We analyse the participants' unprompted associations between nutrients and foods and construct a "lay food composition table". We find evidence for a degree of familiarity, in most cases in name only, with macronutrients and a small number of micronutrients. We then turn to assessing how compatible nutritional claims are with the « lay food composition table » and with pre-existing, culture-based representations of the fate of foods in the body. We thus identify some principles predicting for positive or negative response in relation to types of claims. We also assess the credibility of types of claims according to the function cited and the carrier food. Finally, we test perception of hypothetical fortifications according to origin of nutrient and type of carrier food (e.g. omega 3 from fish oil in ham).
Results and conclusions:
we find (1) that the very principle of fortification disrupts culture-based representations French consumers have of the link between food and health, which they consider to essentially reside in a "varied and balanced diet". And that (2), in spite of a general disposition against NHC, some types of claims are deemed more acceptable and credible than others. The questions raised by these findings are whether and to what extent nutrition can, does and should replace food cultures.
Biochemical and fatty acid composition of the bivalve Arca noae were investigated in the Mali Ston Bay in relation to environmental conditions. Sampling was carried out monthly, from December 2001 to November 2002. Wet shellfish meat consists on average of 77.61% water and 22.39% dry matter, while dry shellfish meat consists on average of 89.04% organic and 10.96% inorganic matter. PCA analysis identified temperature, nitrate, silicate, MICRO, Chl a and salinity as the most important environmental factors influencing the biochemical composition of A. noae. An increase of dry weight content of A. noae was observed during the spring when both the sea temperature and food supply increased rapidly. Protein (54.39-62.06% of dry weight), carbohydrate (4.13-8.07% of dry weight) and lipid (3.46-8.58% of dry weight) content varied significantly during the year. Protein and lipid level reached the maximum value in June. The fatty acid profiles of total lipids extracted from A. noae showed a high level of unsaturation (UNS/SAT 1.9-3.4). Total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) represented the majority of total fatty acids (40.3-59.9% of total fatty acids) and the most abundant were eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic (22:6n-3) acid. The n-3/n-6 PUFA ratio value varied between 2.1 and 5.0 and was highest during the spring (April to June). Due to their low lipid and high percentage of healthy polyunsaturated fatty acids A. noae can be evaluated as a quality seafood product. The most suitable period of the year for the consumption of A. noae is in the spring when it reaches its highest nutritional value.
Characterizations of fatty acids composition in % of total methylester of fatty acids (FAMEs) of fourteen vegetable oils—safflower, grape, silybum marianum, hemp, sunflower, wheat germ, pumpkin seed, sesame, rice bran, almond, rapeseed, peanut, olive, and coconut oil—were obtained by using gas chromatography (GC). Saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), palmitic acid (C16:0; 4.6%–20.0%), oleic acid (C18:1; 6.2%–71.1%) and linoleic acid (C18:2; 1.6%–79%), respectively, were found predominant. The nutritional aspect of analyzed oils was evaluated by determination of the energy contribution of SFAs (19.4%–695.7% ERDI), PUFAs (10.6%–786.8% ERDI), n-3 FAs (4.4%–117.1% ERDI) and n-6 FAs (1.8%–959.2% ERDI), expressed in % ERDI of 1 g oil to energy recommended dietary intakes (ERDI) for total fat (ERDI—37.7 kJ/g). The significant relationship between the reported data of total fat, SFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs intakes (% ERDI) for adults and mortality caused by coronary heart diseases (CHD) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in twelve countries has not been confirmed by Spearman’s correlations.
The fatty acid and proximate composition in the flesh of thornback ray (Raja clavata, L. 1758) collected in the coast of Sinop in Turkey were evaluated. Proximate analyses of thornback ray are rich in protein (20.02%) and low in lipid (0.51%). The crude ash and moisture contents were found as 1.38% and 77.47%, respectively. The total SFA, MUFA and PUFA content were 48.27%, 13.98% and 24.10% of total fatty acids, respectively. Palmitic acid (C16:0, 26.45%) and stearic acid (C18:0, 10.62%) were the dominant saturated fatty acids. The major unsaturated fatty acids were determined as docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n3, 12.21%), oleic acid (C18:1, 8.88%) and linoleic acid (C18:2, 3.43%). The results of this study have showed that thornback rays are good sources of protein. The atherogenic index (AI) and index of throm- bogenicity (IT) were calculated as 2.37 and 0.63, respectively.
In support of aquaculture development and sustainable fisheries, survival, condition index, and stable isotope composition of the commercially important bivalve species Arca noae were investigated on individuals suspended in the water column at 2 distances from fish cages and those collected from natural populations. Significant differences were recorded in temperature and chlorophyll a with respect to season, and temperature and salinity values differed significantly with respect to sampling site. Mortality was greatest at the beginning of the experiment, probably as a result of the stress associated with collection of A. noae and the shell-marking process. The relatively small numbers of individuals that survived the experiment did not allow for a detailed statistical analysis of growth rates at the 3 study sites. Condition index showed a pronounced seasonal variation, with greater values recorded between April to July (CI, ;24) and lesser values noted during November and December
(CI, ;20). Statistically significant intersite differences were detected. Samples collected from the control site in the PašmanChannel had lower condition index values than samples at other sites in 4 of 6 sampling months for which differences between sites were detected. Differences in stable carbon (d13CVPDB) and nitrogen (d15Nair) isotope compositions were recorded with respect to tissue type and season, but no differences with respect to sampling site were noted. Results indicate that A. noae is highly sensitive
to manipulation.
Noah’s ark shell Arca noae Linnaeus, 1758 is one of the most important commercially exploited bivalve species in the eastern Adriatic Sea. High harvesting pressure, as a consequence of increasing market demands, could in the future result in its overexploitation in some areas. All mentioned above, together with a high market price, make A. noae a new species for introduction into aquaculture. Several studies have recently been conducted concerning biology and ecology of A. noae in the Adriatic, but there are still no studies dealing with possible introduction of A. noae into commercial aquaculture and there is limited and unreliable data on distribution and size of currently exploited stocks. The aim of this paper was to give a review of present knowledge on A. noae, particularly biological characteristics of this species related to aquaculture production.
The changes in chemical composition, cholesterol and fatty acids have been determined in raw and fried rainbow trout. Olive oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, margarine and butter were used in the frying process. Moisture content was decreased and protein, fat, ash and cholesterol contents were increased after frying. Differences in moisture, protein, fat, and ash content between the samples were significant (P < 0.05). pH, thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) values were within the limiting depletability values. In the fish fried with sunflower oil and corn oil, an important amount of decrease (P < 0.05) was determined for myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, linolenic, arashidic, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). However, an important amount of increase (P < 0.05) was determined in heptadecanoic, oleic, and linoleic acid. DHA content was decreased in all oil groups. Cholesterol level was increased with the use of butter. The lowest level of cholesterol was observed in fish fried with margarine.
The influence of seven cooking methods (boiling, conventional baking, microwave baking, grilling, deep-frying in soybean oil, canola oil, or partially hydrogenated vegetable oil) on the oxidation, proximate and fatty acid composition of silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen) fillets was evaluated. All the treatments reduced moisture and increased the protein content. The free fatty acid content of the fillets was significantly reduced by the different cooking methods, while conjugated diene levels and peroxide values decreased for all fried samples, but remained constant in the samples subjected to the other cooking methods. Boiling and baking increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), while grilling and frying did not change TBARS. Boiling, baking, and grilling did not affect the silver catfish fillets fatty acid composition. Frying in canola oil increased n−3/n−6 ratio, while frying in soybean oil increased the general polyunsaturated fatty acid content, and frying in hydrogenated vegetable oil incorporated trans fatty acids in the fillets.
This study analyzed eight cooked species of fish and one species of shrimps (grilled, curried, fried and cooked in rice) commonly consumed in Bahrain for their proximate, mineral and heavy metal content. The results reveled that the protein content was in the range of 22.8-29.2 g/100 g, while the fat content was between 2.9-11.9 g/100 g. The energy content was the highest in the fried Scomberomorus commerson being 894.2 KJ/100 g, followed by Scomberomorus commerson cooked in rice (867.3 KJ/100 g). The samples also had a considerable content of sodium ranging from 120-600 mg/100 g, potassium (310-560 mg/100 g) phosphorous (200-330 mg/100 g), magnesium (26-54 mg/100 g) and zinc (0.4-2.0 mg/100 g), while the other minerals were present to a lower extent. Lead was present to an extent of 0.30 microg/g in the grilled Plectorhinchus sordidus while Lethrinus nebulosus cooked in rice contained 0.35 microg/g of mercury. Cadmium levels were constant at <0.02 microg/g. It can be concluded the traditional methods of cooking fish and shrimps have an effect on their nutrient composition and heavy metal content hence, it is advisable to avoid excessive frying and use minimal salt. In addition, consuming of a wide variety of species of fish and alternating between the various modes of cooking is the best approach to achieve improved dietary habits, minimizing mercury exposure and increasing omega-3 fatty acid intake.
The seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the edible bivalve Arca noae harvested from a Mediterranean coastal lagoon (Bizerte lagoon, Tunisia) were investigated from October 2013 to September 2014. Potential food sources and nutritional quality indices (NQI) were determined by analyzing the fatty acid profiles of their tissues during an annual reproductive cycle. Results showed that A. noae had moisture (73.8-82%) and protein (24.1-58.6% dry weight) as major components, followed by lipid (10.4-28.8% dry weight) and glycogen (4.05-14.6% dry weight). A. noae accumulated lipid and glycogen for gonadal development during both maturation periods (late autumn/late spring-summer) to be used during spawning periods (winter/late summer-early autumn). However, proteins were mainly used to support reproductive allocation and played an important role on the energetic maintenance. Lipid and glycogen were found to be significantly related to temperature, salinity and chlorophyll a (p < 0.05). An increase of condition index (CI) was observed during spring and early summer when both temperature and food supply increased. The total fatty acid (TFA) profile of Ark shells was dominated by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (33.8-49.6%), followed by saturated (SFA) (29.1-43.1%) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (20.77-28.3%). A. noae soft tissues were also rich in macro-minerals (Na, Ca and Mg). The analysis of fatty acid trophic markers revealed that the diet of A. noae during the year of study was based on mixture food mainly on phytoplankton followed by zooplankton and other sources (bacteria, seagrass and macroalgae). Furthermore, the nutritional quality indices have revealed that A. noae is an excellent source of nutrients and a healthy food for human consumption. These data are useful to the conservation of natural stocks of A. noae and the development of sustainable aquaculture production of this shellfish species in the Bizerte lagoon.
Bivalves are known for their high nutritional value and are considered a healthy food for human consumption. The effect of different cooking methods (steaming, boiling, grilling, and frying) on proximate and fatty acid composition of Arca noae (Bivalvia: Linnaeus 1758) were determined. The comparison of raw and cooked Ark shell showed that cooking had considerable effects on the nutritional quality of this species. Significant changes in moisture (%), protein (mg/g of flesh), total lipid (mg/g of flesh), and fatty acid composition (mg/g dry weight) were observed after cooking as compared to fresh Ark shell (p < 0.05). However, the analysis of malondialdehyde (MDA) and peroxide value (PV) showed that all cooking treatments led to lipid oxidation. Steaming, boiling, and grilling were found to be a suitable and healthier cooking processes for A. noae, since they conserve the amount of n-3 PUFA better as compared to frying.
Frying is one of the oldest cooking procedures and is still among the most popular ones for food preparation. Due to their unique sensory characteristics, fried foods are consumed often and with pleasure. During frying, part of the oil is absorbed by the food, thereby becoming part of our diet; most interestingly, in the Mediterranean area approximately 50% of total fat intake is provided by cooking fats. Olive oil is the key lipid component of the Mediterranean diet, the health-promoting effects of which have been largely attributed to olive oil intake. Olive oil is unique among vegetable oils due to its desirable lipid profile and some of its minor components. Scientific evidence now indicates that during frying olive oil behavior is usually equal or superior to that of refined vegetable oils. Herein, an overview of virgin olive oil performance under frying is given, with special reference to the fate of olive oil microconstituents. The compositional changes of foods fried in olive oil are also reviewed and discussed in detail.
The effect of frozen storage for 3, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days on the quality of sardines baked for 15, 30, and 45 minutes was studied. The combination of frozen storage with the baking time in linear reduction of yield and moisture led to less juicy products, as well as significant changes in proteins and lipids. A linear increase of C16:0 followed by a linear reduction of C22:6ω-3 was detected due to frozen storage, indicating lipid oxidation. This was also confirmed by the C22:6ω-3/ C16:0 and C20:5ω-3/ C16:0 ratios, which were reduced by 36.8% and 32.7%, respectively. The fatty acid profiles of sardine samples were not significantly altered due to oven-baking. A gradual reduction of eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid (EPA+DHA) of the baked products was observed mainly due to frozen storage. Cholesterol and squalene content increased with increasing the time of baking. A gradual decrease of cholesterol and squalene was observed due to frozen storage.
This study was conducted to investigate the differences in the proximate composition (moisture, fat, protein and ash), cholesterol content, energy, mineral composition (Na, Ca, Mg, K, P, Fe and Zn) and fatty acid profile of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, after frying, boiling, or microwaving. Results showed that all cooking methods reduced moisture and increased total protein, fat and ash contents. Also all minerals increased significantly during the microwave and frying methods. Statistical results showed that the major fatty acids among the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in each fish were palmitic (C16:0) and oleic (C18:1) acids, respectively. In addition, linoleic acid (C18:2) was predominant in the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in both cooked and raw trout. The EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid; C20:5 ω3) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid; C22:6 ω6) acids were the major fatty acids among total n-3 acids in fish samples. The fatty acids profile of the cooked fish showed a saturated (SFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA) decrease and an increase in PUFA contents. However, the ω-3 fatty acids content increased in microwaved samples but decreased in the fried samples. Moreover, the PUFA/SFA and Hypocholesterolaemic/Hypercholesterolaemic (HH) ratios increased in both fried and microwaved trout, whereas significant increases in ω3/ω6 as well as EPA + DHA/C16 content were observed only in microwaved samples. A significant increase in energy content was observed in all cooked samples, whereas the cholesterol decreased. Research results show that microwaving is recommended as the best cooking method for a healthy consumption of rainbow trout.
To assess the potential of the bearded horse mussel (Modiolus barbatus) and Noah’s Ark shell (Arca noae) for aquaculture in southern Croatia, we analyzed their survival and growth rates under two experimental conditions—suspended culture and on-bottom culture. Furthermore, we investigated feeding on zooplankton by these two species in suspended culture conditions and compared them with previously published results of their feeding on zooplankton in the natural benthic environment. Experimental studies were conducted in Mali Ston Bay (Adriatic Sea) from December 2009 to December 2010. Differences were observed in terms of survival of tagged M. barbatus and A. noae—specimens of M. barbatus exhibited much better survival rates both in suspended culture and in on-bottom cages than did A. noae. Growth of A. noae under both culture conditions was essentially negligible, while M. barbatus grew several times faster in suspended culture than on the bottom. Values for the growth constant K and L
inf for M. barbatus in suspended culture were 0.45 year−1 and 55.9 mm, while corresponding values for on-bottom culture were 0.09 year−1 and 58.6 mm, respectively. Zooplankters were present in the stomachs of 86.3 % of M. barbatus and 86.4 % of A. noae. Most abundant taxa were bivalve larvae followed by tintinnids, copepods, unidentified eggs and gastropod larvae. In conclusion, this study clearly shows that M. barbatus is a promising candidate for suspended aquaculture in southern Croatia.
Farmed New Zealand King Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was prepared according to common consumer techniques; raw, poached, steamed, microwaved, pan fried (no added oil), oven baked (no added oil) and deep fried (in sunflower oil). The fatty acid profile was investigated to determine the optimal preparation techniques to achieve both optimal sensory and nutritional qualities, in particular the levels of long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids. The modified Bligh and Dyer method was used for lipid extraction and the Hartman and Lago method for FAMES preparation. Fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. There were moisture and lipid losses during cooking amongst the different methods. The fatty acid profile showed only minor differences between the methods apart from an increase in PUFA in the deep fried salmon due to linoleic acid uptake from the frying oil. In all the cooking methods the omega-3 fatty acids were well preserved. However, deep fried showed the lowest amounts of omega-3 fatty acids. As the results showed good preservation of omega-3 fatty acids regardless of cooking method, there may be possible “internal protection” of omega-3 fatty acids in King Salmon that warrants future research.
Seafood, such as fish, crustacean and molluscan shellfish, and echinoderms, provides in the edible part (e. g., filet, abdominal muscle) many nutritional components beneficial for the human diet like n-3 polyunsaturated long chain fatty acids (PUFAs), namely eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), essential elements such as selenium and iodine, high potassium and low sodium concentrations, and the vitamins D, A, E, and B(12), as well as taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) among others. Its protein is highly digestible due to low connective tissue content, and cholesterol content is also low in fish. Lean fish species are extremely low in fat content (<1 %), while fatty species are extremely rich in PUFAs. However, being subject to environmental influences from its habitat, seafood also entails water-borne health risks such as organic pollutants, toxins, parasites, and heavy metals. Nevertheless, the vast majority of experimental and epidemiological studies have proven that the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks even for vulnerable consumer groups.
Seasonal variations in the condition index and biochemical composition of the clam Mactra chinensis were studied from April 2008 to March 2009 on the eastern coast of China in relation to the reproductive cycle and environmental factors. Histological analysis indicated that the gametogenesis of M. chinensis comprised two phases: a resting phase (November-February) and gametogenesis, including ripeness and spawning, during the rest of the year. Gametogenesis began in March and was completed during June-July. Spawning occurred in August when water temperature was higher and food availability was high. A significant decrease in the glycogen content of all tissues in both males and females during sexual maturation suggests that carbohydrates play the most important role in reproduction of this species. Lipid biosynthesis during gametogenesis was associated with glycogen breakdown. The protein content in the female gonads showed a synchronous increase with the oocyte diameter and lipid content, suggesting that the female gonads could accumulate protein and lipid as vitellin. The RNA/DNA ratio is a valuable indicator of maturation both in males and females. The information obtained in this study provides a basis for fisheries resource administrators to design biologically sound management measures for this species, and is crucial for initiating its aquaculture.
Palm olein used to fry potatoes 40 and 90 times was tested in a short-term in vivo digestibility experiment. Total alteration, expressed as polar content, reached 26.4 g/100 g of olein, and the amount of triglyceride polymers, triglyceride dimers, and oxidized triglycerides increased severalfold, as a result of repeated frying use of the olein. True digestibility of used and unused whole palm olein and that of the nonoxidized triglycerides and different polar compounds was tested after 1 g of palm olein/100 g of body weight was administered to young adult Wistar rats by means of an esophageal probe. Luminal fat was obtained 4 h later, and its polar and nonpolar fractions were separated and quantified using column chromatography. Thermoxidized and hydrolytic compounds were quantified by high-performance size exclusion chromatography and compared to the compounds administered. The true digestibility coefficient of palm olein used in frying 90 times was 30% lower than that of unused palm olein. True digestibility of triglyceride polymers and dimers of unused palm olein was quite high (>50%). After 90 uses, digestibility of dimers was significantly lower (p < 0.01), being 30%. Nonoxidized triglyceride hydrolysis was negatively affected by the presence of large amounts of thermoxidized compounds. The amount of monoglycerides and free fatty acids found in the luminal fat also decreased as a consequence of the arrest of pancreatic lipase activity by thermoxidized compounds formed through repeated frying. Keywords: Column chromatography; deep-frying; digestibility; HPSEC; in vivo; oxidized triglycerides; palm olein; polymers; rats
Knowledge of bivalve food sources has great importance in aquaculture areas where cultured species usually occur at higher densities than in natural populations. Except phytoplankton, which is considered as their primary food sources, bivalves can use other food sources such as detritus, bacteria and zooplankton. The objective of this study was to determine food sources of four commercially important bivalve species co-existing in the Mali Ston Bay — most important aquaculture area of the eastern Adriatic Sea. Food sources were investigated by analyzing the fatty acid profiles of digestive gland and muscle tissues of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis and the black mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, cultured in the water column, and the bearded horse mussel Modiolus barbatus and Noah's ark shell Arca noae from natural populations. Digestive gland fatty acid analysis revealed that during the period of higher plankton abundance in spring and summer, all species ingested mainly phytoplankton fol-lowed by zooplankton and detritus. During the low plankton abundance of the autumn–winter period zooplank-ton and/or detritus became more important in a bivalve diet. Fatty acid composition of muscles indicated differences in selective incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) from their diets. While A. noae and M. barbatus accumulated significantly PUFAs during all and O. edulis during spring–summer period, in M. galloprovincialis this tendency was not observed at all. This suggested better utilization of ingested food in bottom-dwelling species. Because all four species consumed similar food sources they were in competi-tion. However, as investigated species in Mali Ston Bay exist in high density, primary production plus the avail-ability of other food sources in this area was probably sufficient to satisfy demands for all species. Aquaculture in the study area depends wholly on natural spat. This suggests that larviphagy, observed for all species, might con-stitute a self-regulating restriction to natural populations and/or commercial aquaculture growth.
The oxidative stability of vegetable oils is determined by their fatty acid composition and antioxidants, mainly tocopherols but also other non-saponifiable constituents. The effect of fatty acids on stability depends mainly on their degree of unsaturation and, to a lesser degree, on the position of the unsaturated functions within the triacylglycerol molecule. Vegetable oils contain tocopherols and tocotrienols, especially - and -tocopherols, as their main antioxidants. The antioxidant behavior of tocopherols represents a complex phenomenon as they are efficient antioxidants at low concentrations but they gradually lose efficacy as their concentrations in the vegetable oils increase. The “loss of efficacy” of tocopherols, sometimes referred to as a “pro-oxidant effect”, is witnessed by an increase in the rate of oxidation during the induction period, despite elongation of this phase. The phenomenon is much obvious for -tocopherol, but is also evident for other tocopherols. In agreement with nature's wisdom, the tocopherol levels in vegetable oils seem to be close to the optimal levels needed for the stabilization of these oils. The presence of other antioxidants in the oils, e.g. carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and Maillard reaction products, may synergize with tocopherols and minimize this loss of efficacy.
Changes in proximate, amino acid and fatty acid composition of farmed, commercially important rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after conventional and microwave cooking were analysed. Rainbow trouts cooked in microwave ovens had statistically significant higher total protein, total fat, and ash than electrical oven-cooked samples. The amounts of essential and nonessential amino acids were not different between cooking methods, but the difference between raw and cooked samples was significant. Lysine, leusine, methionine, threonine, valine, arginine and histidine were found most in microwave-cooked rainbow trouts whereas isoleucine, tyrosine and phenylalanine were found most in electrical oven-cooked samples. As total saturated fatty acid and total monounsaturated fatty acids amount were not statistically different between the cooking methods, the difference between raw and cooked fillets was found statistically significant (P < 0.05). There was no statistically significant difference between raw and cooked fillets in total n-3 and n-6 contents.
Samples of eight finfish representing the most popular fish species in Greece were pan-fried in virgin olive oil according to the Greek traditional culinary practice. Analyses for polyphenols, hydroxy pentacyclic triterpene acids (HPTA) and α-tocopherol were performed in the fresh and fried oils and fish. Polyphenols and HPTA were determined by GC/MS and α-tocopherol by HPLC. Nine polyphenols were determined in the frying oil samples; six of them were also found in fried fish. The terpenic acids oleanolic, maslinic and ursolic were also determined in frying oils and fried fish. No polyphenols and no HPTA were detectable in raw fish, while α-tocopherol was present in all samples. Besides water loss and oil absorption, pan frying caused the partial loss of all the antioxidants studied in the fried oils, as well as their enrichment in the fried fish. The overall retention of α-tocopherol in the fried oil and fish ranged from 30% to 80%, the respective values for polpyphenols and HPTA ranging between 51–87% and 46–88%. The polarity of the antioxidants studied, seems to affect to some extent their partition between the frying oil and the water-containing fish.
The Atlantic spider crab Maja brachydactyla is highly appreciated and widely consumed in Southern European countries. Because there is a lack of nutritional information concerning this species, this study aimed to characterize the chemical composition of muscle, hepatopancreas and gonads of M. brachydactyla and to analyze the health implications for consumers. All tissues were valuable sources of high quality proteins, amino acids (e.g. glutamic acid, aspartic acid, arginine, leucine and taurine) and macro and trace elements (e.g. Na, Cl, Cu, Zn and Se). Muscle and gonads were particularly richer in essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g. 20:5n-3, 22:6n-3), and had lower fat, calories, Ca, Fe, Cd, saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids than hepatopancreas. Low to moderate cholesterol values were found in all tissues. Consequently, the consumption of the muscle and gonads of Atlantic spider crab is adequate for cholesterol-restricted, low fat, balanced and safe meat diets to meet consumers’ requirements. In contrast, hepatopancreas consumption is not recommended in such diets due to the high levels of fat, energy, Cd, and saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids.
Effects on the fatty acid composition of cod (Gadus morhua) and salmon fillets (Salmo salar) after pan-frying in margarine and olive oil were determined. The fatty acids of the margarine used were 55.5% saturated (SFA), 33.0% mono-unsaturated (MUFA) and 11.5% polyunsaturated (PUFA). The olive oil used contained 15.4% SFA, 76.1% MUFA and 8.5% PUFA. Using margarine or olive oil increased the SFA and MUFA percentages, respectively, in both species. For cod fillets (lean), pan-frying increased the fat content (0.55–4.15 g/100 g and 0.55–2.30 g/100 g before and after pan-frying, with margarine and olive oil, respectively), whereas, for salmon fillets (fat), it decreased (13.91 to 10.57 g/100 g and 15.35 to 12.95 g/100 g before and after pan-frying with margarine and olive oil, respectively). In conclusion, the culinary fat selection affects the total fatty acid content and composition of the prepared fish fillet.
A method is described for the separation by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) of marine lipids on one plate using two developments in succession, one for polar lipids and one for neutral lipids. 14 lipid classes can be separated by the solvent system employed. Quantitation of the separated lipid classes can be achieved using scanning densitiometry. The method can be applied to lipids extracted from marine organisms including the complex polar lipids derived from phytoplankton and fish neural tissue.
In addition to providing energy and essential fatty acids, dietary fatty acids can affect numerous biochemical and physiologic reactions related to secretory, cardiovascular, and immune functions. The major dietary unsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid, affects tissue arachidonic acid and can influence eicosanoid-mediated reactions. Chronic, excess, or imbalanced eicosanoid synthesis may be conductive to excessive inflammation, thrombotic tendencies, atherosclerosis, and immune suppression. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may ameliorate eicosanoid-related phenomena by reducing tissue arachidonic acid and by inhibiting eicosanoid synthesis. This review summarizes information concerning the metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids, with emphasis on tissue arachidonic acid levels and eicosanoids, and discusses the need for data concerning the appropriate intake of dietary n-6 and n-3 PUFAs to modulate arachidonic acid and eicosanoid synthesis and to minimize possible adverse reactions.
Cholesterol, triglycerides, and high-density lipoproteins are important constituents of the lipid fraction of the human body. Cholesterol is an unsaturated alcohol of the steroid family of compounds; it is essential for the normal function of all animal cells and is a fundamental element of their cell membranes. It is also a precursor of various critical substances such as adrenal and gonadal steroid hormones and bile acids. Triglycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol and represent the main lipid component of dietary fat and fat depots of animals. Cholesterol and triglycerides, being nonpolar lipid substances (insoluble in water), need to be transported in the plasma associated with various lipoprotein particles. Plasma lipoproteins are separated by hydrated density; electrophretic mobility; size; and their relative content of cholesterol, triglycerides, and protein into five major classes: chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Since the levels of plasma lipids have a bell-shaped distribution in the general population, the definition of either a high or a low value of these substances has remained an arbitrary statistical decision. High values have been traditionally considered as those in the 90th and 95th percentiles; low values were considered to be those below the 5th percentile. The NIH Concensus Conference has recently revised the values concerning cholesterol, however, in view of clear evidence of an increased risk of coronary atherosclerosis in persons falling in the 75th to 90th percentiles. According to this last statement, cholesterol levels below 200 mg/dl are classified as "desirable blood cholesterol," those 200 to 239 mg/dl as "borderline-high blood cholesterol," and those 240 mg/dl and above as "high blood cholesterol."
Heating temperature is an important factor affecting meat palatability. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of heating temperature on some eating quality indicators, protein degradation and ultrastructure of pork muscle fibres and their correlations.
Cooking loss (CL) increased gradually (P < 0.05) with increasing temperature. Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) increased in two separate phases from 25 to 50 °C and again from 60 to 100 °C (P < 0.05), with a steady phase from 50 to 60 °C (P > 0.05); conversely, a significant increase in pH (P < 0.05) occurred between 50 and 60 °C. Strong correlations (P < 0.01) among pH, CL, WBSF and colour parameters L* and b* were observed following the heating process. Increasing temperature induced gradual degradation of many muscle proteins, but myosin was not significantly degraded until 80 °C and actin showed no visible degradation throughout the whole heating process. Meanwhile, the structure of muscle fibres also changed significantly on heating, with sarcomeres contracting transversely and longitudinally and becoming condensed, but there was no occurrence of breakage within fibres.
Heating temperature has a great effect on eating quality indicators, protein degradation and ultrastructure of pork muscle fibres. .
The dietary factors believed to be linked with the incidence of coronary heart disease are reviewed in the light of evidence with regard to their functional role, either in protection or in promotion. Detailed analysis of the evidence shows that the relations are more complex than the current lipid hypothesis suggests. It is proposed that, in particular, the polyunsaturated/saturated ratio as a measure of the propensity of the diet to influence the incidence of coronary heart disease should be replaced by indices of atherogenicity and thrombogenicity.
Official methods and recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 4th edn
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The experimental rearing of Noah's Ark, Arca noae (Linnaeus, 1758) and Beraded Horse Mussel, Modiolus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Mali Ston Bay
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The effects of different methods of cooking on proximate, mineral and heavy metal composition of fish and shrimps consumed in the Arabian gulf
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Bivalve fisheries in the gulf of Kalloni, Lesvos island. Present status
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