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School Cultural Socialization and Academic Performance: Examining Ethnic‐Racial Identity Development as a Mediator Among African American Adolescents
Abstract
Historic racial disparities in the United States have created an urgent need for evidence‐based strategies promoting African American students’ academic performance via school‐based ethnic‐racial socialization and identity development. However, the temporal order among socialization, identity, and academic performance remains unclear in extant literature. This longitudinal study examined whether school cultural socialization predicted 961 African American adolescents’ grade point averages through their ethnic‐racial identities (49.6% males; Mage = 13.60; 91.9% qualified for free lunch). Results revealed that youth who perceived more school cultural socialization had better grades 1 and 2 years later. In addition, identity commitment (but not exploration) fully mediated these relations. Implications for how educators can help adolescents of color succeed in schools are discussed.
... Unlike the research on cultural socialization and ethnicracial identity, all of the aforementioned studies examined longitudinal changes in both ethnic-racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity. A set of studies relied on crosslagged panel models to test how ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial discrimination relate to each other over time by modeling the autoregressive paths of both variables (e.g., stability over time) and then estimating the associations between the variables at consecutive time points (e.g., Cheon & Yip, 2019;Del Toro & Wang, 2021). Importantly, the cross-lagged pattern of associations did not vary across the study period and typically are constrained to be equal (Cheon & Yip, 2019;Gonzales-Backen et al., 2018;Meca et al., 2020), suggesting that these associations do not change in magnitude over time. ...
... In this model, random intercepts can provide estimates of the time invariant betweenperson differences in the variables of interest while the cross-lagged paths model within-person changes in the relation between the variables from one time-point to the next. Indeed, in the cross-lagged work on discrimination and identity processes, RI-CLPMs tend to fit the data better than do CLPMs (e.g., Cheon & Yip, 2019;Del Toro & Wang, 2021), underscoring the need to disaggregate within-and between-person effects. ...
... Given the mixed literature as to whether and how these variables change over time and how they influence one another at specific points in development, we first conducted a principled comparison of competing CLPMs that tested the stability of longitudinal effects. Then, we assessed whether any of our constructs of interest were better represented by adding a random intercept (e.g., Cheon & Yip, 2019;Del Toro & Wang, 2021). This inclusion would imply that any construct under investigation had significant stable between-person variability; pulling that variability into the random intercept is intended to give more accurate estimates of within-person change over time in that construct (Hamaker et al., 2015). ...
This paper used cross‐lagged panel models to test the longitudinal interplay between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic‐racial discrimination, and ethnic‐racial pride across 5th to 11th grade among Mexican American youth (N = 674, Mage = 10.86; 72% born in the United States; 50% girls; Wave 1 collected 2006–2008). Maternal cultural socialization predicted increases in subsequent youth ethnic‐racial pride, and youth ethnic‐racial pride prompted greater maternal cultural socialization. However, peer ethnic‐racial discrimination was associated with subsequent decreases in ethnic‐racial pride. The magnitude of these associations was consistent across 5th to 11th grades suggesting that maternal cultural socialization messages are necessary to maintain ethnic‐racial pride across adolescence, thus families must continually support the development of ethnic‐racial pride in their youth to counter the effects of discrimination.
... Latinx students are described as disruptive and are rated with lower literacy and mathematical abilities when taught by white teachers compared to Latinx teachers (Redding 2019). Teachers' understanding and promotion of students' cultural or racial/ethnic identities may lead to better overall wellbeing and academic outcomes for minoritized students (Del Toro and Wang 2021). ...
... Teachers' ethnic prejudice creates socially and spatially segregated classrooms and puts refugee children at higher risk of peer violence (Alan Sule et al. 2021). Teachers may have biases about students' physical appearance in the form of 'anti-obesity' biases (Sabine, Beverborg, and Muller 2016, 97) and have lower expectations of students based on race or parents' educational attainment (Del Toro and Wang 2021;van Ewijk 2011). The intersection of students' identities (e.g. ...
... The presence or absence of these organizational factors in schools can result in educational inequities at individual, school, county, state, and national levels. There is also growing concern about minority students' school engagement given classroom and school climate may decrease engagement due to limited recognition of students' culture and identity (Oyserman and Destin 2010;Del Toro and Wang 2021). Consequently, identifying and addressing teacher bias may be a significant factor in ensuring educational equity for diverse students. ...
This integrative review examined correlates, mechanisms, and consequences of teacher bias experienced in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade in primary and secondary schools in the United States. Education Resource and Information Center, Sociological Abstracts, and Applied Social Science Index & Abstracts were searched to identify peer-reviewed articles published in English from 2000–2020. Thirty-one articles were included. The majority (65%) of studies were qualitative and explored teachers’ and students’ perceptions of teacher bias or differential student treatment. Teacher bias was associated with students’ race, ethnicity, immigration status, obesity, mental and physical disabilities. Behaviors associated with teacher bias included exclusionary discipline, microaggressions, name mispronunciations, and disproportionate gifted and special education referrals. Few studies quantitatively measured teacher bias suggesting methodological limitations in this body of evidence. Future research should employ objective measures of teacher bias. Research synthesis suggests teacher bias plays a significant role in teachers’ perceptions of and behaviors towards diverse students.
... Extant measures of school-based discrimination have typically aggregated items addressing interpersonal discrimination (e.g., receiving a lower grade than deserved, being called on less in class, perceiving low expectations due to race) with those addressing unfair disciplinary practices (Fisher et al., 2000;Wong et al., 2003). Moreover, youth who search for information about their racial group membership (i.e., ethnic-racial identity exploration; Phinney & Ong, 2007) are more readily able to perceive and attribute unfair treatment to discrimination (Del Toro et al., 2020). Lastly, youth who attend more racially diverse schools also report more discrimination from other perpetrators (e.g., law enforcement; Hagan et al., 2005). ...
... Our results remained robust, even after accounting for adolescents' perceived discrimination from teachers, ethnic-racial identity exploration, and school racial diversity. Self-reported discrimination and ethnic-racial identity exploration are proxies for youth who are attuned to racial discrimination (Del Toro et al., 2020); that is, youth who perceive more discrimination or who engage in more ethnic-racial identity exploration may attribute more unfair treatment to discrimination than their peers who are less attuned to such dynamics. In addition, students who attend more racially diverse schools may be exposed to more conflicts between racial groups (Hughes et al., 2016). ...
... In turn, this unintentionally biased discretion contributes to the overrepresentation of African American youth receiving minor infraction suspensions (Fabelo et al., 2011;Losen, 2013). Recently, scholars have proposed a number of strength-based and culturally responsive approaches to lower rates of discretionary discipline referrals, including increases in educators' perceptions of accountability and a reduced sense of crime-control in schools (Del Toro & Wang, 2020;Swencionis & Goff, 2017). For instance, research has demonstrated that individuals are less likely to behave in biased ways when they know their decision-making processes will be reviewed by others (Ford et al., 2004); ergo, a system in which educators are held accountable for frequent referral rates may help constrain biases that lead to inequitable disciplinary responses. ...
African American adolescents are grossly overrepresented in rates of school suspensions for minor disciplinary infractions; however, the consequences associated with this disciplinary practice are unknown. African American adolescents who were suspended for minor infractions may perceive school rules and adults as unfair and illegitimate, and these poor perceptions toward school may compromise their social and interpersonal resources necessary for academic success. The present study investigates: (a) whether suspensions for minor infractions predict lower school grades longitudinally, and (b) whether poor school climate perceptions mediate the longitudinal link between suspensions for minor infractions and school grades. Based on 3 years of school records and social survey data from 2,381 adolescents (35% African American, 65% White), results illustrated that more African American adolescents were suspended for minor infractions than their White peers who committed similar infractions. In addition, African American adolescents suspended for minor infractions also had lower grades 1 and 2 years later. The longitudinal relation between suspensions for minor infractions and subsequent grades was partially mediated by African American adolescents' school climate perceptions. Implications are discussed in relation to racial biases and developmentally appropriate, equitable disciplinary practices. Public Significance Statement: The present study shows that more African American youth are suspended for minor infractions than White youth. In addition, these suspensions predicted poor school grades and school climate perceptions for African American youth. These findings raise concerns about school adults' discretion in using punitive school discipline policies and practices, as they may be contributing to academic disparities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Mindfulness is thought of as a set of meditative practices, which involve three intertwined elements: attention, intention and attitude (Ergas, 2019). Culturally sensitive and inclusive practices may include forms of cultural and social affirmation like cultural socialization, which can be defined as practices where youth of colour are engaged with their ethnic/racial heritage traditions and history (Del Toro & Wang, 2021b;Hughes et al., 2006). ...
... Recent research on cultural socialization in schools has found that African American students who report more cultural socialization had more school engagement over time (Del Toro & Wang, 2021a) and increased identity exploration/commitment (Del Toro & Wang, 2021b). ...
Students racialized as Black often experience forms of marginalization and encounter unique obstacles in their educational paths. As a result, more inclusive and tailored forms of support should be developed. Working to better support Black students should be initiated through two complementary sides--through that of the instructor and the scientist. First, we consider the importance of identity-safety and detail identity-based barriers Black students experience in their learning environments. We then define the notion of cognitive universals and discuss how it limits the effectiveness of science and its translation to more inclusive practices. We argue that to strengthen tailored forms of student support, we must move beyond focusing only on cognitive universals and more carefully consider heterogeneity of effects. To support our argument, we present evidence-based strategies from cognitive and learning science and educational interventions research to combat identity-based barriers and boost learning gains. Overall, we urge instructors and scientists to consider a variety of techniques to create more identity-safe and inclusive learning environments for Black students.
... Previous research has shown that school instruction and practices that incorporate adolescents' culture are important for engagement and belonging (e.g., Aronson & Laughter, 2016;Dotterer et al., 2009;Howard, 2001;Schachner et al., 2019;Young, 2010). Del Toro & Wang (2021) found that school cultural socialization was assoicated with better grades over time and the associations were mediated by ethnic-racial identity. However, other research in racially minoritized samples suggests that adolescents' perceptions of cultural socialization in school may not be directly associated with academic outcomes like belonging, interest, and academic self-concept (Byrd, 2015(Byrd, , 2016. ...
... Consistent with theory (Aronson & Laughter, 2016;Young, 2010) and in contrast to our hypotheses, cultural socialization was a positive predictor of students' school belonging and school engagement. The findings suggest that positive opportunities to learn or engage about one's own racial/ethnic culture may allow youth to internalize positive messages about their race and increase students' positive experiences within school (Del Toro & Wang, 2021). For example, school staff may look for ways to celebrate and appreciate students' cultural, racial, and ethnic diversity. ...
Experiences with race-related stressors at school are linked to negative academic consequences, such as lowered belonging and engagement. One factor known to buffer racial stressors is ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Although students receive ERS messages in school, less is known about how school ERS may reduce the negative consequences of school race-related stress (SRS) on youth's academic outcomes. To date no studies have examined the moderating effects of school ERS on SRS and whether the associations vary for African American and Latinx youth. Thus, the current study examined the direct effects of SRS and school ERS on youth's academic well-being, the moderating role of school ERS against SRS, and whether these associations varied for African American and Latinx youth. Multiple group regression analysis with 221 African American and 219 Latinx adolescents demonstrated that SRS was negatively associated with the academic outcomes. Cultural socialization was associated with more positive outcomes. Furthermore, there were significant interactions between SRS and color-evasive socialization, such that SRS was associated with lower belonging at higher compared to lower levels of color-evasive messages. Additionally, SRS was associated with less school engagement for those who reported high color-evasive socialization messages, but there was no association for those who reported low color-evasive messages. The results indicate that color-evasive school ERS messages can exacerbate the negative associations between SRS and academic well-being for both African American and Latinx youth and highlight how school racialized experiences may have unique or similar effects across groups. Implications for culturally relevant school practices and interventions are discussed.
... As a result, researchers have examined ethnicracial identity amongst diverse youth by asking them to report on their "ethnicity" or their "ethnic group." An examination of recent papers indicates that although some researchers ask youth to report on their "ethnicity/race" (e.g., Del Toro et al., 2021), other researchers ask youth to report on their "ethnicity" when investigating "ethnic-racial identity" (e.g., Del Toro and Wang, 2020;Hoffman et al., 2019;. ...
Black immigrants and their children represent a significant and growing share of the U.S. Black population; however, their experiences of their multifaceted identities are often collapsed into the experiences of multigenerational Black youth. The current study investigates whether generalized ethnic-racial identity measures are equivalent for Black youth with an immigrant parent and Black youth with only U.S.-born parents. Participants were 767 Black adolescents (16.6% immigrant-origin; Mage = 16.28, SD = 1.12) attending diverse high schools in two regions of the U.S. Participants completed the affirmation, exploration, and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (EIS-B), along with the centrality and public regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (MIBI-T). The results indicated that, whereas the EIS-B demonstrated scalar invariance, the MIBI-T demonstrated partial scalar invariance. Accounting for measurement error, immigrant-origin youth reported lower affirmation than multigenerational U.S.-origin youth. Across groups, ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution scores were positively associated with family ethnic socialization; ethnic-racial identity affirmation was positively associated with self-esteem; and ethnic-racial identity public regard was negatively associated with ethnic-racial discrimination, supporting convergent validity. Conversely, centrality was positively associated with discrimination among multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth, but the relation was not significant among immigrant-origin Black youth. These results fill a methodological gap in the literature, providing researchers with empirical support for considering whether to pool immigrant-origin and multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth in analyses regarding ethnic-racial identity.
... 45,46 These professionals may also benefit from systematic training in racial literacy and resources to help youths cope with racially traumatic events within communities. 45,47 In addition, practitioners may want to give special attention to understanding how processes of ethnicÀracial socialization have operated within families. When parents feel underprepared to discuss racism and racist events, family conversations about these topics may contribute to greater externalizing and internalizing symptomatology among youths. ...
Objective
To determine whether rates of online racial discrimination changed over the course of 2020 and their longitudinal effects on Black youth’s mental health.
Method
This longitudinal study collected 18,454 daily assessments from a nationally representative sample of 602 Black and White adolescents in the United States (58% Black, 42% White; Mage = 15.09, SDage = 1.56) across 58 days during the heightened racial tensions between March and November 2020.
Results
Black youth experienced increases in online racial discrimination, and these increases were not fully explained by time spent online nor general cybervictimization experiences. Online racial discrimination predicted poorer same- and next-day mental health among Black youth but not among White youth. Black youth’s mental health did not predict their online racial discrimination experiences.
Conclusion
Online racial discrimination has implications for shaping mental health disparities that disadvantage Black youth relative to their White peers. Programs can be implemented to decrease online hate crimes, and health providers (e.g., pediatricians, psychiatrists) should develop procedures that mitigate the negative mental health effects following online racial discrimination experiences.
... But, initial evidence is promising. Del Toro and Wang (2021), for example, found that adolescent African American males who perceived more school cultural socialization had higher academic achievement via ethnicracial identity commitment and development. Moreover, it is possible that healthy racial and ethnic socialization in schools would not only assist youth in dealing with the ubiquitous realities of discrimination, but also encourage youth not to be perpetrators of discrimination themselves. ...
A growing body of research links interpersonal racial and ethnic discrimination to adverse youth outcomes. Yet, studies examining the relevance of neighborhood context for discrimination are sparse. This study examines neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, violent behavior, and substance use. Hierarchical regression models on a sample of 1333 African American and Hispanic youth (52.44% female; x̄ = 13.03 years, SD = 3.25 at wave 1) residing in 238 Chicago neighborhoods from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods indicated little to no neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of discrimination. Findings suggest that the experience of discrimination among youth of color is ubiquitous.
... Seventh, students' active participation toward learning is important for their academic success (Boaler, 2013), but other forms of engagement (i.e., school liking) matter as well. Lastly, we did not examine possible internal or external protective factors (e.g., ethnic-racial socialization; Del Toro & Wang, 2021a, 2021b) that may buffer the impact of police stops. Scholars should take these omissions into account in future research. ...
Negative interactions with the legal system can inform adolescents' relationships with schools. The present daily-diary study examined 13,545 daily survey assessments from 387 adolescents (Mage = 13-14; 40% male; 32% Black, 50% White, and 18% Other ethnic-racial minority) across 35 days to assess whether police stops predicted adolescents' school disengagement through their psychological distress as a mediator. Results showed that 9% of youth experienced at least one police stop, and 66 stops occurred in total over the 35-day study course. Youth stopped by the police reported greater next-day school disengagement, and youth's psychological distress mediated the link between police stops and school disengagement. Disengagement did not predict youth's next-day police stops. In addition, ethnic-racial minority youth reported more negative police encounters than did White youth, and the effect of a police stop on next-day psychological distress was more negative for Other ethnic-racial minority youth. Implications for reducing police intervention in adolescents' lives are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... This exploration process unfolds within the sociohistorical context of the U.S. education system, in which there is a significant ethnic-racial mismatch between public school teachers (79% White) and their students (48% Hussar et al., 2020), as well as widespread calls for teachers to improve their competencies for addressing ethnic-racial-related issues in the classroom (Quintana & Mahgoub, 2016). Prior research has pointed to the promise that emerges for adolescent ERI development when educators become positive changemakers, including the adoption of culturally sustaining pedagogy and other promotive school cultural socialization practices that allow students to bring their identities into the classroom (Del Toro & Wang, 2021;Paris, 2012;Umaña-Taylor et al., 2018). In line with this prior research, our findings suggest that intervention is essential to build supportive contexts in which teachers and other adult school leaders build equity by affording positive opportunities for all students to learn about their ERI in school. ...
Cultural‐ecological theories posit that ethnic‐racial identity (ERI) development is shaped by transactions between contexts of ethnic‐racial socialization, yet research considering intersections among multiple contexts is limited. In this study, Black, Latino, White, and Asian American adolescents (N = 98; Mage = 16.26, SD = 1.09; 55.1% female identifying) participated in surveys and focus group discussions (2013–2014) to share insights into ERI development in context. Using consensual qualitative research, results indicated: (a) family ethnic‐racial socialization intersects with community‐based, peer, media, and school socialization; (b) ethnic‐racial socialization occurs outside family through intersections between peer, school, community‐based, and media settings; and (c) ethnic‐racial socialization is embedded within systems of racial oppression across contexts. Discussion includes implications for future research and interventions supporting youth ERI.
... The benefits of cultural socialization might be attributed to the sense of pride and affection gained from group membership, which then stimulate resilience (Yip, 2018). Indeed, Del Toro and Wang (2020) found that ethnic-racial identity commitment or the sense of group pride mediated the relationship between Black students school cultural socialization and their academic success. Further evidence of the role of PSOC in ethnic-racial identity development (Kenyon & Carter, 2011) and the mutual influence of ethnicracial identity on PSOC (Back & Keys, 2020) also exists. ...
Ethnic-racial background may influence college students' psychological sense of community (PSOC). Thus, it is critical to examine whether this construct is conceptualized similarly between non-Hispanic, Black and Hispanic students. This study tested the measurement invariance of the Brief Sense of Community Scale (BSCS) across the two groups. We used data from a self-administered online survey provided to college students in 2016 in a Northeastern urban university (non-Hispanic, Black = 307; Hispanic = 409). We tested the measurement invariance of the BSCS using a series of nested multigroup confirmatory factor analyses with increasingly restrictive sets of parameters. Measurement invariance of the BSCS across non-Hispanic, Black and Hispanic college students was achieved. The BSCS successfully measures the multi-dimensionality of PSOC across the two groups in a college setting. Students' score on the BSCS is not biased by measurement invariance related to cultural influences. When using the BSCS, community psychologists and researchers can have confidence that the observed differences in PSOC across non-Hispanic, Black and Hispanic college students are attributable to true differences rather than a cultural understanding of the construct.
... Policymakers can support this movement by encouraging schools to implement school-wide multicultural curriculums and include diversity-and equity-focused elective courses while providing schools the necessary funding and resources to carry out these tasks. Inclusion of such curricula has been associated with better grades and lower truancy among ethnic-racial minority students (Dee & Penner, 2017;Del Toro & Wang, 2020). These collective efforts to integrate and celebrate culture and diversity can optimize African American students' school experiences so as to ultimately promote their academic performance. ...
The question of whether schools should promote cultural pride and engage students in ethnic traditions is hotly contested. To contribute to this debate, this longitudinal study examined whether school cultural socialization predicted adolescents' engagement in school over time and whether this relation was mediated by school climate. Data were collected in four waves during a two-year period from 254 African American fifth-graders (53.9% males; Mage = 10.95 at Wave 1) enrolled in three public middle schools. Results revealed that African American youth who reported more school cultural socialization also had greater school engagement over time. This longitudinal relation was fully mediated by youth's perceptions of school climate. Implications for how to promote African American youth's perceptions of schools as culturally sensitive and supportive environments are discussed.
... The longitudinal inter-relations were non-significant for both African American and European American students when cognitive engagement was the outcome. As youth of color constantly perceive and experience ethnic-racial discrimination that can compromise their success in school (Del Toro and Hughes 2019), researchers have called for identifying cultural assets to assist youth of color with navigating subordinated ecologies and achieving their academic potential (Del Toro and Wang 2020). In line with the integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children (Garcia Coll et al. 1996) and recent empirical research , this study revealed that African American adolescents are more likely to stay engaged in school when they receive cultural socialization messages from their school environments that are intended to promote esteem, competence, and ethnicracial belonging. ...
Culturally relevant practices are valuable assets for ethnically-racially diverse schools, but few studies examine whether such practices promote students’ engagement in school longitudinally and whether ethnicity-race moderates the effects of such practices on students’ engagement. To address this gap, the present study examined whether schools that acknowledge and promote positive messages about youth’s ethnicity-race (i.e., school cultural socialization practices) promoted multiple dimensions of students’ school engagement and whether these links differed between African American and European American students. Data were collected in four waves during a two-year period from 403 fifth graders (55.1% males; 63% African American, 37% European American). The results revealed that African American youth who perceived more school cultural socialization reported greater behavioral and affective engagement (but not cognitive engagement) six months later. European Americans’ perceived school cultural socialization was unrelated to their levels of engagement in later months. Across groups, neither type of engagement predicted subsequent school cultural socialization, supporting the direction of effects in the results. Implications are discussed regarding how educators can leverage cultural socialization to promote school engagement among African American youth.
Students racialized as Black often experience forms of marginalization and encounter unique obstacles in their educational paths. As a result, more inclusive and tailored forms of support should be developed. Working to better support Black students should be initiated through two complementary sides—through that of the instructor and the scientist. First, we consider the importance of identity‐safety and detail identity‐based barriers Black students experience in their learning environments. We then define the notion of cognitive universals and discuss how it limits the effectiveness of science and its translation to more inclusive practices. We argue that to strengthen tailored forms of student support, we must move beyond focusing only on cognitive universals and more carefully consider heterogeneity of effects. To support our argument, we present evidence‐based strategies from cognitive and learning science and educational interventions research to combat identity‐based barriers and boost learning gains. Overall, we urge instructors and scientists to consider a variety of techniques to create more identity‐safe and inclusive learning environments for Black students.
Limited research has investigated the changes in ethnic‐racial support that adolescents received during the COVID‐19 pandemic. This study collected 2‐week, daily data from 185 Midwest U.S. ethnic‐racial minority adolescents (14.60 years old; 52% female) at two waves, spanning about 1 year apart. For the Pandemic Cohort (936 days of data, 41 participants; 2019–2020), peer cultural socialization declined significantly from before to during the pandemic; family cultural socialization, as well as family and peer support against discrimination, became more positively associated with same‐day ethnic‐racial identity over the pandemic ( = .13–.16). No significant changes emerged for the pre‐Pandemic Cohort (3304 days of data, 144 participants; 2017–2019). Findings highlight the importance of ethnic‐racial support during the pandemic when ethnic‐racial issues were amplified in society.
The Adolescent Cultural, Racial, and Ethnic Support (ACRES) model is designed to support adolescents of color in their cultural/racial/ethnic identity development (CREID). Comprised of six developmentally tailored components, the ACRES model is grounded in and delivered through a feminist approach to foster supportive school environments and collaborative partnerships. We present interventions to prepare adolescents in navigating racial and sociopolitical climates and offer suggestions for further research and expansion of the model.
Research that conceptualizes marginalization as tied to both pride and prejudice—or as simultaneously a source of strengths and stigma—is especially well positioned to address social problems in ways that can fuel progress for science and society. This review integrates insights from current research to highlight that leveraging pride-and-prejudice perspectives of marginalization can spark meaningful advancement toward mitigating social inequalities. Specifically, focusing on marginalization associated with race-ethnicity, social class, refugee status, and gender identity and sexual orientation, it highlights burgeoning research that harnesses pride-and-prejudice perspectives to advance psychological theory and application linked to (a) inclusion among marginalized groups and (b) intergroup attitudes among more dominant or privileged groups. The review concludes with a discussion of implications for future research and policy directions that can foster inclusion and facilitate positive intergroup attitudes amidst challenges tied to a racial reckoning (e.g., resource or economic scarcity, backlash to diversity and multiculturalism).
Racially disparate school disciplinary practices create inequitable circumstances for minority and immigrant youth around the world. In the U.S., Black youth are more likely than their White peers to be suspended for minor, non-violent infractions. This study explores (a) whether school cultural socialization practices reported by Black students (N = 544; Mage (SD) = 12.45 (1.57); 49% boys) and teachers (N = 38; 84% female) were linked to a reduced likelihood of receiving suspensions for minor infractions and (b) the extent to which Black students' perceptions of school climate mediated this relation. Results indicated that school cultural socialization was linked to a decreased likelihood of being suspended for a minor infraction and improved school climate perceptions for Black students. Black students’ perception of school climate mediated the link between school cultural socialization and suspensions for minor infractions. These results highlight school cultural socialization as a promising approach for increasing cultural responsivity and equity within schools, reducing racial bias, and expunging unjust disciplinary responses.
The role of racial stereotypes in youth’s academic achievement becomes salient during adolescence. Yet, very few studies have investigated whether associations between Black and White American adolescents’ stereotype endorsement and their cognitive engagement, mindset beliefs, and performance in math differed by stereotype valence (i.e., positive versus negative) and youth gender. To address these gaps, this 3-year longitudinal study (n = 2546; age range = 11–16; 50% males, 60% White, 40% Black; 57% qualified for free lunch) investigated (a) whether Black and White American adolescents’ endorsement of positive and negative racial stereotypes differentially related to their cognitive engagement, ability mindset, and math performance and (b) whether gender moderated these relations. The results revealed that endorsing either negative or positive racial stereotypes (as opposed to those with unbiased beliefs) was linked to lower cognitive engagement and stronger fixed mindsets in math 1 year after, while endorsing negative racial stereotypes was linked to lower math scores. In addition, the intersection of adolescents’ race and gender moderated some of the observed effects. The inverse link between negative stereotype endorsement and math cognitive engagement was significant for Black girls but not for Black boys. The positive link between negative stereotype endorsement and fixed math ability mindset was stronger for Black girls than Black boys, whereas the link was stronger for White boys than White girls. These findings shed light on the direction and strength of the links between racial stereotype valence and math outcomes among Black and White youth.
Despite notable improvements in theory and methods that center the lived experiences of Black adolescents, White supremacy endures in developmental science. In this article, we focus on one methodological manifestation of White supremacy—sampling decisions that assume Black adolescents are a homogeneous group. We examine overlooked concerns about within-group designs with Black adolescents, such as the erasure of some African diasporic communities in the United States. We first describe the homogeneity assumption and join other scholars in advocating for within-group designs. We next describe challenges with current approaches to within-group designs. We then provide recommendations for antiracist research that makes informed within-group design sampling decisions. We conclude by describing the implications of these strategies for researchers and developmental science.
This study examined thematic patterns of parents’ engaged coping messages in response to their adolescents’ negative race‐based experiences. Ten focus groups were conducted with 73 Black parents from a Southeastern city (73% female). Using modified grounded theory, narratives that supported adolescent engaged coping were coded for three ethnic‐racial socialization messages, the perpetrator, and the setting, followed by inductive (open) coding. The majority of experiences were school‐related. Themes were informed by parents’ critical engagement, ethnic‐racial socialization, and engaged racial coping. Findings revealed that parents advised a repertoire of engaged coping strategies, from actively confronting interpersonal perpetrators (e.g., peers), to critically engaging with institutional perpetrators. Strategies to develop adolescents’ critical reflection and anti‐racism actions to dismantle racism across contexts are discussed.
Ongoing controversy debates whether public schools should implement critical pedagogy—curricula centering on the perspectives of marginalized peoples. Despite much contention, students (particularly racially marginalized students) enrolled in courses that employ critical pedagogy demonstrate more school engagement, higher grade point averages (GPAs), and more civic engagement than students who do not. Building on previous reviews, this article briefly summarizes the history and controversy of critical pedagogy, evaluates the scientific evidence surrounding it, and offers suggestions on how to make the most of critical pedagogy in academic curricula.
Although minor misconduct is normative in adolescence, such behavior may be met with punishment in American schools. As part of a punitive disciplinary approach, teachers may give adolescents official infractions for minor misconduct-that is, a minor infraction-presumably to deter future problem behavior. This article investigates three arguments that challenge the wisdom of this assumption and considers the potentially detrimental effects of minor infractions: (a) minor infractions increase, rather than deter, adolescents' defiant behavior; (b) these effects are exacerbated among adolescents who are highly attached to school; and (c) teachers' punishment of minor misconduct may be racially biased, resulting in African American students receiving more minor infractions than White students. To test these hypotheses, 729 adolescents' school disciplinary records were analyzed over 1 academic year. Longitudinal multilevel analyses were conducted to assess (a) if receiving minor infractions predicted later increases in infractions for defiant behavior at the within-student level, (b) whether adolescents' attachment to school moderated this association, and (c) if a disparity existed between African American and White students' average level of minor infractions. Results indicated that minor infractions predicted subsequent rises in defiant behavior, and this link was exacerbated for adolescents who reported initially high levels, but not low levels, of school attachment. Furthermore, African American students received more minor infractions than White students, controlling for a host of risk factors for school misconduct. Findings are discussed in relation to American school discipline policies and African Americans' persistent overrepresentation in school discipline and the criminal justice system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
The detrimental effects of discrimination are well documented; however, the influence of ethnic/racial identity (ERI) on this association is equivocal. There is theoretical and empirical support for both protective and detrimental effects of ERI. This meta-analysis includes 53 effect sizes from 51 studies and 18,545 participants spanning early adolescence to adulthood to synthesize the interaction of ERI and discrimination for adjustment outcomes. Consistent with existing meta-analyses, discrimination was associated with compromised adjustment; further, this effect was buffered by overall ERI particularly for academic and physical health outcomes. Different ERI dimensions and adjustment outcomes revealed important patterns. ERI exploration increased vulnerabilities associated with discrimination, particularly for negative mental health and risky health behaviors. The exacerbating influence of ERI exploration was strongest at age 24, and more recent publications reported weaker exacerbating effects. In contrast, ERI commitment conferred protection. A composite score of ERI exploration and commitment also conferred protection against discrimination. Sample demographics mattered. The buffering effect of ERI commitment was stronger for Latinx (compared with Asian heritage) individuals. The buffering effect of public regard was stronger for Asian heritage (compared with African heritage) individuals. For positive mental health outcomes, a composite score of ERI exploration and commitment had a stronger buffering effect for Latinx (compared with African heritage) individuals. For risky health behaviors, Latinx individuals reported a stronger buffering effect of ERI (compared with African heritage and Asian heritage) individuals. The current meta-analysis identifies gaps in the literature and offers suggestions for future research.
Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices help shape the development of a strong ethnic-racial identity in children of color, which in turn contributes positively to mental health, social, and academic outcomes. Although there is a wide body of literature on the relationship between these meta-constructs, this research has not been systematically examined to either (a) determine the degree to which associations between parental ethnic-racial socialization approaches and ethnic-racial identity dimensions hold actual practical significance for parents of color or (b) estimate how these associations vary as a function of theorized mitigating factors. In response, this meta-analytic study investigated the strength of the association between parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and the construction of ethnic-racial identity, as well as factors that moderated the strength and direction of this association. Findings revealed that across 68 studies, there was a significant and substantive relationship between the global constructs of ethnic-racial socialization practices and ethnic-racial identity. Most individual practices of ethnic-racial socialization were positively associated with global ethnic-racial identity, and the strongest relationship was with pride and heritage socialization. Parental ethnic-racial socialization was also positively associated with all ethnic-racial identity dimensions tested except for public regard, with which it was negatively associated. Developmental findings showed that while ethnic-racial socialization positively predicted identity at every level of schooling, the strongest relationship was at the high-school level. Finally, the association between ethnic-racial socialization and ethnic-racial identity was positive for African Americans, Latinxs, and Asian Americans alike, but the strongest relationship was among Latinxs. Implications for parenting practices and future research are discussed.
Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development is a central developmental process for youth of color. Although a great deal of research establishes the importance of cultural socialization by parents to the development of ERI, limited empirical work has examined peers' role in these processes. This study uses 4 cross-sectional data sets (N = 127, 312, 257, and 238, mean age = 17.96-18.24) followed by a meta-analytic summary to test a path model of ERI development and parent and peer cultural socialization and their associations with psychological adjustment in a diverse sample of emerging adults. The final sample size adjusted meta-analytic model indicated that parent ethnic socialization predicted both ERI exploration and commitment while only peer preparation for bias predicted ERI commitment. In turn, ERI commitment and exploration predicted more positive mental health. The findings of this study highlight the importance of both parents and peers to cultural socialization processes during emerging adulthood. In particular, this study suggests that the messages peers impart about prejudice play a unique role in the development of ERI. The findings have important implications about the unique role peers play in communicating messages about prejudice as well as for ERI and the psychological adjustment of youth of color at this developmental stage. Additionally, these cross-sectional findings provide a preliminary but robust model from which researchers can frame future longitudinal work in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
This meta-analytic study systematically investigates the relations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and socioemotional distress, academics, and risky health behaviors during adolescence, and potential variation in these relations. The study included 214 peer-reviewed articles, theses, and dissertations, with 489 unique effect sizes on 91,338 unique adolescents. Random-effects meta-analyses across 11 separate indicators of well-being identified significant detrimental effects. Greater perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination were linked to more depressive and internalizing symptoms; greater psychological distress; poorer self-esteem; lower academic achievement and engagement; less academic motivation; greater engagement in externalizing behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and substance use; and more associations with deviant peers. Metaregression and subgroup analyses indicated differences by race/ethnicity, Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions, developmental stage, timing of retrospective measurement of discrimination, and country. Overall, this study highlights the pernicious effects of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescents across developmental domains and suggests who is potentially at greater risk.
Objectives:
The current study presents a comprehensive framework of campus racial climate and tests the validity and reliability of a new measure, the School Climate for Diversity Scale-College, in three independent samples. The scale measures 10 dimensions of campus racial climate in the two domains of intergroup interactions (frequency of interaction, quality of interaction, equal status, support for positive interaction, and stereotyping) and campus racial socialization (cultural socialization, mainstream socialization, promotion of cultural competence, colorblind socialization, and critical consciousness socialization).
Method:
Participants were college students drawn from an online task system and a public university on the West Coast.
Results and conclusions:
Study 1 provided evidence of reliability and validity with existing measures of college climate, whereas Study 2 provided evidence of factor stability through exploratory factor analysis as well as additional evidence of discriminant and concurrent validity. Finally, Study 3 replicated the factor structure of Study 2 and provided further evidence of validity. (PsycINFO Database Record
Given the prominence of ethnicity/race in the United States, many youths construct an ethnic/racial identity (ERI). However, ERI development occurs against a backdrop of prejudice, oppression, and discrimination. This synthetic review explores (a) how identity and discrimination are related and (b) their association with psychological health. There is a reciprocal developmental association between ERI and discrimination, in which each informs the other. Although discrimination is detrimental for mental health, its impact depends on identity. In some cases, ERI confers protection from discrimination, and in others, it poses additional vulnerabilities. A strong sense of commitment to one’s identity confers protection against the negative effects of discrimination, while high levels of identity exploration are associated with increased vulnerability. However, the importance of ethnicity/race to one’s identity both protects from and increases vulnerabilities to discrimination. Suggestions for future research to help to disambiguate these associations are offered.
Background:
The conceptualization of the role of race and culture in students' experience of school has been limited. This study presents a more comprehensive and multidimensional framework than previously conceptualized and includes the two domains of (1) intergroup interactions (frequency of interaction, quality of interaction, equal status, and support for positive interaction) and (2) school racial socialization (cultural socialization, mainstream socialization, promotion of cultural competence, colourblind socialization, critical consciousness socialization, and stereotyping) (Byrd, 2015, Journal of Educational Research, 108, 10).
Aims:
The scale presents a measure of school racial climate for middle and high school students and tests for evidence of reliability and validity in two independent, nationwide samples.
Sample and method:
Participants were 819 children aged 12-18 (M = 15.27, SD = 1.58) who completed the School Climate for Diversity - Secondary Scale and a number of validating measures: general school climate, perceived discrimination, culturally responsive teaching, grades, and academic motivation.
Results and conclusions:
Confirmatory factor analyses and reliability analyses showed support for the 10-factor structure of the scale, and the subscales were associated with the validating measures in expected ways.
An extensive theoretical and qualitative literature stresses the promise of instructional practices and content aligned with minority students’ experiences. Ethnic studies courses provide an example of such “culturally relevant pedagogy” (CRP). Despite theoretical support, quantitative evidence on the effectiveness of these courses is limited. We estimate the causal effects of an ethnic studies curriculum, using a “fuzzy” regression discontinuity design based on the fact that several schools assigned students with eighth-grade GPAs below a threshold to take the course. Assignment to this course increased ninth-grade attendance by 21 percentage points, GPA by 1.4 grade points, and credits earned by 23. These surprisingly large effects suggest that CRP, when implemented in a high-fidelity context, can provide effective support to at-risk students.
Previous research has established that family ethnic socialization messages promote ethnic–racial identity (ERI) development, yet it is unknown whether these effects remain constant throughout adolescence. The current study examined the time-varying effects of family ethnic socialization on ERI exploration and resolution among Latino adolescents (n = 323, Mage at T1 = 15.31, SDage = .76; 49.5% female). As adolescents progressed from middle to late adolescence, the relation between family ethnic socialization and exploration became stronger, while the relation between family ethnic socialization and resolution became weaker, with a significant difference between the magnitude of these associations emerging in late adolescence. The findings underscore the differential impact that family ethnic socialization messages can have on ERI developmental processes at different points in adolescence. In addition, the current study provides a useful illustration of how time-varying effects modeling can be used to examine how familial influences on youth development can change across developmental periods.
Although most individuals pass through adolescence without excessively high levels of "storm and stress," many do experience difficulty. Why? Is there something unique about this developmental period that puts adolescents at risk for difficulty? This article focuses on this question and advances the hypothesis that some of the negative psychological changes associated with adolescent development result from a mismatch between the needs of developing adolescents and the opportunities afforded them by their social environments. It provides examples of how this mismatch develops in the school and in the home and how it is linked to negative age-related changes in early adolescents' motivation and self-perceptions. Ways in which more developmentally appropriate social environments can be created are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research has sought to understand how parents socialize their children around race and ethnicity, but few studies have considered how contexts outside the home are also important sources of socialization. In this paper we review and integrate literature on practices in school settings that have implications for ethnic– racial socialization using a framework based on Hughes et al. (Dev Psychol 42(5):747–770, 2006) review of parental socialization. The practices reviewed include cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egali-tarianism, colorblindness, and silence. Our review shows a wide range of practices in education that may influence the development of ethnic–racial identity and ethnic–racial consciousness, but more research is needed to understand the role that schools play in developing African American youth's understanding of race and identity.
The cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) is believed by many to overcome the problems associated with the use of cross-lagged correlations as a way to study causal influences in longitudinal panel data. The current article, however, shows that if stability of constructs is to some extent of a trait-like, time-invariant nature, the autoregressive relationships of the CLPM fail to adequately account for this. As a result, the lagged parameters that are obtained with the CLPM do not represent the actual within-person relationships over time, and this may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the presence, predominance, and sign of causal influences. In this article we present an alternative model that separates the within-person process from stable between-person differences through the inclusion of random intercepts, and we discuss how this model is related to existing structural equation models that include cross-lagged relationships. We derive the analytical relationship between the cross-lagged parameters from the CLPM and the alternative model, and use simulations to demonstrate the spurious results that may arise when using the CLPM to analyze data that include stable, trait-like individual differences. We also present a modeling strategy to avoid this pitfall and illustrate this using an empirical data set. The implications for both existing and future cross-lagged panel research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
School racial climate is an important aspect of the school environment that can have significant implications for youths' development. However, existing research is limited by conceptual and methodological concerns that restrict the ability of researchers and educators to identify what about and how the racial climate is important. The author addresses existing limitations by articulating school racial climate as a multidimensional construct composed of interpersonal interactions and school racial socialization. The sample consists of 99 Black middle and high school students who completed surveys on their perceptions of the school racial climate and their belonging, competence, and intrinsic motivation. The results showed, for example, that perceptions of more positive cross-race interactions were associated with greater belonging, and perceptions of colorblind messages were associated with lower competence. Overall, the study demonstrated the utility of a multidimensional approach to school racial climate and supported existing research on the importance of climate for adolescents' motivation.
Based on a longitudinal sample of 1,452 African American and European American adolescents and their parents, parenting practices (i.e., monitoring, warmth, and autonomy support) at 7th grade had significant indirect effects on college enrollment 3 years post high school, through their effects on aspirations, school engagement, and grade point average (GPA). All 3 parenting practices were related to aspirations and behavioral engagement at 8th grade, with 2 of the 3 parenting practices related to the emotional (monitoring and warmth) and cognitive (autonomy support and warmth) engagement. The reciprocal relations between aspirations and engagement/GPA were significant, although the effects from 8th aspirations to 11th engagement were stronger than the reverse path. Ethnic differences were found only for parenting practices: monitoring had stronger associations with GPA and behavioral engagement for African Americans, whereas autonomy support had stronger associations with GPA for European Americans. For African American parents, a delicate balance is needed to capture the benefits of higher levels of monitoring for promoting GPA and behavioral engagement and the benefits of autonomy support for developing aspirations and cognitive engagement. Parental warmth was equally beneficial for supporting aspirations, engagement, and achievement across ethnicity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Amidst changing patterns of accommodation and conflict among American ethnic groups, there remains a paucity of research on the nature and impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on development in multiethnic samples of youth. The Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index along with measures of caregiver racial bias preparation and self-esteem was administered to 177 adolescents drawn from 9th–12th graders self-identified as African American, Hispanic, East Asian, South Asian, and non-Hispanic white. Youth from all ethnic backgrounds reported distress associated with instances of perceived racial prejudice encountered in educational contexts. Instances of institutional discrimination in stores and by police were higher for older youth and particularly for African American and Hispanic teenagers. Encounters with peer discrimination were reported most frequently by Asian youth. Reports of racial bias preparation were associated with distress in response to institutional and educational discrimination and self-esteem scores were negatively correlated with distress caused by educational and peer discrimination. The importance of research on discrimination distress to understanding adolescent development in multiethnic ecologies is discussed here.
One point of intersection in ethnic and racial identity research is the conceptual attention paid to how positively youth feel about their ethnicity or race, or positive ethnic–racial affect. This article reports results of a series of meta-analyses based on 46 studies of this dimension and psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic and racial minority youth. The overall pattern of results suggests that positive ethnic–racial affect exhibited small to medium associations (r range = |.11| to |.37|) with depressive symptoms, positive social functioning, self-esteem, well-being, internalizing, externalizing, academic achievement, academic attitudes, and health risk outcomes. Implications for theory and research about the role of positive ethnic–racial affect among youth growing up in an increasingly diverse society are discussed.
The current study examined how parental ethnic socialization informed adolescents' ethnic identity development and, in turn, youths' psychosocial functioning (i.e., mental health, social competence, academic efficacy, externalizing behaviors) among 749 Mexican-origin families. In addition, school ethnic composition was examined as a moderator of these associations. Findings indicated that mothers' and fathers' ethnic socialization were significant longitudinal predictors of adolescents' ethnic identity, although fathers' ethnic socialization interacted significantly with youths' school ethnic composition in 5(th) grade to influence ethnic identity in 7(th) grade. Furthermore, adolescents' ethnic identity was significantly associated with increased academic self-efficacy and social competence, and decreased depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors. Findings support theoretical predictions regarding the central role parents play in Mexican-origin adolescents' normative developmental processes and adjustment and, importantly, underscore the need to consider variability that is introduced into these processes by features of the social context such as school ethnic composition.
In the midst of discussions about improving education, teacher education, equity, and diversity, little has been done to make pedagogy a central area of investigation. This article attempts to challenge notions about the intersection of culture and teaching that rely solely on microanalytic or macroanalytic perspectives. Rather, the article attempts to build on the work done in both of these areas and proposes a culturally relevant theory of education. By raising questions about the location of the researcher in pedagogical research, the article attempts to explicate the theoretical framework of the author in the nexus of collaborative and reflexive research. The pedagogical practices of eight exemplary teachers of African-American students serve as the investigative "site." Their practices and reflections on those practices provide a way to define and recognize culturally relevant pedagogy.
The current study examined the longitudinal associations between family ethnic socialization and youths' ethnic identity among a sample of Mexican-origin youth (N = 178, Mage = 18.17, SD = .46). Findings from multiple-group cross lagged panel models over a 2-year period indicated that for U.S.-born youth with immigrant parents, the process appeared to be family driven: Youths' perceptions of family ethnic socialization in late adolescence were associated with significantly greater ethnic identity exploration and resolution in emerging adulthood, while youths' ethnic identity during late adolescence did not significantly predict youths' future perceptions of family ethnic socialization. Conversely, for U.S.-born youth with U.S. born parents, youths' ethnic identity significantly predicted their future perceptions of family ethnic socialization but perceptions of family ethnic socialization did not predict future levels of youths' ethnic identity, suggesting a youth-driven process. Findings were consistent for males and females. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
We hypothesised a gender specific relationship between efficacy and three components of racial identity, feeling that achievement is part of being black, feeling connected to the black community, and sensitivity to, awareness of outgroup barriers and racism. Because male gender socialisation downplays relationality, the "connectedness" component of racial identity was posited to be particularly helpful for boys. Because female gender socialisation downplays independent achievement and agency, the "achievement" component of racial identity was posited to be particularly helpful for girls in buffering the negative effects of the "awareness of racism" component. Controlling for fall grades and academic efficacy, fall racial identity significantly predicted spring academic efficacy differentially for boys and girls (n = 91 African-American eighth graders), with the lack of the achievement component of racial identity being particularly detrimental to girls.
The authors examined whether the longitudinal inter‐relations between ethnic‐racial discrimination and ethnic‐racial identity vary according to the perpetrator of discrimination. The authors used three waves of data from early adolescents (n = 387; ages 11–12 at Wave 1) to assess the strength and direction of relations between perceived discrimination from non‐school adults and peers vis‐à‐vis ethnic‐racial identity exploration, commitment, private regard, and public regard. Cross‐lagged autoregressive path analyses showed that more frequent discrimination, regardless of source, had reciprocal and significant longitudinal inter‐relations with exploration and public regard. Peer discrimination predicted lower commitment and private regard 1 year later, whereas non‐school adult discrimination did not. Implications are discussed in relation to the role of peers and ethnic‐racial identity processes.
Research on parental educational involvement has been organized into three overarching domains—home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and academic socialization. Conventional empirical work in these domains typically centers involvement strategies around White, middle-class experiences rather than examining how optimal parenting approaches vary by race and context. Even fewer studies have explored the manifestations of involvement across these categories in underresourced urban educational settings. In response, the current study draws on the voices of African American parents and their children attending urban public schools to describe the distinct approaches to home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and academic socialization that parents use to ensure a quality education for their children. Findings demonstrate how African American parents engage in racially infused and contextually tailored navigational involvement approaches as they seek to offset the effects of inhibiting educational contexts. Results add ecological nuance and new typologies to how parental involvement in education is conceptualized across the settings.
This chapter's goal is to interrogate the intersectional significance of race and socioeconomic status for children of varied statuses of human vulnerability. It provides a context-connected, culture acknowledging, systems model and identity formation perspective. This strategy is ideal for delineating behavioral consistencies (and interpreting inconsistencies). When operationalized with programming opportunities, it accommodates the nation's diversity and aids the interpretation of findings. This chapter is divided into several sections: First, it interrogates critical insights afforded by a "resiliency-vulnerability" approach; second, it draws attention to the roles of culture, culturally competent practices, and justice-informed contexts for children's perception-based "meaning making" as each-increasingly with age-navigates multiple social ecologies. Third, it shifts to and emphasizes the intersectionally relevant factors of race (e.g., identifiability and skin color stereotyping) and socioeconomic status (i.e., both low resourced and privileging situations); and following a synthesis of the previous sections-as Section 4-it then frames the cumulative and integrated conceptual strategy (phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory: PVEST). In Section 5, the chapter presents theory-focused exemplars to illustrate the theory's efficacy, which are followed by results of two recent preliminary application projects. Salient is that the two projects presenting preliminary findings add to and afford important child development insights salient as strategies for neutralizing intersectionality effects and maximizing resiliency outcomes. To sum, synthesizing several decades of scholarship, theorizing, contemporary research and programming application efforts, the handbook chapter concludes with suggested strategies for creating more informed policies and practices relevant to all children's overall resiliency, healthy development and well-being.
Increased attention is being placed on the importance of ethnic‐racial socialization in children of color's academic outcomes. Synthesizing research on the effects of parental ethnic‐racial socialization, this meta‐analysis of 37 studies reveals that overall the relation between ethnic‐racial socialization and academic outcomes was positive, though the strength varied by the specific academic outcome under consideration, dimension of ethnic‐racial socialization utilized, developmental age of the child receiving the socialization, and racial/ethnic group implementing the socialization. Ethnic‐racial socialization was positively related to academic performance, motivation, and engagement, with motivation being the strongest outcome. Most dimensions of ethnic‐racial socialization were positively related to academic outcomes, except for promotion of mistrust. In addition, the link between ethnic‐racial socialization and academic outcomes was strongest for middle school and college students, and when looking across ethnic‐racial groups, this link was strongest for African American youth. The results suggest that different dimensions of ethnic‐racial socialization have distinct relationships with diverse academic outcomes and that the effects of ethnic‐racial socialization vary by both youth developmental levels and racial/ethnic groups.
Significance
The United States is increasingly diverse, especially among youth. At the same time, racial and ethnic gaps persist in many domains, including risk for cardiovascular disease. Here, we use a diverse sample of adolescents in a mostly urban setting to show that when schools emphasize the value of diversity, students of color are healthier. Thus, schools’ climates around diversity may have a role to play in reducing health disparities.
This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Explaining Positive Adaptation of Immigrant Youth across Cultures.
This study tested a mediation model of ethnic socialization (i.e., parental practices that promote children's knowledge about their history, heritage culture, cultural authenticity, and ethnic bias management) in Roma youth. Roma are the largest ethnic minority group in Europe subjected to severe discrimination, both currently and historically. Participants were 202 Roma youth aged 14 to 19 years old (M = 16.25, 53% females), who provided self‐reports on their experience of ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, school achievement, and life satisfaction. Cultural pride reinforcement was related to better school achievement, whereas cultural coping with antagonism was positively related to life satisfaction. The study confirmed the model in that ethnic socialization was positively related to life satisfaction through effects on ethnic identity but negatively associated with school achievement. Findings have implications for adaptive cultural mechanisms promoting positive developmental outcomes among historically disadvantaged groups including those intersecting immigrant and multigenerational ethnic minority group categories.
In the midst of discussions about improving education, teacher education, equity, and diversity, little has been done to make pedagogy a central area of investigation. This article attempts to challenge notions about the intersection of culture and teaching that rely solely on microanalytic or macroanalytic perspectives. Rather, the article attempts to build on the work done in both of these areas and proposes a culturally relevant theory of education. By raising questions about the location of the researcher in pedagogical research, the article attempts to explicate the theoretical framework of the author in the nexus of collaborative and reflexive research. The pedagogical practices of eight exemplary teachers of African-American students serve as the investigative "site." Their practices and reflections on those practices provide a way to define and recognize culturally relevant pedagogy.
The present study examined the associations between parental involvement and college enrollment using a national sample of 3116 U.S. youth (52% male, 70% White). Four dimensions of parental involvement (academic values, behaviors promoting future academic success, home structure, and school involvement) were examined from 7th–12th grade. Higher initial levels of all four parenting dimensions in junior high school were associated with a greater likelihood of college enrollment. Less steep declines in academic values and behaviors promoting future academic success, and increases in school involvement were also associated with an increased likelihood of college enrollment. Math achievement trajectories from 8th through 12th grade were examined as mediators of these associations. Math achievement intercepts mediated the association between the parental involvement intercepts (academic values, behaviors promoting future academic success, home structure, and school involvement) and college enrollment. No mediation was detected among math achievement linear slopes. Practical implications are discussed.
This chapter focuses on two important mechanisms through which racial learning occurs: children's experiences of discrimination across multiple settings and messages that children receive from parents, termed racial socialization. Notably, these two mechanisms are dynamically interdependent and deeply intertwined. Youth's discrimination experiences reflect both objective and potentially verifiable racial dynamics as well as their pre-existing expectations about, or predispositions toward, intergroup relations, the latter being partly shaped by parents' racial socialization. Parents’ racial socialization likewise emanates from, and is embedded in, systems of racial stratification and as well as in their anticipation of, or reaction to, youth's experience with these systems, including their own children's experiences of discrimination. Discrimination disrupts the process of achieving positive, respectful, and caring relationships with others. Thus, it has been associated empirically with a range of social adjustment indicators, including the quality of relationships with peers, adults, and the school community.
Over the last 20 years, ethnic/racial identity (ERI) has been regarded as a component central to identity for minority students, and often proposed to be positively associated with academic achievement. However, the findings of individual studies scattered across the literature suggest that the size and direction of the correlation is somewhat inconsistent, prompting the meta-analysis of 47 studies reported herein. The authors gave particular attention to specific moderator variables that might explain differences across these studies. Results demonstrated that the overall effect size for ERI and academic achievement was small but significant in the positive direction. Effect sizes varied according to participant race and the dimension of ERI used in the analysis. Theoretical and future research implications are discussed.
This article proposes a further conceptualization of ethnic and racial identity (ERI) as a fundamental topic in developmental research. Adding to important recent efforts to conceptually integrate and synthesize this field, it is argued that ERI research will be enhanced by more fully considering the implications of the social identity approach. These implications include (a) the conceptualization of social identity, (b) the importance of identity motives, (c) systematic ways for theorizing and examining the critical role of situational and societal contexts, and (d) a dynamic model of the relation between ERI and context. These implications have not been fully considered in the developmental literature but offer important possibilities for moving the field forward in new directions.
Filling a critical void in the literature, Race, Racism, and the Developing Child provides an important source of information for researchers, psychologists, and students on the recent advances in the unique developmental and social features of race and racism in children's lives. Thorough and accessible, this timely reference draws on an international collection of experts and scholars representing the breadth of perspectives, theoretical traditions, and empirical approaches in this field.
IntroductionWhat We Know About Ethnic SocializationOverview of the StudyThe Salience of Ethnic-Racial Socialization to ParentsRetention of Cultural ValuesResistance Against DiscriminationPreparation for Bias:EgalitarianismPromotion of MistrustSummary and Conclusion
This article describes the development and initial validation of a measure of middle school students’ perspectives of culturally responsive teaching practices. The Student Measure of Culturally Responsive Teaching (SMCRT) was developed by modifying items on the Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy (CRTSE), which measures teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding their culturally responsive teaching practices. Data obtained from a sample of 748 seventh-grade students (63.9% Latino/as) were used to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses that yielded three factors: Diverse Teaching Practice, Cultural Engagement, and Diverse Language Affirmation. The three-factor model was compared with two competing models, yielding a second-order factor model as the final model. Initial validity of the SMCRT was demonstrated through tests of measurement invariance across subgroups of gender, immigrants, and Latino/as versus non-Latino/as and correlational analyses with SMCRT, teacher support, and school belonging. Internal consistency was also tested using Cronbach’s alpha. Results of the data analyses suggest that SMCRT is a psychometrically sound measure of seventh-grade students’ perceptions of their teachers’ culturally responsive teaching practices.
To clarify the conceptual underpinnings of Tinto's theoretical model of students' departure, the study presented here tested a conceptual model of the antecedents of sense of belonging to examine the extent to which Latino students' background characteristics and college experiences in the first and second years contribute to their sense of belonging in the third year. The study found that discussions of course content with other students outside class and membership in religious and social-community organizations are strongly associated with students' sense of belonging. First-year experiences have positive effects, while perceptions of a hostile racial climate have direct negative effects on students' sense of belonging in the third year. The results suggest that greater attention needs to be paid to minority students' subjective sense of integration in campus life, temporal sequencing of college experiences, and new avenues for understanding students' adjustment to college.
In this article, we review knowledge about student engagement and look ahead to the future of study in this area. We begin by describing how researchers in the field define and study student engagement. In particular, we describe the levels, contexts, and dimensions that constitute the measurement of engagement, summarize the contexts that shape engagement and the outcomes that result from it, and articulate person-centered approaches for analyzing engagement. We conclude by addressing limitations to the research and providing recommendations for study. Specifically, we point to the importance of incorporating more work on how learning-related emotions, personality characteristics, prior learning experiences, shared values across contexts, and engagement in nonacademic activities influence individual differences in student engagement. We also stress the need to improve our understanding of the nuances involved in developing engagement over time by incorporating more extensive longitudinal analyses, intervention trials, research on affective neuroscience, and interactions among levels and dimensions of engagement.
In this article we discuss how social or group identities affect achievement. We also present a model of identity engagement that describes how a salient social identity can trigger psychological threat and belonging concerns and how these can produce persistent performance decrements, which through feedback loops can increase over time. The character of such processes may be revealed only over time because they are recursive in nature and interact with other factors in chronically evaluative social environments. Finally, we address how this model helped in the development of successful interventions.
This short-term longitudinal research examined the relationships among middle school students’ perceptions of school environment, school engagement, and academic achievement. Participants were from a representative, ethnically diverse, urban sample of 1,046 students. The findings supported the theoretical conceptualization of three different, but related, dimensions of school engagement: school participation, sense of identification with school, and use of self-regulation strategies. The results also indicated that students’ perceptions of the distinct dimensions of school environment in seventh grade contribute differentially to the three types of school engagement in eighth grade. Finally, the authors found that students’ perceptions of school environment influenced their academic achievement directly and indirectly through the three types of school engagement. Specifically, students’ perceptions of school characteristics in seventh grade influenced their school participation, identification with school, and use of self-regulation strategies in eighth grade that occur therein and, in turn, influenced students’ academic achievement in eighth grade.
Intergroup contact and friendship are keystones to the reduction of prejudice, yet most available data on this topic are based on indices that do not actually reflect contact or relationships. This study examined various indices of peer relations (viz., interactive companions, mutual friendships, and the stability and perceived qualities of mutual friends) for elementary school students who differed in grade, gender, and racial background; and it explored whether racial attitudes were associated with befriending or avoiding classmates. Cross-race mutual friendships declined with grade, and among fifth-graders were less likely to show 6-month stability than same-race friendships. Despite overall same-race selectivity, mutual cross-race friends, once selected, did not differ significantly from same-race ones in friendship functions such as loyalty and emotional security; only with respect to intimacy were they rated lower. Finally, racial prejudice was most strongly related to the number of excluded classmates, while children with less biased attitudes had more cross-race interactive companions and more positive perceptions of their friends.
In this article, we report on an investigation of a recently proposed construct of ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA). It was hypothesized that: (a) EPTA would be related to ethnic identity, social perspective-taking ability (SPTA), and ethnic socialization; and (b) there would be distinctiveness in EPTA relative to SPTA. Mexican American high school students (N=43) were administered in-depth EPTA and SPTA interviews and questionnaire measures of ethnic identity. Parents of the adolescents were administered an ethnic socialization questionnaire. Results provided support for the potential usefulness of EPTA because it was significantly associated with SPTA, even after variance associated with developmental level was controlled, and there was variance in ethnic identity predicted by EPTA that was not also predicted by either SPTA or the ethnic socialization variable. Contrary to expectation, EPTA was not significantly associated with ethnic socialization. However, parental ethnic socialization was significantly predictive of ethnic identity development. The results support a model of ethnic identity development during adolescence integrated across socialization and cognitive-developmental factors.
Stages of ethnic identity development were assessed through in-depth interviews with 91 Asian-American, Black, Hispanic, and White tenth-grade students, all American born, from integrated urban high schools. Subjects were also given questionnaire measures of ego identity and psychological adjustment. On the basis of the interviews, minority subjects were coded as being in one of three identity stages; White subjects could not be reliably coded. Among the minorities, about one-half of the subjects had not explored their ethnicity (diffusion/foreclosure); about one-quarter were involved in exploration (moratorium); and about one-quarter had explored and were committed to an ethnic identity (ethnic identity achieved). Ethnic-identity-achieved subjects had the highest scores on an independent measure of ego identity and on psychological adjustment. The process of identity development was similar across the three minority groups, but the particular issues faced by each group were different.
The combination of Afrocentric students in Eurocentric schools results in a conflict of cultures that places black students at risk. Although schools endorse societal beliefs concerning equal treatment and equality of educational opportunities, certain practices such as the hidden curriculum, tracking, and discriminatory discipline practices are in direct conflict with those beliefs. The conflict between a school's beliefs and its practices is characterized on the classroom level by a lack of understanding of black student cultural values, norms, styles, and language. This teacher-student conflict appears to be related to the declining number of black and minority group teachers. Lack of cultural synchronization because of misunderstanding, missed communications, and low or no teacher interaction results in negative teacher expectations. White teachers communicate differentially with their students, using different communication patterns and expectations for black female and black male students. The following interventions could prove successful with black at-risk students: (1) Afrocentric independent schools; (2) effective teaching; (3) effective schools; and (4) parent education. Generic competencies that can serve as guidelines for in-service staff development programs and preservice teacher education programs are suggested. Statistical data are included on seven tables and five graphs. A list of 327 references and an index are appended. (FMW)
This study investigated ethnic socialization by parents of minority group adolescents, the adolescents' ethnic identity and strategies for coping with stereotypes and discrimination, and the interrelationships among these and demographic variables. In-depth interviews were carried out with 60 American-born Japanese-American, African-American, and Mexican-American high-school students, aged 16 to 18 years, and one parent of each adolescent. There were significant ethnic group differences in parental ethnic socialization, with African-American parents more frequently reporting discussing prejudice with their child and Japanese-American and African-American parents emphasizing adaptation to society more than Mexican-American parents. Adolescent use of a proactive style of coping with stereotypes and discrimination was associated with higher self-esteem, and use of verbal retorts was related to lower self-esteem. Parental socialization did not have a strong relationship to adolescent outcomes.
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Although school climate has been thought to be especially important for racial minority and poor students (Booker, 20067.
Booker , K. C. 2006 . School belonging and the African American adolescent: What do we know and where should we go? . The High School Journal , 89 ( 4 ) : 1 – 7 . [CrossRef]View all references; Haynes, Emmons, & Ben-Avie, 199726.
Haynes , N. M. , Emmons , C. and Ben-Avie , M. 1997 . School climate as a factor in student adjustment and achievement . Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation , 8 ( 3 ) : 321 – 329 . [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references), little research has explored the significance of racial climate for these students. Furthermore, research in the area has tended to treat race, socioeconomic class, and gender separately, ignoring the ways in which they interact. Using quantitative survey data from 842 African American and white middle school students, this study examined the associations of race, class, and gender with school racial climate perceptions. Results indicated students’ perceptions of racial climate differed by race, class, and gender. African American, poor, and female students perceived the racial climate in more negative terms than their white, non-poor, and male counterparts, respectively. Results also indicated joint associations between race and class and climate perceptions. Non-poor, African American students perceived a more negative racial climate than did non-poor Whites. There was limited support for a race and gender interaction. African American females tended to perceive less racial fairness in school than African American males. We discuss the conceptual and methodological tradeoffs of examining students’ school racial climate perceptions from a perspective that considers race, class, and gender jointly.