![| Schematic illustration of the test protocol, including strength test, blood lactate [BLa − ] profile, 6-s all-out sprint, incremental test to exhaustion, and 60 min continuous cycling including 4 × 30-s maximal sprints and 20-min all-out.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicki-Almquist/publication/346974932/figure/fig1/AS:968546972598273@1607931001198/Schematic-illustration-of-the-test-protocol-including-strength-test-blood-lactate_Q320.jpg)
![| Relative power output at 4 mmol·L −1 [BLa − ] W·kg −1 (A), fractional utilization of VO2max at 4 mmol·L −1 [BLa − ] (B) and individual changes in percentage and %-points (C,D) from before (Pre) to after (Post) a 3-week transition period of reduced training load in elite cyclists including sprints in a lowintensity training session once a week (SPR group; n = 7) or only performing low-intensity training (CON group; n = 9). * indicates main effect of time (p < 0.05). Mean ± SD.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicki-Almquist/publication/346974932/figure/fig3/AS:968546972626944@1607931001283/Relative-power-output-at-4-mmolL-1-BLa-Wkg-1-A-fractional-utilization-of_Q320.jpg)
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Optimising endurance training of elite cyclists by inclusion of sprints during low-intensity sessions
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https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2718960
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This study analyses the influence of race category and result on the demands of professional cycling races. In total, 2920 race files were collected from 20 male professional cyclists, within a variety of race categories: Single-day (1.WT) and multi-day (2.WT) World Tour races, single-day (1.HC) and multi-day (2.HC ) Hors Catégorie races and single-day (1.1) and multi-day (2.1) category 1 races. Additionally, the five cycling "monuments" were analysed separately. Maximal mean power outputs (MMP) were measured across a broad range of durations. Volume and load were large to very largely (d = 1.30 – 4.80) higher in monuments compared to other single-day race categories. Trivial to small differences were observed for most intensity measures between different single-day race categories, with only RPE and sRPE·km⁻¹ being moderately (d = 0.70 – 1.50) higher in the monuments. Distance and duration were small to moderately (d = 0.20 – 0.80) higher in 2.WT races compared to 2.HC and 2.1 multi-day race categories with only small differences in terms of load and intensity. Generally, higher ranked races (i.e. Monuments, 2.WT and GT) tend to present with lower shorter-duration MMPs (e.g. 5 to 120 sec) compared to races of “lower rank” (with less differences and/or mixed results being present over longer durations), potentially caused by a “blunting” effect of the higher race duration and load of higher ranked races on short duration MMPs. MMP were small to largely higher over shorter durations (<5min) for a top-10 result compared to no top-10, within the same category.
Purpose:
The endurance training (ET)-induced increases in peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and cardiac output (Qpeak) during upright cycling are reversed to pre-ET levels after removing the training-induced increase in blood volume (BV). We hypothesised that ET-induced improvements in VO2peak and Qpeak are preserved following phlebotomy of the BV gained with ET during supine but not during upright cycling. Arteriovenous O2 difference (a-vO2diff; VO2/Q), cardiac dimensions and muscle morphology were studied to assess their role for the VO2peak improvement.
Methods:
Twelve untrained subjects (VO2peak: 44 ± 6 ml kg-1 min-1) completed 10 weeks of supervised ET (3 sessions/week). Echocardiography, muscle biopsies, haemoglobin mass (Hbmass) and BV were assessed pre- and post-ET. VO2peak and Qpeak during upright and supine cycling were measured pre-ET, post-ET and immediately after Hbmass was reversed to the individual pre-ET level by phlebotomy.
Results:
ET increased the Hbmass (3.3 ± 2.9%; P = 0.005), BV (3.7 ± 5.6%; P = 0.044) and VO2peak during upright and supine cycling (11 ± 6% and 10 ± 8%, respectively; P ≤ 0.003). After phlebotomy, improvements in VO2peak compared with pre-ET were preserved in both postures (11 ± 4% and 11 ± 9%; P ≤ 0.005), as was Qpeak (9 ± 14% and 9 ± 10%; P ≤ 0.081). The increased Qpeak and a-vO2diff accounted for 70% and 30% of the VO2peak improvements, respectively. Markers of mitochondrial density (CS and COX-IV; P ≤ 0.007) and left ventricular mass (P = 0.027) increased.
Conclusion:
The ET-induced increase in VO2peak was preserved despite removing the increases in Hbmass and BV by phlebotomy, independent of posture. VO2peak increased primarily through elevated Qpeak but also through a widened a-vO2diff, potentially mediated by cardiac remodelling and mitochondrial biogenesis.
The linear tapering method duration can be determinant for sport performance. Objective.-The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of linear tapering duration method on anaerobic power and capacity in road cyclists. Materials and methods.-Seventeen male road cyclists, aged between 18 and 30 years were randomly selected within the study criteria. Participants performed 16 weeks of training, adopting the undulating periodization with weekly variation of the training load. The tapering phase lasted 4 weeks, using the linear tapering method, reducing only the training volume: 85% in the first, 70% in the second, 55% in the third and 40% in the fourth week. The Wingate test was used to evaluate anaerobic power and capacity. Wingate was performed by the cyclists before the start of the season, at the end of the last week of each mesocycle (Preparatory I, Specific I and Specific II) and at the end of each week in the tapering phase. Results.-The results revealed a time effect for anaerobic power (P < 0.01) and capacity (P < 0.01), with an increase after the preparatory phase I compared to pre-experimental (P = 0.01), maintenance until phase specific II (P = 0.01), maintenance in the third week of tapering (P > 0.05), finishing with attenuation in the fourth week of tapering (P = 0.01). Conclusion.-It was concluded that 2 weeks of tapering was enough to improve the anaerobic power and capacity in road cyclists.
This study examined adaptations in muscle oxidative capacity and exercise performance induced by two work- and duration-matched exercise protocols eliciting different muscle metabolic perturbations in trained individuals. Thirteen male subjects (
V
˙
O2 -max 53.5 ± 7.0 mL·kg-1 ·min-1 ) (means ± SD) performed 8 weeks (three sessions/week) of training consisting of 60 min of moderate intensity continuous cycling (157 ± 20 W) either without (C) or with (C+S) inclusion of 30-s sprints (473 ± 79 W) every 10 min. Total work performed during training was matched between groups. Muscle biopsies and arm venous blood were collected before as well as immediately and 2 h after exercise during the first and last training session. Plasma epinephrine and lactate concentrations after the first and last training session were 2-3-fold higher in C+S than in C. After the first and last training session, muscle phosphocreatine and pH were lower (12-25 mmol·kg d.w.-1 and 0.2-0.4 units, respectively) and muscle lactate higher (48-64 mmol·kg d.w.-1 ) in C+S than in C, whereas exercise-induced changes in muscle PGC-1α mRNA levels were similar within- and between-groups. Muscle content of cytochrome c oxidase IV and citrate synthase (CS) increased more in C+S than in C, and content of CS in type II muscle fibers increased in C+S only (9-17%), with no difference between groups. Performance during a 45-min time-trial improved by 4 ± 3 and 9 ± 3% in C+S and C, respectively, whereas peak power output at exhaustion during an incremental test increased by 3 ± 3% in C+S only, with no difference between groups. In conclusion, addition of sprints in moderate intensity continuous exercise causes muscle oxidative adaptations in trained male individuals which appear to be independent of the exercise-induced PGC-1α mRNA response. Interestingly, time-trial performance improved similarly between groups, suggesting that changes in content of mitochondrial proteins are of less importance for endurance performance in trained males.
Purpose::
The relationship between various training load (TL) measures in professional cycling is not well explored. This study investigates the relationship between mechanical energy spent (in kJ), sRPE, LuTRIMP and TSS in training, races and time trials (TT).
Methods::
From 4 consecutive years field data was collected from 21 professional cyclists and categorized as being collected in training, racing or TT's. kJ spent, sRPE, LuTRIMP and TSS were calculated and the correlations between the various TL's were made.
Results::
11,655 sessions were collected from which 7,596 sessions had heart rate (HR) data and 5,445 sessions had an RPE-score available. The r between the various TL's during training was almost perfect. The r between the various TL's during racing was almost perfect or very large. The r between the various TL's during TT's was almost perfect or very large. For all relationships between TSS and one of the other measurements of TL (kJ spent, sRPE and LuTRIMP) a significant different slope was found.
Conclusions::
kJ spent, sRPE, LuTRIMP and TSS have all a large or almost perfect relationship with each other during training, racing and TT's but during racing both sRPE and LuTRIMP have a weaker relationship with kJ spent and TSS. Further, the significant different slope of TSS versus the other measurements of TL during training and racing has the effect that TSS collected in training and road-races differ by 120% while the other measurements of TL (kJ spent, sRPE and LuTRIMP) differ by only 73%, 67%, and 68% respectively).
Objectives: Having psychometrically sound instruments is essential to the understanding of the determinants and consequences of athlete burnout. Therefore, this study examines the psychometric properties of a German version of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and its usefulness as a screening tool for the detection of clinically relevant burnout symptoms.
Design: Prospective study.
Method: 257 young elite athletes were recruited from Swiss Olympic Sport Classes (37% females; M = 16.8 years, SD = 1.4). 197 students were assessed a second time after six months. All students filled in a standardized questionnaire about domain-specific and domain-unspecific burnout symptoms, depressive symptoms, stress, and life satisfaction.
Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure of the ABQ. Moreover, all subscales had acceptable internal consistency. Support was also found for the convergent validity of the ABQ; all subscales were positively correlated with perceived stress, burnout and depression, whereas negative correlations existed with life satisfaction. By contrast, some ABQ subscales shared only limited variance, the three ABQ subscales did not predict each other across time, and none of the ABQ subscales was suitable for the screening of clinically relevant burnout symptoms.
Conclusions: While the factor structure and internal consistency of the ABQ was supported, our study corroborates previous concerns about the psychometric properties and validity of the ABQ. While the ABQ has advanced research on athlete burnout, we hold that further debates about the most suitable way to assess burnout among elite athletes are urgently needed.
Sports periodization has traditionally focused on the exercise aspect of athletic preparation, while neglecting the integration of other elements that can impact an athlete's readiness for peak competition performances. Integrated periodization allows the coordinated inclusion of multiple training components best suited for a given training phase into an athlete's program. The aim of this article is to review the available evidence underpinning integrated periodization, focusing on exercise training, recovery, nutrition, psychological skills, and skill acquisition as key factors by which athletic preparation can be periodized. The periodization of heat and altitude adaptation, body composition, and physical therapy is also considered. Despite recent criticism, various methods of exercise training periodization can contribute to performance enhancement in a variety of elite individual and team sports, such as soccer. In the latter, both physical and strategic periodization are useful tools for managing the heavy travel schedule, fatigue, and injuries that occur throughout a competitive season. Recovery interventions should be periodized (ie, withheld or emphasized) to influence acute and chronic training adaptation and performance. Nutrient intake and timing in relation to exercise and as part of the periodization of an athlete's training and competition calendar can also promote physiological adaptations and performance capacity. Psychological skills are a central component of athletic performance, and their periodization should cater to each athlete's individual needs and the needs of the team. Skill acquisition can also be integrated into an athlete's periodized training program to make a significant contribution to competition performance.
The aim of the present study was to examine whether improved running economy with a period of speed endurance training and reduced training volume could be related to adaptations in specific muscle fibers. Twenty trained male (n = 14) and female (n = 6) runners (maximum oxygen consumption (VO2-max): 56.4 ± 4.6 mL/min/kg) completed a 40-day intervention with 10 sessions of speed endurance training (5–10 × 30-sec maximal running) and a reduced (36%) volume of training. Before and after the intervention, a muscle biopsy was obtained at rest, and an incremental running test to exhaustion was performed. In addition, running at 60% vVO2-max, and a 10-km run was performed in a normal and a muscle slow twitch (ST) glycogen-depleted condition. After compared to before the intervention, expression of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) was lower (P < 0.05) and dystrophin was higher (P < 0.05) in ST muscle fibers, and sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 1 (SERCA1) was lower (P < 0.05) in fast twitch muscle fibers. Running economy at 60% vVO2-max (11.6 ± 0.2 km/h) and at v10-km (13.7 ± 0.3 km/h) was ~2% better (P < 0.05) after the intervention in the normal condition, but unchanged in the ST glycogen-depleted condition. Ten kilometer performance was improved (P < 0.01) by 3.2% (43.7 ± 1.0 vs. 45.2 ± 1.2 min) and 3.9% (45.8 ± 1.2 vs. 47.7 ± 1.3 min) in the normal and the ST glycogen-depleted condition, respectively. VO2-max was the same, but vVO2-max was 2.0% higher (P < 0.05; 19.3 ± 0.3 vs. 18.9 ± 0.3 km/h) after than before the intervention. Thus, improved running economy with intense training may be related to changes in expression of proteins linked to energy consuming processes in primarily ST muscle fibers.
This study compared the effects of long (4×4 min) and short intervals (4×8×20 s) of high-intensity interval exercise bouts (HIIT) on running performance, physiological and perceptual responses, and excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). Twelve healthy college students (8 men, 4 women; mean age=22±2 years) performed long (90–95% of peak heart rate) and short intervals (maximal intensity) of high-intensity training (running on a non-motorized treadmill) with the same total duration on separate days. The total volume of consumed oxygen during recovery was the same in both cases (P=0.21), whereas the short intervals of high-intensity training were performed at a faster mean running velocity (3.5±0.18 vs. 2.95±0.07 m/s) and at a lower RPEbreath compared with the long intervals of high-intensity training. The blood lactate concentration also tended to be lower during the short intervals of high-intensity training, indicating that short-interval training was perceived to be easier than long-interval training, even though the cardiovascular and metabolic responses are similar. Furthermore, EPOC lasted significantly longer (83.4±3.2 vs. 61.3±27.9 min, P=0.016) and tended to be higher (8.02±4.22=vs. 5.70±3.75 L O2, P=0.053) after short intervals than after long intervals of training.
Seven endurance exercise-trained subjects were studied 12, 21, 56, and 84 days after cessation of training. Maximal O2 uptake (VO2 max) declined 7% (P less than 0.05) during the first 21 days of inactivity and stabilized after 56 days at a level 16% (P less than 0.05) below the initial trained value. After 84 days of detraining the experimental subjects still had a higher VO2 max than did eight sedentary control subjects who had never trained (50.8 vs. 43.3 ml X kg-1 X min-1), due primarily to a larger arterial-mixed venous O2 (a-vO2) difference. Stroke volume (SV) during exercise was high initially and declined during the early detraining period to a level not different from control. Skeletal muscle capillarization did not decline with inactivity and remained 50% above (P less than 0.05) sedentary control. Citrate synthase and succinate dehydrogenase activities in muscle declined with a half-time of 12 days and stabilized at levels 50% above sedentary control (P less than 0.05). The initial decline in VO2 max was related to a reduced SV and the later decline to a reduced a-vO2 difference. Muscle capillarization and oxidative enzyme activity remained above sedentary levels and this may help explain why a-vO2 difference and VO2 max after 84 days of detraining were still higher than in untrained subjects.