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geosciences
Article
Chinyero Volcanic Landscape Trail (Canary Islands,
Spain): A Geotourism Proposal to Identify Natural
and Cultural Heritage in Volcanic Areas
Esther Beltrán-Yanes 1,*, Javier Dóniz-Páez 2,3 and Isabel Esquivel-Sigut 1
1Departamento de Geografía e Historia, Facultad de Humanidades, Universidad de La Laguna,
C/Prof. JoséLuis Moreno Becerra, s/n. 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain; sigut93@gmail.com
2Geoturvol Research Group, Departamento de Geografía e Historia, Facultad de Humanidades,
Universidad de La Laguna, C/Prof. Jos
é
Luis Moreno Becerra, s/n, 38200 San Crist
ó
bal de La Laguna, Spain;
jdoniz@ull.edu.es
3Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN), 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
*Correspondence: estyanes@ull.edu.es
Received: 15 October 2020; Accepted: 9 November 2020; Published: 11 November 2020
Abstract:
The Chinyero Special Nature Reserve is located on the NW rift zone of Tenerife, between
600 and 1500 m above sea level. This natural setting is distinguished by a significant concentration of
monogenetic basaltic volcanoes that have erupted in recent and historical times, including Garachico
(1706) and Chinyero (1909). The volcanic landscapes of this protected area are part of the Canary
Island pine forest ecosystem and, therefore, also feature beautiful forests colonising the newly formed
layers of volcanic materials. The aim of this paper is to design a geographical route through the
landscape for geotourism purposes, based on a global and coherent interpretation of the original
physiognomy of a landscape that has been decisively shaped by volcanic phenomena. This nature trail
represents a proposal for a new tourism product as an alternative to the traditional “sun and beach”
coastal tourism product. This paper comprises a first stage, dedicated to the geographical study of
the landscape, and a second stage focused on designing a geotourism route, which will identify and
characterise the elements of the natural and cultural heritage of the area and its unique landforms.
Keywords:
new tourism products; landscape geography; historical eruptions; pine forest; geotourism;
culture of place
1. Introduction
Over the last few decades, nature has become an increasingly prominent resource for tourism
as a result of new forms of leisure and recreation in present-day society, which in turn have led to a
substantial shift in the choices made by tourists. The reasons for this new-found interest are varied and
include the benefits of country life, the beauty of “natural” landscapes (reviving the romantic ideal),
a desire to escape the hustle and bustle of city life, and reports in magazines and television programmes,
especially those prompted by a conservationist ethos. All these reasons have contributed greatly to the
emergence of protected areas as a popular alternative for tourist trips and leisure activities, turning
these areas into major tourist attractions [1].
Such has been the importance of this type of tourism that experts have created a segment within
the global tourism market called “ecotourism”. The World Tourism Organization defined it at the
beginning of this century as “all nature-based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of the
tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in
natural areas” [2].
Geosciences 2020,10, 453; doi:10.3390/geosciences10110453 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 2 of 25
This significant interest has given rise to various names for this type of tourism, reflecting the
different activities and contents proposed by disciplines such as biology and geology in response to
the growing demand for this new tourism product. Accordingly, in academic literature on this type
of tourism, it is common to find terms such as the aforementioned ecotourism, which focuses on the
biological side of nature, and geotourism, which focuses on its geological side and, therefore, has a
specific interest in promoting geological and geomorphological attractions. However, in the latter
type of tourism a more global perspective is being established, leading to proposals from leading
authors to extend this interest in the geological and geomorphological features to all other aspects
of the natural and cultural environment. Thus, for example, Jonathan B. Tourtellot [
3
] argued for a
geotourism that also takes into account flora and fauna, landscapes, archaeological remains, historical
structures and traditional architecture associated with the place of geological and/or geomorphological
interest. This more global vision of geotourism that broadens the strictly geological context may
also be seen in other publications by authors that specialise in this field of work [
3
–
10
]. There is no
doubt, therefore, that in the development and consolidation of geotourism it has been essential to
progressively incorporate the character of a place and to include the geological component as part of a
natural environment in which abiotic, biotic and cultural factors converge [11,12].
From this conceptual evolution of geotourism we may infer that the term itself is undergoing a
semantic shift towards the field of geography, since the aim of this academic discipline is to identify
and explain landscapes on the Earth’s surface, in which the geological features are grouped together
with the other components of the landscape, or may be a fundamental factor in the understanding
of its landforms. Geographical studies of landscapes cannot be carried out without a global and
interrelated understanding of the biological and geological elements of nature, in addition to the
action of humans [
13
–
15
]. Never before has landscape been so highly valued by society. Over the last
few decades, the relentless advance of urban lifestyles and the outdoor recreation culture in Western
countries, together with the growing prominence of environmentalist discourse, have contributed to
its reappraisal. Within this recent interest in landscapes, there is a notable preference for landscapes
with predominantly natural features or that express rural lifestyles in balance with local resources.
Consequently, landscapes are increasingly considered a common good, a “capital” with undeniable
social and, especially, economic returns. But its value is further enhanced if it is seen as a tourism
resource: today’s tourist is less homogeneous, more informed, more demanding and wants to visit
authentic locations with geographical character. Discovering other landscapes, other features that
differ from the norm, experiencing them first-hand and learning all about them is now a new incentive
for tourist travel [16].
The development of routes in spaces with a major tourist attraction can contribute to strengthening
the local economy and help raise awareness among the population about the importance and benefits
of preserving their regional heritage [
17
]. In Spain, over the last few decades, tourist routes have
favoured a reappraisal of the natural and cultural heritage of our landscapes and cities, and ecotourism,
especially in protected areas, is playing an increasingly important role in the design of tourism products
in destinations [18].
There are many examples of landscape routes created to promote natural heritage, such as the
Escoipe-Cachi route in Salta, Argentina [
19
], the route that takes in the coastal landscapes of the
Paraguan
á
Peninsula (Venezuela) [
20
], or the landscape routes that focus primarily on enhancing the
value of cultural heritage, such as the Corredor B
é
tico de Alcaraz [
17
] and the Sierra Nevada National
Park [
18
], both in Spain. Likewise, landscape routes with global approaches to natural and cultural
values have also been developed in Spain, including in the province of Ciudad Real [
21
] or in the
municipality of Blanca, Murcia [
22
]. In the Canary Islands, interesting research has been conducted
on landscape routes in protected areas such as the study by Rodr
í
guez M.P. [
23
] and, more recently,
a study of the island of Tenerife [
24
]. However, these tourist routes are still in their infancy in the
archipelago, in contrast with the significant growth that geotourism routes on the islands have already
undergone [25–31].
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 3 of 25
2. Objective and Method
Landscape is a subject matter for geography because of a systemic approach that does not reduce
it to the simple sum of disparate geographical features; it is the result of a dynamic, and therefore
unstable, combination of physical, biological and human elements which, interacting dialectically
with each other, make the landscape a unique and inseparable whole in perpetual evolution [
13
–
15
].
Therefore, the landscape not only undergoes spatial transformation, but also evolves over time through
changes in the factors that shape it, such as climate, land transformation processes, and human
practices [
32
,
33
]. Drawing on these conceptual references, the aim of this paper is to develop a
geographical route through the landscape for geotourism purposes, guided by a global interpretation of
the original features of a landscape that has been strongly shaped by volcanic phenomena. It comprises a
first stage dedicated to the geographical study of the landscape and a second stage focused on designing
a route that will identify and characterise the original landforms of this volcanic area. Within the
study of the landscape of the protected area of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve, a topographical
analysis was first carried out to identify the main features of its physiognomy (landforms and processes,
vegetation and traces of traditional agricultural practices), followed by a spatial analysis to describe
and characterise the organisation of the natural landscape from a global perspective (Figure 1).
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25
archipelago, in contrast with the significant growth that geotourism routes on the islands have
already undergone [25–31].
2. Objective and Method
Landscape is a subject matter for geography because of a systemic approach that does not reduce
it to the simple sum of disparate geographical features; it is the result of a dynamic, and therefore
unstable, combination of physical, biological and human elements which, interacting dialectically
with each other, make the landscape a unique and inseparable whole in perpetual evolution [13–15].
Therefore, the landscape not only undergoes spatial transformation, but also evolves over time
through changes in the factors that shape it, such as climate, land transformation processes, and
human practices [32,33]. Drawing on these conceptual references, the aim of this paper is to develop
a geographical route through the landscape for geotourism purposes, guided by a global
interpretation of the original features of a landscape that has been strongly shaped by volcanic
phenomena. It comprises a first stage dedicated to the geographical study of the landscape and a
second stage focused on designing a route that will identify and characterise the original landforms
of this volcanic area. Within the study of the landscape of the protected area of the Chinyero Special
Nature Reserve, a topographical analysis was first carried out to identify the main features of its
physiognomy (landforms and processes, vegetation and traces of traditional agricultural practices),
followed by a spatial analysis to describe and characterise the organisation of the natural landscape
from a global perspective (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Sources, resources, and methodology of the natural landscape study. Source: self-elaboration.
The proposed landscape trail will follow a route that runs around the perimeter of the eruptive
centres of Chinyero and has been designed with different stops for exploration and interpretation of
the landscape units and elements of their natural and cultural heritage (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Structure and justification for the proposed route. Source: self-elaboration.
Figure 1.
Sources, resources, and methodology of the natural landscape study. Source: self-elaboration.
The proposed landscape trail will follow a route that runs around the perimeter of the eruptive
centres of Chinyero and has been designed with different stops for exploration and interpretation of
the landscape units and elements of their natural and cultural heritage (Figure 2).
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 4 of 25
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25
archipelago, in contrast with the significant growth that geotourism routes on the islands have
already undergone [25–31].
2. Objective and Method
Landscape is a subject matter for geography because of a systemic approach that does not reduce
it to the simple sum of disparate geographical features; it is the result of a dynamic, and therefore
unstable, combination of physical, biological and human elements which, interacting dialectically
with each other, make the landscape a unique and inseparable whole in perpetual evolution [13–15].
Therefore, the landscape not only undergoes spatial transformation, but also evolves over time
through changes in the factors that shape it, such as climate, land transformation processes, and
human practices [32,33]. Drawing on these conceptual references, the aim of this paper is to develop
a geographical route through the landscape for geotourism purposes, guided by a global
interpretation of the original features of a landscape that has been strongly shaped by volcanic
phenomena. It comprises a first stage dedicated to the geographical study of the landscape and a
second stage focused on designing a route that will identify and characterise the original landforms
of this volcanic area. Within the study of the landscape of the protected area of the Chinyero Special
Nature Reserve, a topographical analysis was first carried out to identify the main features of its
physiognomy (landforms and processes, vegetation and traces of traditional agricultural practices),
followed by a spatial analysis to describe and characterise the organisation of the natural landscape
from a global perspective (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Sources, resources, and methodology of the natural landscape study. Source: self-elaboration.
The proposed landscape trail will follow a route that runs around the perimeter of the eruptive
centres of Chinyero and has been designed with different stops for exploration and interpretation of
the landscape units and elements of their natural and cultural heritage (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Structure and justification for the proposed route. Source: self-elaboration.
Figure 2. Structure and justification for the proposed route. Source: self-elaboration.
3. Study Area
The Chinyero Special Nature Reserve covers an area of 23.794 km
2
and extends across the Abeque
highlands, a large expanse of recent volcanic terrain on Tenerife with peaks of between 1300 and
2000 m above sea level (Figure 3). The persistence of volcanic activity on this part of the island has
given rise to a morphostructure formed by the spatial association of numerous recent and historical
monogenetic events along a general NW–SE tectonic line. It is a large, complex volcanic edifice in the
form of a gable roof, known as a volcanic ridge [
34
]. The Abeque ridge is located between the ancient
volcanic massif of Teno, on the north-west end of the island, and the large Teide-Pico Viejo double
stratovolcano, to the south-east, and has morphological features that distinguish it from other ridges
in the Canary Islands [
35
]. These mountains stand out above all for their relative geological youth
(<0.69 Ma), and are easily distinguishable by the concentration of subhistorical volcanic manifestations
such as Montaña Reventada (900 to 1200 AD) and the more recent Boca Cangrejo (1430 to 1660 AD) [
36
],
and the volcanoes of Arenas Negras or Garachico (1706) and Chinyero (1909). The Chinyero Reserve
is located in the upper reaches of this volcanic ridge and includes within its spatial limits the entire
Chinyero volcano and the pyroclastic deposits and upper lava flows of the Garachico volcano, located
on the northern slope (Figure 3). From a biogeographical point of view, the reserve is part of the
laurisilva (laurel forest) and pine forest layers of vegetation, and the landscape is home to vegetation
that has undergone constant renewal as a result of volcanic activity. The defining impact of volcanism
is reflected in the presence of plant communities typical of the first stages of plant establishment and
colonisation through a dynamic process of primary succession [37].
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25
3. Study Area
The Chinyero Special Nature Reserve covers an area of 23.794 km2 and extends across the
Abeque highlands, a large expanse of recent volcanic terrain on Tenerife with peaks of between 1300
and 2000 m above sea level (Figure 3). The persistence of volcanic activity on this part of the island
has given rise to a morphostructure formed by the spatial association of numerous recent and
historical monogenetic events along a general NW–SE tectonic line. It is a large, complex volcanic
edifice in the form of a gable roof, known as a volcanic ridge [34]. The Abeque ridge is located
between the ancient volcanic massif of Teno, on the north-west end of the island, and the large Teide-
Pico Viejo double stratovolcano, to the south-east, and has morphological features that distinguish it
from other ridges in the Canary Islands [35]. These mountains stand out above all for their relative
geological youth (<0.69 Ma), and are easily distinguishable by the concentration of subhistorical
volcanic manifestations such as Montaña Reventada (900 to 1200 AD) and the more recent Boca
Cangrejo (1430 to 1660 AD) [36], and the volcanoes of Arenas Negras or Garachico (1706) and
Chinyero (1909). The Chinyero Reserve is located in the upper reaches of this volcanic ridge and
includes within its spatial limits the entire Chinyero volcano and the pyroclastic deposits and upper
lava flows of the Garachico volcano, located on the northern slope (Figure 3). From a biogeographical
point of view, the reserve is part of the laurisilva (laurel forest) and pine forest layers of vegetation,
and the landscape is home to vegetation that has undergone constant renewal as a result of volcanic
activity. The defining impact of volcanism is reflected in the presence of plant communities typical
of the first stages of plant establishment and colonisation through a dynamic process of primary
succession [37].
Figure 3. Location of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve. Source: IDE-Canarias, self-elaboration.
4. The Landscape of the Chinyero Nature Reserve
The main landscape features of the volcanic peaks of the Abeque ridge, located in the north-west
of the island of Tenerife, and where the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve is located, are the result of
a geography inherent to a young volcanic area that has undergone volcanic activity up to the present
day. The historical eruptions of the Canary Islands are those that were recorded and documented by
humans. On the islands, this period covers the last 500 years, from the conquest of the islands by the
Crown of Castile at the end of the fifteenth century. During this time, the islands that have
experienced historical volcanic activity are Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro.
Today, the reserve has a fundamentally natural landscape typical of the Canary Island
highlands, spatially structured by volcanic phenomena which, through continuous, albeit irregular,
activity, have created clear and immediate spatial discontinuities with marked physical features
(Figure 4). All the successively created volcanic landforms have given rise to a very diverse,
Figure 3. Location of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve. Source: IDE-Canarias, self-elaboration.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 5 of 25
4. The Landscape of the Chinyero Nature Reserve
The main landscape features of the volcanic peaks of the Abeque ridge, located in the north-west
of the island of Tenerife, and where the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve is located, are the result of a
geography inherent to a young volcanic area that has undergone volcanic activity up to the present
day. The historical eruptions of the Canary Islands are those that were recorded and documented by
humans. On the islands, this period covers the last 500 years, from the conquest of the islands by the
Crown of Castile at the end of the fifteenth century. During this time, the islands that have experienced
historical volcanic activity are Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro.
Today, the reserve has a fundamentally natural landscape typical of the Canary Island highlands,
spatially structured by volcanic phenomena which, through continuous, albeit irregular, activity, have
created clear and immediate spatial discontinuities with marked physical features (Figure 4). All the
successively created volcanic landforms have given rise to a very diverse, compartmentalised and
apparently chaotic landscape, where it is possible to recognise minor landscape units, with particular
dynamics of transformation, that are progressively being incorporated into the wider landscape units
in which they are embedded [
38
]. In short, it is a living mountain space with constant morphogenetic
changes in which volcanism is a major factor in the configuration of one of the most dynamic landscape
types on the planet. The characterisation of the elements of the landscape and the integrated definition
of its units—which are detailed below—are based on a previous study carried out on this volcanic
landscape [39].
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
compartmentalised and apparently chaotic landscape, where it is possible to recognise minor
landscape units, with particular dynamics of transformation, that are progressively being
incorporated into the wider landscape units in which they are embedded [38]. In short, it is a living
mountain space with constant morphogenetic changes in which volcanism is a major factor in the
configuration of one of the most dynamic landscape types on the planet. The characterisation of the
elements of the landscape and the integrated definition of its units—which are detailed below—are
based on a previous study carried out on this volcanic landscape [39].
Figure 4. Chinyero volcano. Source: http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com.
4.1. Recent and Historical Monogenetic Volcanoes
From the geomorphological point of view, this unit of terrain is spatially organised into two
types of landscape subunit: volcanic cones and lava fields. The former are pyroclastic formations that
mostly occur on the summits, giving shape to the mountainous profile of this ridge, and that reflect
the volcanic activity on this part of the island. The mountains of Bilma (1350 m), Los Riegos (1386 m),
De la Cruz (1518 m), Las Flores (1435 m), and Chinyero (1500 m), among others, form part of this
field of volcanoes with a predominantly basaltic magma composition and varied morphology. In
general, they are pyroclastic fall deposits of varying granulometry (scoria, lapilli, ash...), which are
ejected in explosive phases of the volcanic eruptions and pile up around the eruptive centres, forming
conical hills of ochre, reddish and black colours, depending on variations in the chemical composition
and their degree of alteration. They are spatially arranged along eruptive fissures that mainly run in
a NW-SE direction and may have other associated minor features, such as hornitos, small scoria
cones, etc.
Numerous lava flows spewed from these craters and fanned out across the summit and slopes
of the ridge, guided by the local topography. Their morphology is almost entirely ‘aa’, influenced by
the cooling process as they moved across the terrain (Figure 5). Their general topography includes
features such as lava channels, tubes, erratics, accretionary lava balls, etc., and they also tend to leave
patches of older land uncovered, which remain as “islands” between the fields of volcanic material.
Pahoehoe morphologies may also occur, associated with more fluid flows, giving rise to more
continuous and regular surfaces composed of tubes and coalescent lobes [34]. At present, the most
recent volcanic features are those of the Garachico or Arenas Negras volcano (the result of an eruption
in 1706) and the Chinyero volcano (1909). Montaña Reventada also stand outs because of its original
features, which have undergone very little transformation. Its centre of emission is located at the
Figure 4. Chinyero volcano. Source: http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com.
4.1. Recent and Historical Monogenetic Volcanoes
From the geomorphological point of view, this unit of terrain is spatially organised into two
types of landscape subunit: volcanic cones and lava fields. The former are pyroclastic formations
that mostly occur on the summits, giving shape to the mountainous profile of this ridge, and that
reflect the volcanic activity on this part of the island. The mountains of Bilma (1350 m), Los Riegos
(1386 m), De la Cruz (1518 m), Las Flores (1435 m), and Chinyero (1500 m), among others, form part
of this field of volcanoes with a predominantly basaltic magma composition and varied morphology.
In general, they are pyroclastic fall deposits of varying granulometry (scoria, lapilli, ash...), which are
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 6 of 25
ejected in explosive phases of the volcanic eruptions and pile up around the eruptive centres, forming
conical hills of ochre, reddish and black colours, depending on variations in the chemical composition
and their degree of alteration. They are spatially arranged along eruptive fissures that mainly run
in a NW-SE direction and may have other associated minor features, such as hornitos, small scoria
cones, etc.
Numerous lava flows spewed from these craters and fanned out across the summit and slopes of
the ridge, guided by the local topography. Their morphology is almost entirely ‘aa’, influenced by
the cooling process as they moved across the terrain (Figure 5). Their general topography includes
features such as lava channels, tubes, erratics, accretionary lava balls, etc., and they also tend to
leave patches of older land uncovered, which remain as “islands” between the fields of volcanic
material. Pahoehoe morphologies may also occur, associated with more fluid flows, giving rise to more
continuous and regular surfaces composed of tubes and coalescent lobes [
34
]. At present, the most
recent volcanic features are those of the Garachico or Arenas Negras volcano (the result of an eruption
in 1706) and the Chinyero volcano (1909). Montaña Reventada also stand outs because of its original
features, which have undergone very little transformation. Its centre of emission is located at the
highest, south-eastern end of the ridge, at 2000 m above sea level. The location of the volcanic cone
meant that the lava flows spread out across the summit, descending until they split into two long main
branches: one towards the north of the island and the other towards the south of the ridge. Another of
the easily recognisable lava flows in the area is that of the Boca Cangrejo volcano, which occupies the
southern slopes of the volcano chain.
4.2. The Pine Forests of the Canary Islands
In this protected area, the plant cover is distributed spatially between pine forest with monteverde
(sub-humid montane belt) and pine forest with mountain scrub. The climate across this volcanic chain
is temperate along the mid-altitude belt, with an average annual temperature of 16
◦
C, and cool at
the higher altitudes, with an average of 10
◦
C. Total annual rainfall is between 500 and 700 L/m
2
,
depending on altitude and orientation [
40
]. With regard to the pine forest with monteverde, found on the
north-facing slopes located between 1100 and 1300 m above sea level, the regular influence of the humid
trade winds and the greater relative age of the volcanoes in this sector have led to the establishment of
a dense pine forest with elements of laurel forest, which demand more water and milder temperatures
(Table 1). This is a transitional pine forest between the laurel forest community and the drier mountain
pine forests [
41
]. The most common species are Erica canariensis,Laurus novocanariensis,Morella faya
and Ilex canariensis, accompanied by Cistus symphytifolius and Adenocarpus foliolosus, which indicate
proximity to the summit. From the phytosociological point of view, this unit belongs to the pine forest
association Sideritido solutae–Pinetum canariensis and sub-association ericetosum arboreae [
42
] which is
linked to the humid pine forests of the most recent volcanic areas of the islands.
By contrast, from 1300 to approximately 1800 m above sea level, the pine forests are associated
with other species adapted to the harsher climate that prevails at altitude, mainly as a result
of the lower temperatures and lower rainfall. This forest community is located around the
recent volcanoes of Liferfe and Calzada de Las Arrambleras and corresponds to the association
Sideritido solutae–Pinetum canariensis [
42
]. Common species include Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp.
angustifolus,Adenocarpus viscosus,Lotus campylocladus and Scrophularia glabrata, which have a wide
spatial distribution.
However, apart from the extensive areas of pine forest, the vegetation is also striking because of
the striking spatial discontinuities caused by recent volcanic activity, which has led to a sharp loss
of forest cover. Patches of scrub cover these lava surfaces, part of the Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp.
angustifolius facies of the Sideritio solutae–Pinetum association [
42
]. The presence of a lava substrate
largely unaffected by erosion is the cause of a very wide distribution of pine trees and Chamaecytisus
proliferus subsp. angustifolius, mainly accompanied by Adenocarpus viscosus, Aeonium sphatulatum,
Argyranthemum adauctum subsp. dugourii, and Sideritis oroteneriffae and Sideritis soluta subsp. soluta.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 7 of 25
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25
Figure 5. Geomorphological map of the eruptive centres of Chinyero. 1. Las Flores 1470 masl. 2.
Chinyero 1550 masl. 3. Chica de Abeque 1581 masl. 4. Corredera 1622 masl. 5. Boca Cangrejo 1588
masl. 6. Los Poleos 1471 masl. 7. La Cruz 1520 masl. Source: IDE-Canarias, self-elaboration.
The vegetation that grows on the new surfaces left behind by eruptions is the result of a
particular process of primary plant colonisation, characterised by the predominance of a very
characteristic flora adapted to dry conditions, dominated above all by lichens and fleshy plants
capable of accumulating moisture in their leaves and stems [43]. Of the flora that feature in the
landscape of the most recent volcanoes, the extraordinary adaptation of the Canary Island pine is
particularly remarkable, as it is one of the most distinctive phanerophyte pioneer species on the more
Figure 5.
Geomorphological map of the eruptive centres of Chinyero. 1. Las Flores 1470 masl.
2. Chinyero 1550 masl. 3. Chica de Abeque 1581 masl. 4. Corredera 1622 masl. 5. Boca Cangrejo
1588 masl. 6. Los Poleos 1471 masl. 7. La Cruz 1520 masl. Source: IDE-Canarias, self-elaboration.
The vegetation that grows on the new surfaces left behind by eruptions is the result of a particular
process of primary plant colonisation, characterised by the predominance of a very characteristic flora
adapted to dry conditions, dominated above all by lichens and fleshy plants capable of accumulating
moisture in their leaves and stems [
43
]. Of the flora that feature in the landscape of the most recent
volcanoes, the extraordinary adaptation of the Canary Island pine is particularly remarkable, as it is one
of the most distinctive phanerophyte pioneer species on the more recent volcanic areas of the island’s
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 8 of 25
uplands. Within these plant communities, other minor variations may be observed, brought about by
the properties of the volcanic substrate: pine forests tend to be denser on the surfaces of pyroclasts
where there is a certain alteration of the rock surface, and they thin out on lava flows of the same age
due to the slower rate of weathering and the discontinuity and irregularity of the substrate. This forest
distribution also gives rise to variations in the understorey, which decreases in floristic diversity and
cover on airfall tephra, while both diversity and cover increase on lava flows [38,43] (Table 1).
Table 1.
The pine forests of the Chinyero Nature Reserve. Relationship between volcanic surfaces and
the relative importance of the species. 1 Pine forest with monteverde on Holocene volcanoes with
the regular effect of the sea of clouds from the trade winds. 2 Open pine forest with scrub containing
hygrophytic species and thallophytes on historical lava flows. 3 Open pine forest with scrub containing
hygrophytic and xerophytic mountain species and thallophytes on historical and subhistorical lava
flows. 4 Open pine forest with mountain scrub on historical pyroclasts. 5 Dense pine forest with open
understorey of mountain species on Holocene pyroclastic cones and fields. 6 Semi-open pine forest
with mountain scrub on Holocene lava flows. 7 Scrub (Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolus) on
Holocene lava flows. * Absent or very rare species, L Localised species, F Frequent species, A Abundant
species. Source: Prepared by the authors using floristic and physiognomic inventories.
1234567
Pinuscanariensis A L L L A F L
Hygrophyte
Erica canariensis F F L
Morella faya F*
Laurus novocanariensis F
Ilex canariensis L
Cistus symphytifolius L*
Adenocarpus foliolosus *
Aychryson laxum L
Sonchus congestus L
Hypericum reflexum *
Ageratina adenophora F
Rumex maderensis A F
Davallia canariensis A
Cheilanthes pulchella F L
Stereocaulon vesuvianum A F
Xerophyte
Sideritis soluta subsp. soluta *L*
Lotus campylocladus *L L
Bystropogon origanifolius L*L L
Carlina xeranthemoides L L L
Pterocephalus lasiospermus L*
Adenocarpus viscosus L L
Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolus L L F
Argyranthemum tenerifae L
Argyranthemum adauctum subsp. dugourii * *
Aeonium spathulatum F F L
Scrophularia glabrata F L L F *
Sideritis oroteneriffae L L
Overall cover (%): 70 35 35 15 75 50 15
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 9 of 25
It should also be pointed out that the new policy to enhance and protect nature developed in
the Canary Islands in the last century involved, among other measures, the strengthening of existing
pine forests across a large part of the highlands of Tenerife by means of reforestation campaigns.
The restoration of these forests was undertaken with greater enthusiasm from the second half of
the twentieth century onwards as it had become the primary focus of forest management [
44
].
Reforestation in the Abeque highlands took place mainly from the 1960s to the 1980s and was highly
conditioned by altitude and orientation, although the relatively recent composition of the volcanic
substrate also limited the selected areas. The most recent surface sections of Chinyero, Boca Cangrejo
and part of Montaña Reventada were excluded [45].
Finally, these geomorphological, environmental and vegetation features converge in a spatial
prevalence of rocky substrates. In general terms, lithosols occupy large areas of this sector of Tenerife,
and only in some places on these highlands are some incipient pedogenetic processes identified [38].
4.3. The Natural Landscape Units of the Reserve: the Power of Volcanic Phenomena as Shapers of the Landscape
The spatial combination of these natural elements creates an overall physiognomy containing
a high concentration of volcanic cones from which lava flows poured in various directions down
their steep slopes towards the coast. The green hues of this landscape are the pine forests, which are
slowly being incorporated into the newly created land, forming part of a complex natural process of
post-eruptive transformation.
However, depending on the relative chronology of the recently formed volcanic land, new
variations in the landscape may be recognised, defined by the prominence of the pine forests on
the relatively older volcanoes, or by the predominant volcanic morphology in the landscapes of the
younger eruptive formations of historical times. Local environmental changes caused by the altitude
and orientation of the Abeque highlands in relation to the trade winds also significantly condition the
features of the landscape (Figure 6).
In this protected area, therefore, the geography of the landscape is strongly influenced by volcanic
activity. However, this landscape is distinguished not only by the force of recent and historical
Strombolian eruptions, but also by the perfect adaptation of different forms of pine forest to this type
of natural disturbance.
From this point of view, the secondary geographical factors that shape the natural landscape are
the environmental variations caused by altitude and orientation, and the morphological features of
the volcanic substrates (Table 2). In short, this nature reserve is an excellent science laboratory for the
study of basaltic monogenetic volcanism and the first phases of natural dynamics in recently created
volcanic lands enclosed by the forest vegetation layers of the islands. One of the main natural values of
the Abeque highlands is the mafic volcanoes created by the historical eruptions of Garachico (1706)
and Chinyero (1909); these are the historical eruptive complexes of the island of Tenerife. There is no
doubt that this protected area contains a significant diversity of volcanic morphology and unique flora
and vegetation that give it a valuable natural heritage. However, despite concerted efforts to protect
the outstanding natural features and landforms of these spaces, it is surprising that in some parts of
the upper reaches of this reserve, isolated remains of other barely visible landscapes, which represent
past agricultural practices in the Abeque highlands, are now being discovered.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 10 of 25
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25
Figure 6. Landscape units of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve. Source: IDE-Canarias, self-elaboration.
1. Montaña de las Flores - 2. Chinyero - 3. Montaña Chica de Abeque - 4. Montaña la Corredera - 5. Boca
Cangrejo - 6. Montaña de los Poleos - 7. Montaña de La Cruz - 8. Montaña del Estrecho - 9. Montaña del
Centeno - 10. Montaña Aguda - 11. Montañas Negras - 12. Montaña Bilma - 13. Las Manchas - 14. Montaña
Figure 6.
Landscape units of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve. Source: IDE-Canarias,
self-elaboration. 1. Montaña de las Flores - 2. Chinyero - 3. Montaña Chica de Abeque - 4. Montaña
la Corredera - 5. Boca Cangrejo - 6. Montaña de los Poleos - 7. Montaña de La Cruz - 8. Montaña
del Estrecho - 9. Montaña del Centeno - 10. Montaña Aguda - 11. Montañas Negras - 12. Montaña
Bilma - 13. Las Manchas - 14. Montaña Chica de las Cuevitas - 15. Montaña Grande de las Cuevitas -
16. Montaña Grande de Abeque - 17. Calzada de las Arrambleras - 18. Montaña Liferfe - 19. Montaña
Los Riegos - 20. Montaña de la Atalaya - 21. Montaña Negra (Arenas Negras/Garachico) - 22. Montaña
de las Caballerizas - 23. Montaña del Banco - 24. San Jos
é
de Los Llanos - 25. La Montañeta -
26. El Tanque.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 11 of 25
Table 2. Landscape units of the Chinyero Special Nature Reserve. Self-elaboration.
Main Units Minor Units
Los Riegos, Banco, Caballerizas
and Atalaya volcanoes
Monogenetic basaltic cones
Pine forest with monteverde
Reventada lava flows
‘Aa’ and pahoehoe lava field with
lava channels and lava tubes
Open pine forest with hygrophytic
and xerophytic mountain scrub
and thallophytes
Estrecho, Cruz, Poleos and
Centeno volcanoes
Monogenetic basaltic cones and
lava fields
Pine forest with mountain scrub
Horseshoe- and ring-shaped
cinder or scoria cones and
pyroclastic fields with dense pine
forest and isolated
mountain features
‘Aa’ and pahoehoe lava flows with
lava channels with semi-open pine
forest and mountain scrub
Garachico volcano
Historical monogenetic basaltic
volcano with open pine forest with
hygrophytic and xerophytic
mountain scrub and thallophytes
Multiple cinder cone, hornitos and
pyroclastic fields with open pine
forest with scattered hygrophytic
and xerophytic species
‘Aa’ lava flows with lava channels
and open pine forest with
hygrophytic and xerophytic
species and thallophytes
‘Aa’ lava fields with numerous
lava channels associated with
open pine forest with hygrophytic
species and thallophytes
Chinyero volcano
Historical eruption with various
cinder cones and pyroclastic and
lava fields associated with open
mountain scrub with some pines
and thallophytes
Various cinder cones and
pyroclastic with some pines and
open mountain scrub
Lava fields with thallophytes
Montañas Negras volcanoes
Monogenetic basaltic fissure
eruption with cinder or scoria
cones and small ‘aa’ and pahoehoe
lava flows with open xerophytic
mountain scrub
Cinder or scoria cones with open
xerophytic mountain scrub
‘Aa’ and pahoehoe lava flows with
open xerophytic mountain scrub
Bilma volcano
Multiple basaltic monogenetic
volcano with lava lake and
pahoehoe and ‘aa’ lava fields with
Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp.
angustifolus and
Spartocytisus supranubius
Multiple basaltic monogenetic
volcano with retamares
Pahoehoe and ‘aa’ lava fields with
Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp.
angustifolus and
Spartocytisus supranubius
Lava flows from Pico Viejo
Trachyte and phonolite ‘aa’ lava
flows with Chamaecytisus proliferus
subsp. angustifolus
In fact, in the vicinity of the Chinyero volcano, at an approximate height of 1300–1400 m, there are
fragments of dry-stone walls in some places and old shelters, now somewhat deteriorated, together
with abandoned grain threshing floors, which speak of an old agricultural landscape now hidden by
dense pine forests. They resemble invisible landscapes, in no way comparable to what they once were,
but which still linger on today.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 12 of 25
4.4. Human Activity as a Factor in the Evolution of the Landscape of the Abeque Highlands
The discovery of these other elements shows once again that time and space overlap in this
landscape, and that these uplands today not only offer a magnificent natural volcanic mountain
landscape—highly dynamic from this point of view—but also retain traces of other inherited landscapes
which reflected an ancient relationship between the inhabitants of this part of the island and the
volcanoes, reflecting a perception and appreciation of them which is very different from today. In this
regard, it is worth noting the growing value that other disciplines such as ecology have recently
placed on history as a factor of change in ecosystems: “In our view, human societies should be
acknowledged as integral parts of ecosystems and societal processes should be recognized as driving
forces of ecosystem change” [
46
]. There is no doubt that, at present, the study of ecosystems with
predominantly natural dynamic processes from a time-based perspective has resulted in this discipline
giving increasing relevance to humans as an intrinsic ecological factor in current research.
As noted above, the conditions of the physical environment were not ideal for making this
mountainous sector prosperous for its inhabitants. Natural resources were limited: poor soil, much of
which was swept away by the volcanoes, low rainfall rates and significantly fluctuating temperatures
(especially due to temperatures that fell close to zero degrees). Consequently, the men and women
of these places had to fight against adverse natural conditions by adapting their unproductive fields
to ensure that the land could be used for farming, and by joining forces to transform these barren
mountains into fertile farmland to feed their families. The value of the ancestral agricultural landscapes
of these highlands is that they were the best representation of what was a rational use of scarce natural
resources through traditional knowledge accumulated over centuries. Their wisdom consisted in
making occupancy and balanced use of the land coincide spatially with the ecological potential of the
natural volcanic landscape units.
The work of Antonio Ponte [
47
] contains valuable information in this regard. This author’s
description of the Chinyero eruption was based on direct observation of this volcanic phenomenon
which began on 18 November 1909. Although his report mainly focused on the eruption, a detailed
reading of the photographs he includes and the meticulous map that forms part of his work enable us
to identify features of the landscape, relief, land occupation, state of the vegetation and agricultural
use at the time.
The author made frequent allusions to the recent volcanic character of this part of the island, which,
combined with the semi-arid environment of these highlands, led to a severe shortage of fertile soil for
farming, which was limited to specific pockets which Ponte pinpointed exactly on the map that he
produced. These pockets of land were located preferably on the surfaces of the oldest and most gently
sloping recent pyroclastic layers and the oldest lava flows. Local toponyms such as Montaña Cebada
(“Barley Mountain”)—today marked on the topographic map of the National Geographic Institute as
Montaña Centeno (“Rye Mountain”)—which is a volcanic cone with gentle slopes that still conserves
the remains of old stone walls, are proof of these low-yield farming systems. Particularly noteworthy
is the fact that on the margins of the new Chinyero volcano, there are lava flows that have destroyed
the old walls of this farmland, which is now covered by dense pine forests. It should be borne in mind
that these highlands are now largely covered by the lava from the 1909 eruption, making it difficult to
reconstruct this old agricultural landscape.
Alternating spatially with the crops concentrated on the pyroclastic surfaces, the older lava flows
and small endorheic plains trapped between the flows, there were patches of Chamaecytisus proliferus
subsp. angustifolius, pioneer species on the most recent lava flows, highly appreciated by the population
of that period for livestock feed and still recognisable today.
During those years, forest harvesting in these highlands was highly intensive. The pine forests
provided wood resources, mainly heartwood, brushwood and pine needles, charcoal, firewood, etc.,
which were a vital resource for the rural population, who also used the wood to build their homes,
farm tools, furniture, etc. [
48
]. The heartwood of the Canary Island pine is a resinous and very
resistant wood that is extracted from mature trees. In the past, this wood was mainly used in the
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 13 of 25
woodwork of churches and large houses; nowadays, it is used as hardwood in restoration works and
cabinetmaking [
49
]. However, pine, especially its heartwood, had excellent properties, not only for
these uses, but also for obtaining pine tar. There are reports of frequent agreements between kiln
owners and local woodcutters to make pine tar pitch that date back to the sixteenth century [50].
All this led to the overexploitation of the Canary Island pine forests by the main towns in the area,
such as Icod and Garachico, and the nearby villages of San Jos
é
de Los Llanos, La Montañeta, El Tanque
and Valle de Santiago, which went so far as to alarm the island council (Cabildo), which intervened on
numerous occasions to put a stop to it [
48
]. In addition to this exploitation of the forests, the highlands
were also ideal for grazing, mainly in summer. Nowadays, however, only a few remnants of this
ancient landscape remain, the traces of which have been greatly eroded and fragmented by the passage
of time. The socioeconomic changes that have taken place on the islands since the mid-twentieth
century due to tourism have meant that another landscape with a predominantly natural appearance
has been superimposed, the result of a significant change in the way the inhabitants of Tenerife coexist
with their volcanic summits.
5. Proposal for a Tourist Landscape Trail on the Chinyero Volcano
The proposed route follows a circular path, located within the boundaries of the Chinyero Special
Nature Reserve, that borders the eruptive centres of the Chinyero volcano (1909). It runs through a
landscape that exhibits some remarkable and very recent volcanic features, which are centred on the
main volcanic cone and its lava flows (Figure 7). These new, very dark, basaltic volcanic landforms
stand out at first view of this place, spatially interrupting a wide swath of bright, intense green pine
forest. This route is accessed through the TF-38 road, at kilometer 14.9 of the municipality of Santiago
del Teide. Although there is no built parking, there is enough space on one side of the road to park
some cars.
The route has nine stops and a total distance of 6.5 km, maximum and minimum heights of
1540 m and 1402 m respectively, and a cumulative elevation gain of 138 m. The difficulty of the route
is low, although it is not advisable to do it on very hot days. This route covers a small part of the
PR-TF 43 Garachico-Montaña Chinyero route, which is 17.7 km long. A PR is an officially approved
short-distance footpath, easily identified by white and yellow signs and between 10 and 50 km long.
In general, these are routes that can be walked in one day, with varying degrees of difficulty depending
on the walker’s location [51].
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25
subsp. angustifolius, pioneer species on the most recent lava flows, highly appreciated by the
population of that period for livestock feed and still recognisable today.
During those years, forest harvesting in these highlands was highly intensive. The pine forests
provided wood resources, mainly heartwood, brushwood and pine needles, charcoal, firewood, etc.,
which were a vital resource for the rural population, who also used the wood to build their homes,
farm tools, furniture, etc. [48]. The heartwood of the Canary Island pine is a resinous and very
resistant wood that is extracted from mature trees. In the past, this wood was mainly used in the
woodwork of churches and large houses; nowadays, it is used as hardwood in restoration works and
cabinetmaking [49]. However, pine, especially its heartwood, had excellent properties, not only for
these uses, but also for obtaining pine tar. There are reports of frequent agreements between kiln
owners and local woodcutters to make pine tar pitch that date back to the sixteenth century [50].
All this led to the overexploitation of the Canary Island pine forests by the main towns in the
area, such as Icod and Garachico, and the nearby villages of San José de Los Llanos, La Montañeta,
El Tanque and Valle de Santiago, which went so far as to alarm the island council (Cabildo), which
intervened on numerous occasions to put a stop to it [48]. In addition to this exploitation of the forests,
the highlands were also ideal for grazing, mainly in summer. Nowadays, however, only a few
remnants of this ancient landscape remain, the traces of which have been greatly eroded and
fragmented by the passage of time. The socioeconomic changes that have taken place on the islands
since the mid-twentieth century due to tourism have meant that another landscape with a
predominantly natural appearance has been superimposed, the result of a significant change in the
way the inhabitants of Tenerife coexist with their volcanic summits.
5. Proposal for a Tourist Landscape Trail on the Chinyero Volcano
The proposed route follows a circular path, located within the boundaries of the Chinyero
Special Nature Reserve, that borders the eruptive centres of the Chinyero volcano (1909). It runs
through a landscape that exhibits some remarkable and very recent volcanic features, which are
centred on the main volcanic cone and its lava flows (Figure 7). These new, very dark, basaltic
volcanic landforms stand out at first view of this place, spatially interrupting a wide swath of bright,
intense green pine forest. This route is accessed through the TF-38 road, at kilometer 14.9 of the
municipality of Santiago del Teide. Although there is no built parking, there is enough space on one
side of the road to park some cars.
The route has nine stops and a total distance of 6.5 km, maximum and minimum heights of 1540
m and 1402 m respectively, and a cumulative elevation gain of 138 m. The difficulty of the route is
low, although it is not advisable to do it on very hot days. This route covers a small part of the PR-TF
43 Garachico-Montaña Chinyero route, which is 17.7 km long. A PR is an officially approved short-
distance footpath, easily identified by white and yellow signs and between 10 and 50 km long. In
general, these are routes that can be walked in one day, with varying degrees of difficulty depending
on the walker’s location [51].
Figure 7. View of the Chinyero highlands. Source: http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com, self-elaboration.
5.1. Stop 1: Start of Trail. 28◦17’4.87” N 16◦45’42.14” W
From here visitors can enjoy a first view of the Abeque highlands. The course of the route
along the NW rift is determined by a high concentration of eruptive centres in the form of numerous
pyroclastic cones with patchy pine forest cover. One of the most striking landscape units is the Boca
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 14 of 25
Cangrejo volcano, the result of a historical eruption. However, while for some researchers it matches
the eruption that Christopher Columbus witnessed on his first trip to America in 1492 [
52
], for others it
was the first historical eruption on the island, but does not coincide with that recorded by Columbus,
the location of which is still unknown [
53
]. It is an eruptive complex of Hawaiian and Strombolian
style, of medium size and multiple morphologies [
54
], formed by the deposition of bombs, loose and
welded scoria, lapilli, ash, and interstratified lava. The volcano has several ring- and horseshoe-shaped
craters in which numerous diatremes may be recognised, and a lava pool with a volcanic tube which
was primarily responsible for the emission of pahoehoe and ‘aa’ lava that branched out during its
journey until it almost reached the coast more than 7 km away. The eruptive complex also features an
interesting natural area of open pine forest. From this stop it is possible to see remnants of a former
tephra quarry on the NW side of Boca Cangrejo and on the small scoria cones of this sector of the cone,
which is classed as having had a severe impact in the Master Plan for the Use and Management of
the Corona Forestal Natural Park. In the past, these volcanic materials were mined mainly for use in
construction (Figure 7).
At this stop, the Montaña de La Corredera volcano may also be identified; it is a Strombolian
volcano, of medium size and with a horseshoe morphology open to the west. This volcanic cone
belongs to the alignment of the recent ring-shaped Montaña Chica de las Cuevitas volcano and the
horseshoe-shaped Montaña Grande de Las Cuevitas volcano. It was formed from the deposition
of various pyroclasts (bombs, lapilli and ash) and ‘aa’ lava flows were emitted from its open crater.
This alignment of volcanoes is largely buried by subsequent eruptions—such as the lava flows of
Montaña Reventada—so it is very difficult to calculate the area occupied by the edifices and their lava
flows [55].
In terms of vegetation, these volcanoes are home to large areas of pine trees (Pinuscanariensis)
that are perfectly adapted to the volcanic soil. The internal variations of this plant community
are determined by the age of the volcanoes and the type of substrate (pyroclasts and lava flows).
Particularly noteworthy are the differences in vegetation cover between Boca Cangrejo, with widely
dispersed pines, and Montaña Corredera and Montaña Chica de Abeque, which have denser pine
forests due to the older materials. In this place, apart from the Canary Island pine (both natural and
reforested), there are often other plant species, such as Bystropogon origanifolius and Scrophularia glabrata,
and others that are more sporadic, such as Argyranthemum tenerifae,Echium wildpretii,Polycarpaea tenuis,
and Micromeria hyssopifolia. These are located in an open and highly anthropised area due mainly to
the presence of the trail and the tephra quarries.
Another landscape unit that can be seen from the start of the route—although only its peak is
visible—is the imposing Pico Viejo-Teide volcanic complex that towers over the island. These are
two active stratovolcanoes with high mountain scrub which began to form in the Pleistocene, in the
period of post-caldera volcanism [
36
]. Both volcanoes are still active today, as evidenced by the dated
eruptions of Montaña Blanca, the mediaeval Lavas Negras eruption on Mt Teide, the 1798 historical
eruption of Chahorra, and the fumaroles in the crater of La Rambleta and Mt Teide. Both volcanoes
share an eruptive history and are formed from multiple eruptions of highly diverse dynamics and
chemical processes over some 179,000 years. The different and numerous eruptions produced over
time are responsible for the geodiversity of landforms and processes directly related to volcanism
(stratovolcanoes, cinder cones, domes, hornitos, craters, lava lakes and flows, plugs, etc.), to which we
may add features linked to the processes of erosion and deposition (ravines, talus deposits, striations,
nivation hollows, etc.).
Lastly, it is important to note that at this first stop, but also throughout the whole route, visitors
will have the opportunity to spot the Tenerife blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea), native to these uplands,
amongst the trees and bushes, and to enjoy its beautiful song. Other birds found in these forest
ecosystems are the African blue tit (Cyanistes teneriffae teneriffae) or the great spotted woodpecker
(Dendrocopos major canariensis); the latter is found in the oldest pine trees. In the group of invertebrates,
the striking emperor dragonfly (Anax imperator) is commonly spotted in these landscapes.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 15 of 25
5.2. Stop 2: the Old Road to Chasna. 28◦17’9.87” N 16◦45’34.55” W
The second stop is located at a crossroads in a flat section with some large Canary Island pines
and other younger pine trees from reforestation efforts. This place is marked in Ponte’s book [
47
]
as the old road to Chasna. In the past, this old track was an essential byway linking the people of the
north and south of this part of the island. Paths from nearby villages and towns converged on this
thoroughfare. The presence of these ancient, tall, broad-crowned pines in these places provided a
meeting point and a place to rest for the islanders who travelled through these areas on their way to
the markets and local villages. Places like these on the old paths were formerly called descansaderos
(“resting places”), in allusion to the function that they performed.
The pine forest in this sector has an understorey of Micromeria hyssopifolia. This is reforested
pine with some naturally occurring, longer-lived specimens with wide crowns, which contrast in
appearance with the younger ones that have a pyramid-shaped crown and create a more homogeneous
tree stratum. Some pine seedlings can be seen, indicating natural regeneration of this forest. There are
also some isolated examples of Bystropogon origanifolius and Sonchus canariensis subsp. canariensis.
The constant harvesting of the pine forest once favoured the growth of these plants and other species.
Nowadays such exploitation is not as intense as in the past, which is why the understorey has declined:
the accumulation of needles on the ground hinders germination of the seeds and the development of
this plant. At this stop, at certain times of the year, especially in summer, piles of pine needles can
be seen, as they are gathered and taken away. Dry pine needles are still collected and used mainly
for cattle bedding and composting. Another striking element at this stop is the presence of a weather
station for collecting data on rainfall and temperature, now in disuse.
At this point the Boca Cangrejo volcano (described at Stop 1) appears again as a local landscape
feature. The cone of this volcano has some Canary Island pines (Pinus canariensis) scattered widely
along its slopes; the tallest specimens are found in the flatter areas.
The geomorphology of this sector is characterised by ‘aa’ lava flows, which probably originated
in the volcanoes of the Montaña la Corredera–Las Cuevitas alignment, and which are now covered by
lapilli from later eruptions such as Boca Cangrejo and Chinyero. Among the landforms directly related
to volcanism, there is a striking alignment of spatter cones. The landforms associated with the most
characteristic erosive dismantling processes are the scoria talus deposits as can be seen on the northern
flank of Boca Cangrejo and some small gullies on the eastern flank of Montaña de La Corredera.
5.3. Stop 3: View of the Chinyero Volcano. 28◦17’27.07” N 16◦45’8.48” W
This stop offers unbeatable views of the site of Tenerife’s last eruption (Figure 8). This eruption
began on 18 November 1909 and ended on 28 November of that same year. Some earthquakes had
already been recorded before the eruption began.
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
which erratic blocks, lava channels and levees, fan-shaped lobes and striations may be seen (Figure
9). At present, the main morphological alterations associated with erosive dismantling are the scoria
talus slopes on the internal walls of the craters of the largest edifice. During the eruption the lava
flows divided into two branches, one of which was slowed down by Montaña de la Cruz while the
other forked off at Montaña Aguda; its southern branch reached the village of Las Manchas and the
northern branch forked off again at Montaña Bilma.
Figure 8. Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve.
Figure 9. Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve. (a). Boca
Cangrejo historical cinder cone and lava fields. (b). Small scoria cone of the Chinyero eruption. (c).
Chinyero main cinder cone. (d). Montaña Reventada lava channel. (e). Pahoehoe lava flows from the
Chinyero monogenetic volcano. (f). ‘Aa’ lava flows from the Chinyero eruption. (g). Erratic blocks in
‘aa’ lava flows from Chinyero. (h). Montaña de La Cruz monogenetic basaltic cone and (i). hornitos
and spatter cones. Source: photo 1 http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com.
Figure 8. Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 16 of 25
When the eruption started, subterranean rumblings, tremors and rising ground temperatures were
felt [
56
]. This was the shortest eruption on Tenerife and was Strombolian in nature, forming several
aligned edifices along a NW-SE fissure. At the SE end of the fracture, a scoria cone was formed with
several craters and short ‘aa’ lava flows were emitted. Towards the NW the main volcanic complex
of the eruption arose; it is a small edifice, composed of scoria, lapilli and volcanic bombs, in an open
arc shape with several craters aligned in a NW-SE direction, which define the eruption fissure [
56
].
These craters expelled the main lava flows, which reached a maximum of 4.5 km and had an average
thickness of around 4–6 m [
56
], and in which erratic blocks, lava channels and levees, fan-shaped lobes
and striations may be seen (Figure 9). At present, the main morphological alterations associated with
erosive dismantling are the scoria talus slopes on the internal walls of the craters of the largest edifice.
During the eruption the lava flows divided into two branches, one of which was slowed down by
Montaña de la Cruz while the other forked offat Montaña Aguda; its southern branch reached the
village of Las Manchas and the northern branch forked offagain at Montaña Bilma.
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
which erratic blocks, lava channels and levees, fan-shaped lobes and striations may be seen (Figure
9). At present, the main morphological alterations associated with erosive dismantling are the scoria
talus slopes on the internal walls of the craters of the largest edifice. During the eruption the lava
flows divided into two branches, one of which was slowed down by Montaña de la Cruz while the
other forked off at Montaña Aguda; its southern branch reached the village of Las Manchas and the
northern branch forked off again at Montaña Bilma.
Figure 8. Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve.
Figure 9. Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve. (a). Boca
Cangrejo historical cinder cone and lava fields. (b). Small scoria cone of the Chinyero eruption. (c).
Chinyero main cinder cone. (d). Montaña Reventada lava channel. (e). Pahoehoe lava flows from the
Chinyero monogenetic volcano. (f). ‘Aa’ lava flows from the Chinyero eruption. (g). Erratic blocks in
‘aa’ lava flows from Chinyero. (h). Montaña de La Cruz monogenetic basaltic cone and (i). hornitos
and spatter cones. Source: photo 1 http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com.
Figure 9.
Different volcanic features and landforms of the Chinyero Nature Reserve. (
a
). Boca Cangrejo
historical cinder cone and lava fields. (
b
). Small scoria cone of the Chinyero eruption. (
c
). Chinyero
main cinder cone. (
d
). Montaña Reventada lava channel. (
e
). Pahoehoe lava flows from the Chinyero
monogenetic volcano. (
f
). ‘Aa’ lava flows from the Chinyero eruption. (
g
). Erratic blocks in ‘aa’ lava
flows from Chinyero. (
h
). Montaña de La Cruz monogenetic basaltic cone and (
i
). hornitos and spatter
cones. Source: photo 1 http://www.fotosaereasdecanarias.com.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 17 of 25
From this place, Montaña La Corredera may also be seen. It is covered by a perfectly aligned,
high-density pine reforestation area and an understorey consisting mainly of Chamaecytisus proliferus
subsp. angustifolius (Figure 10).
With regard to the cultural value of the landscape, at this elevated spot with panoramic views
stands a large Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) with a trunk perimeter of 4.35 m, horizontal
branches and a wide crown, characteristics that determine its age and natural origin. Next to it there is
a natural stone seat that makes this place an ideal spot for studying the original volcanic landforms
of Chinyero in the landscape. In fact, this raised location was used by Antonio Ponte to perform the
observations and detailed descriptions for his field report.
Throughout the route, different plant species can be identified in the pine forest understorey;
the most abundant are Bystropogon origanifolius and Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolius.
Also present are Carlina xeranthemoides,Erysimum scoparium and Scrophularia glabrata (Figure 10).
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 25
From this place, Montaña La Corredera may also be seen. It is covered by a perfectly aligned,
high-density pine reforestation area and an understorey consisting mainly of Chamaecytisus proliferus
subsp. angustifolius (Figure 10).
With regard to the cultural value of the landscape, at this elevated spot with panoramic views
stands a large Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) with a trunk perimeter of 4.35 m, horizontal
branches and a wide crown, characteristics that determine its age and natural origin. Next to it there
is a natural stone seat that makes this place an ideal spot for studying the original volcanic landforms
of Chinyero in the landscape. In fact, this raised location was used by Antonio Ponte to perform the
observations and detailed descriptions for his field report.
Throughout the route, different plant species can be identified in the pine forest understorey;
the most abundant are Bystropogon origanifolius and Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolius. Also
present are Carlina xeranthemoides, Erysimum scoparium and Scrophularia glabrata (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Common plant species on the volcanic highlands of Abeque: (a). Canary Island pine (Pinus
canariensis). (b). Adenocarpus viscosus subsp. viscosus. (c). Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolius.
(d). Bystropogon origanifolius. (e). Erysimum scoparium. (f). Scrophularia glabrata. (g). Aeonium
spathulatum. (h). Stereocaulon vesuvianum. (i). Echium virescens. Source: authors.
5.4. Stop 4: Montaña Reventada Lava Flows. 28°17’30.28” N 16°45’6.22” W
At this stop the most representative landforms are the ‘aa’ lava flows of Montaña Reventada.
This prehistoric volcano is 895 ± 155 years old [55] and is located on the SW flank of Pico Viejo. It is a
volcano which, according to scientific literature [57] is polymagmatic or polycyclic, generated in the
contact zone between the rift volcanism of the Bilma-Abeque ridge and the central edifice, which has
given rise to a mixture of basaltic and phonolite magmas [58]. The volcanic cone is of medium size
and multiple morphologies in which several explosive-type, ring- and horseshoe-shaped and
extended vertex horseshoe craters [54] may be identified, from which long lava flows were expelled
in opposing directions, which is one of the most striking features of this eruption. The lava flows
reached several kilometres along two main paths to the SW and NW along the summit and flanks of
the Bilma-Abeque ridge, which forked into multiple branches due to the presence of other older
Figure 10.
Common plant species on the volcanic highlands of Abeque: (
a
). Canary Island pine
(Pinus canariensis). (
b
). Adenocarpus viscosus subsp. viscosus. (
c
). Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp.
angustifolius. (
d
). Bystropogon origanifolius. (
e
). Erysimum scoparium. (
f
). Scrophularia glabrata.
(g). Aeonium spathulatum. (h). Stereocaulon vesuvianum. (i). Echium virescens. Source: authors.
5.4. Stop 4: Montaña Reventada Lava Flows. 28◦17’30.28” N 16◦45’6.22” W
At this stop the most representative landforms are the ‘aa’ lava flows of Montaña Reventada.
This prehistoric volcano is 895
±
155 years old [
55
] and is located on the SW flank of Pico Viejo. It is
a volcano which, according to scientific literature [
57
] is polymagmatic or polycyclic, generated in
the contact zone between the rift volcanism of the Bilma-Abeque ridge and the central edifice, which
has given rise to a mixture of basaltic and phonolite magmas [
58
]. The volcanic cone is of medium
size and multiple morphologies in which several explosive-type, ring- and horseshoe-shaped and
extended vertex horseshoe craters [
54
] may be identified, from which long lava flows were expelled
in opposing directions, which is one of the most striking features of this eruption. The lava flows
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 18 of 25
reached several kilometres along two main paths to the SW and NW along the summit and flanks
of the Bilma-Abeque ridge, which forked into multiple branches due to the presence of other older
volcanic cones. Changes in the chemistry, temperature, and path, and pre-existing topography account
for the great variety of surface morphologies of the lava fields of Montaña Reventada (p
¯
ahoehoe, ‘aa’,
transition to block lava, etc.), in which the full range of major and minor features typical of lava fields
may be identified. In addition to the lava flows, at this stop it is also possible to see pyroclasts in the
contact zone between the Montaña La Corredera and Montaña Chica de Abeque volcanoes and the
presence of small gullies between the lava flows of Montaña Reventada and the oldest volcanic cones.
The pine forest in this sector is characterised by an understorey consisting mainly of
Bystropogonoriganifolius and Lotuscampylocladus subsp. campylocladus, a species characteristic of the
pine understorey in areas that have been most altered by grazing or fire [
59
]. The pine trees here are
from reforestation efforts, although on the Montaña Reventada lava flows they are much more widely
spaced, and some natural saplings may be seen. Reforestation was made possible by the layer of
pyroclasts from historical eruptions (Chinyero 1909) which partially covered the Montaña Reventada
lava flows.
Along the different stops on this route, visitors will notice that the pine trees have very dark trunks
due to the effect of forest fires in the area. There are two main reasons for these fires: the first is the
abandonment of traditional forestry practices that had previously reduced dry biomass in the forests,
and the second, closely linked to the first, is the high temperatures on the islands’ uplands when
Saharan winds sweep across them [
60
]. Furthermore, in addition to the reasons given above, it should
be borne in mind that most fires are caused by humans and are due to negligence or are intentional.
5.5. Stop 5: Chinyero Pyroclastic Field. 28◦17’42.33” N 16◦45’9.50” W
From this stop the most significant landforms are the Montaña Reventada lava flows, the small
scoria cone from the 1909 eruption, the Chinyero lava flows that advanced southwards and the large
field of pyroclasts located to the east of the main volcanic cone. The lava from Montaña Reventada is
characterised by its ‘aa’ surface morphology and a layer of lapilli originating from Chinyero. In the
southern lava field formed during the last eruption, the most outstanding features are the ‘aa’ lava,
also buried by lapilli from the explosive phases, and a range of hydromagmatic hornitos located
above the lava in the south-eastern sector of the volcanic edifice, created by interaction of the lava
with water. With regard to the pyroclastic surfaces that characterise this section, there are striking
features associated with torrential erosion, slope dynamics and aeolian processes. Torrential erosion
has created a number of shallow grooves on the eastern walls of the main cone. The landforms linked
to the processes of gravity are found in the talus slopes at the base of the main cone of Chinyero,
while those linked to the action of the wind are found in the ripples on the lapilli layers found in this
area. At this point, it is impossible to ignore the spectacular views of the Teide-Pico Viejo summit,
the Roques Blancos dome and the field of monogenetic volcanoes on the ridge, the closest of which,
such as Montaña Liferfe, are partly covered by lapilli from Chinyero. It is also possible to see a small
cone formed by the accumulation of scoria located to the south of the fissure. On the pyroclastic
surfaces, there is a very widely spread pine forest typical of these substrates, with specimens of varying
sizes, which are indicative of a more natural origin. At this stop, the plant species found growing in
this pine forest is Scrophularia glabrata.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 19 of 25
5.6. Stop 6: Montaña Reventada Lava Channel. 28◦18’3.90” N 16◦45’42.04” W
This section runs along the branch of the Reventada lava flow that advanced towards the NW.
In terms of volcanic morphology, a lava channel can be identified in which the levees and the ‘aa’
lava flow of scoriaceous, chaotic morphology, also partially covered with layers of lapilli, are easily
recognisable. This lava channel also shows the characteristic spatial distribution of the vegetation that
colonises these lava formations, determined by the changing features of the substrate: the lava levees
have a more regular substrate given their residual character, which allows pine trees (Pinus canariensis)
to colonise these sectors and attain greater density and height. On the other hand, on the scoriaceous
bed there are scattered clumps of Bystropogon origanifolius,Aeonium spathulatum,Scrophularia glabrata,
Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolius, Rumex maderensis,Avena fatua, not to mention pioneer
lichens that colonise volcanic terrain, such as Stereocaulon vesuvianum (Figure 10).
5.7. Stop 7: Chinyero Northern Lava Field. 28◦17’42.88” N 16◦45’49.77” W
This stop has good views towards the north-west of the Abeque highlands where volcanic cones
such as Montaña de La Cruz and Montaña Los Poleos can be seen. Visitors will also be able to view the
denser pine forests that colonise these volcanic peaks.
The most characteristic landforms in this sector are the recent lava flows of Montaña Reventada
and Chinyero. However, it is over the latter that most of this section of the path runs. This is the
northern branch of the lava flow from 1909. Its surface morphology is predominantly ‘aa’, with scoria
and very irregular blocks, and where it is possible to identify lava channels and levees, striations, some
accretionary lava balls and numerous erratics that were fragments of the volcanic edifice carried along
by the lava flows (Figure 9). In addition to these types of lava flows, some examples of pahoehoe lava
with lobes and ropey surface shapes can be identified.
The most striking feature of the vegetation on the historical lava flows is the presence of the lichen
Stereocaulon vesuvianum. The relatively young age of the lava and the local climate mean that the scant
vegetation is almost exclusively confined to the thallophyte group. The aforementioned lichen thrives
under the constant influence of the humid trade winds and only succeeds in forming a dense coverage
in a few areas, where it gives the volcanic material a strikingly whitish colour.
5.8. Stop 8: Montaña de La Cruz. 28◦17’40.79” N 16◦45’55.21” W
At this stop we find the Montaña de la Cruz landscape unit: the volcanic edifice that split the
main lava flow from Chinyero into two separate streams. It is a volcanic cone which is estimated to be
around 5000–6000 years old [
55
]; it is a medium-size, Strombolian volcano composed of pyroclastic
material, mainly bombs and lapilli, with a typical horseshoe morphology [
35
]. It has a crater open to the
NNE and emitted ‘aa’ lava flows towards the west which are partially buried by more recent volcanic
materials such as those that were ejected by the Montaña Reventada. At present, the landforms and
features associated with eruptive dismantling of this edifice are related on the one hand to torrential
processes, with the formation of small gullies in the crater and on the dorsal side of the volcanic edifice,
and on the other hand to gravity, with talus deposits on the walls of the mouth of the volcano and on
the external base of the volcanic cone, where significant deposits of volcanic bombs can also be seen.
In the cone of Montaña de la Cruz there is a track that reaches the summit and from which visitors will
enjoy more panoramic views of the peaks of the Abeque ridge, which once again will allow them to
identify the geography of the landscapes that characterise these volcanic uplands (Figure 11). On this
volcano, the pine forest has been restored and is very densely populated. The absence of young pine
trees is noteworthy and is indicative of forest dynamics coming to a standstill.
Geosciences 2020,10, 453 20 of 25
Geosciences 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25
Scrophularia glabrata, Chamaecytisus proliferus subsp. angustifolius, Rumex maderensis, Avena fatua, not
to mention pioneer lichens that colonise volcanic terrain, such as Stereocaulon vesuvianum (Figure 10).
5.7. Stop 7: Chinyero Northern Lava Field. 28°17’42.88” N 16°45’49.77” W
This stop has good views towards the north-west of the Abeque highlands where volcanic cones
such as Montaña de La Cruz and Montaña Los Poleos can be seen. Visitors will also be able to view
the denser pine fore</