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Efficient and secure routing protocol based on Blockchain approach for wireless sensor networks
Abstract
Embedded systems and wireless sensor networks (WSN) are found today in increasingly critical areas of applications. They have become integrated and embedded in nearly all aspects of everyday life, including manufacturing, healthcare, education, critical infrastructure, and entertainment. The number of connected devices continues to grow, and due to the insecure nature of these devices, the amount of risk continues to grow as well. These risks, however, can be mitigated with the creation and adoption of WSN security standards developed to create an environment of safety, security, and confidence in the technology. Designing the security policy for WSNs requires asking some preliminary questions. These questions are particularly important in the case of WSNs because their use is highly decentralized. Blockchain's ability on governing decentralized networks makes it especially suitable for designing a self‐managing system on WSN devices. This article proposes a routing protocol that uses Blockchain technology to offer a shared memory between the network's nodes. The simulation results have shown that this solution could be applicable and could resolve the issues cited above.
... Protecting the network routing process using a BC was the focus of the work in [141,144,145]. The authors of [144] proposed a BC-based routing protocol that uses a BC to store the network's activities and broadcast the status of the nodes. ...
... Protecting the network routing process using a BC was the focus of the work in [141,144,145]. The authors of [144] proposed a BC-based routing protocol that uses a BC to store the network's activities and broadcast the status of the nodes. In [144], the aim of the authors was to secure the route determination process by avoiding untrusted nodes and to resolve the load-balancing issues associated with routing. ...
... The authors of [144] proposed a BC-based routing protocol that uses a BC to store the network's activities and broadcast the status of the nodes. In [144], the aim of the authors was to secure the route determination process by avoiding untrusted nodes and to resolve the load-balancing issues associated with routing. The authors of [141] proposed using the a BC-block approach with flow routing tables instead of converting the entire SDN-enabled WSN network to a BC network, thereby preventing tampering with flow entries. ...
As an Internet of Things (IoT) technological key enabler, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are prone to different kinds of cyberattacks. WSNs have unique characteristics, and have several limitations which complicate the design of effective attack prevention and detection techniques. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles underlying cybersecurity in WSNs. In addition to current and envisioned solutions that have been studied in detail, this review primarily focuses on state-of-the-art Machine Learning (ML) and Blockchain (BC) security techniques by studying and analyzing 171 up-to-date publications highlighting security aspect in WSNs. Then, the paper discusses integrating BC and ML towards developing a lightweight security framework that consists of two lines of defence, i.e, cyberattack detection and cyberattack prevention in WSNs, emphasizing the relevant design insights and challenges. The paper concludes by presenting a proposed integrated BC and ML solution highlighting potential BC and ML algorithms underpinning a less computationally demanding solution.
... BC based user Authentication [149] MicrothingsChain [150] BC-based security-driven Routing framework [151] Shared memory, BC-based secure and efficient RP [152] LW-BC assisted secure routing of UAS [153] Prevention of software failures. Pdash [157] BC-based Secure storage [158] Design principles for DM [159] BlockTDM [160] BC and DRL based DM [161] event and query-based services. ...
... However, the frequent calculations of trust values lead to substantial computational power, bringing overheads in the system, which must be addressed without compromising the model's security. In [152], the authors propose a routing protocol for the wireless sensor network that uses BCT to make routing more efficient and secure. The nodes present in the network are treated as the coins, and the routing path for the message is treated as the transaction, which is subsequently added to the BC. ...
... In [151], the frequent calculations of trust values lead to substantial computational power, bringing overheads to the system. In [152], complex calculations are involved in finding routes that increase the computational overhead and network cost. In [154], the analysis of bandwidth consumption by the IPFS-based storage is not given, which is important, especially in the case of metered connections. ...
... Blockchain technology is a secure, decentralized, and tamperproof way of managing transactions and data in WSNs, making it a better choice than other optimization techniques for secure cluster-based routing. Hence, Lazrag et al. [32] used Blockchain to communicate network activity in real-time and improve the routing. This method enhances the routing phase's security while lowering interference levels and better balancing traffic load. ...
... Slow convergence rates and reduced reliability and accuracy due to complex network topologies Lazrag et al. [32], 2021 ...
In the context of Internet of Things (IoT)-based Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) for smart agriculture, ensuring efficient resource utilization, prolonged network lifespan and robust security mechanisms is paramount. This paper addresses these challenges by introducing an optimized secure cluster-based routing protocol with blockchain. The algorithm initiates with node ID assignment, followed by the use of Distributed Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (DFCM) to select Cluster Heads (CHs) based on energy, proximity to the Base Station (BS) and neighbor count. DFCM aims for balanced CH distribution to optimize energy usage. The secure routing protocol, employing Earthworm-based Deer Hunting Optimization Algorithm (EW-DHOA) and blockchain, ensures reliable data transmission. Through extensive comparative analyses with existing techniques, including GA-PSO, CI-ROA, ACI-GSO and P-WWO, our approach consistently outperforms in critical parameters. At varying node densities, the proposed method demonstrates a substantial improvement in network lifetime, achieving a 60% increase over GA-PSO and maintaining a superior average of 3200 rounds. Energy consumption is notably reduced, with a 33.3% improvement compared to GA-PSO at a density of 100 nodes. The packet delivery ratio reaches 98%, showcasing a 4% enhancement over the best-performing existing technique P-WWO. Throughput at a density of 500 nodes achieves an impressive 33.3% increase, reaching 0.8 Mbps. Notably, our methodology excels in preserving active nodes, sustaining a network lifetime of 66.7% more than competing techniques at the 3500th round. The proposed approach demonstrates a higher detection rate, ranging from 75% to 90% and exhibits a significantly higher convergence rate. Therefore, our Optimized Secure Cluster-Based Routing Protocol with Blockchain-Based Integrity Checking presents a comprehensive and superior solution for enhancing the efficiency, resilience and security of WSNs in smart agriculture.
... Most of the protected protocols offer defines against replay and routing table poisoning attacks, although they lack substantial defines. [24][25][26][27] To handle increased overhead, the proof of work concept is used by the current BC-based routing methods to validate transactions. The proposed method uses PoA for verification instead of earlier protocols, which requires less computation because it depends on fewer key nodes (validators). ...
... Lazrag et al. 26 introduced the capability of BC based on prevailing identified networks, which makes it particularly suitable to model a self-managing system on the device of WSNs. Currently, the WSN with embedded systems have been identified as the most potential application components. ...
A fundamental component of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is routing, because it is responsible for data transmission to the base stations (BS). Routing attacks are attacks that have the ability to interfere with the operation of WSN. A reliable routing system is needed for guaranteeing routing security including WSN effectiveness. Many studies have been conducted to improve trust among routing nodes, cryptographic algorithms and centralized routing decisions. Nevertheless, most of the routing techniques are not practical because it is challenging to detect suspicious actions of routing nodes. Generally, there is lack of reliable technique for preventing malicious node attacks. Therefore in this manuscript, Cycle‐Consistent Generative Adversarial Network (CCGAN) optimized with Ebola Optimization Search Algorithm (EOSA) and Crypto Hash Signature (CHS) Token‐based Block chain (BC) Technology for Data Aggregation with Secured Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (SR‐CCGAN‐EOSA‐BDA‐WSN) is proposed for data aggregation with secured optimum routing in WSN. The proposed methodology uses a Proof of Authority (PoA) method in the block chain network to authenticate the process of node transmission. A Cycle‐Consistent Generative Adversarial Network optimized with the Ebola optimization algorithm methodology (CCGAN‐EOSA) is used to select the validation group required for proofing and select the proper next hop as a forwarding node proficient of securely and easily transmitting messages. The performance metrics, like delay, average latency with energy consumption, block chain token transactions throughput is analyzed. The performance of SR‐CCGAN‐EOSA‐BDAWSN proposed method provides 76.26%, 65.57%, and 42.9% lesser delay under 30% spiteful routing environment; 73.06% are compared with existing methods.
... Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) has evolved into one of the promising technologies utilized in the current ecosphere [1]. WSN observes the environments in which it may be placed for collecting data and can identify variations in observing regions of humidity, temperature, sound, vibration pressure, motion, and intensity [2]. ...
... Now, r 3 denotes the number of searching cycles ranging from [1,20], D 1 encompassed integer numbers from 1 to D dimension, x corresponding to 0.005. ...
... To confirm the efficacy of the BC-EEAHNBOA-CP-WSN method, the following metrics is examined [38][39][40]. ...
Security and energy efficiency are regarded as the significant problems in the pervasive wireless networks. Since widespread wireless networks rely on battery-operated nodes, it is necessary to progress an energy-efficient scheme to lower energy consumption and increase the networks lifespan. The existing approaches fail to accomplish both objectives at the same time. Therefore, this paper proposes a Blockchain abetted Energy Efficient Archerfish Hunting and Namib Beetle Optimization Algorithm espoused Clustering Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network (BC-EEAHNBOA-CP-WSN). The proposed method operates in two phases: (i) determining the optimal cluster heads, (ii) determining the optimal trust path. The Archerfish Hunting Optimizer and Namib Beetle Optimization Algorithm are used to precisely select the cluster heads, while the optimized trust paths are secured using blockchain technology. This paper combines the development of Energy Efficient Archerfish Hunting and Namib Beetle Optimization Algorithm (EEAHNBOA) with blockchain-enabled secure data transmission, introduces a clustering method based on AFHO-NBOA for efficient cluster head selection using a fitness function that incorporates energy, node density, neighboring nodes' distance, and sink distance, and ensures safe data transfer between cluster members and cluster heads using blockchain. The proposed BC-EEAHNBOA-CP-WSN approach is executed in MATLAB 2018a, its effectiveness is examined using metrics. The results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves a 23.31%, 45.16%, and 18.72% higher packet delivery ratio, and a 15.56%, 47.31%, and 19.96% longer network lifetime compared to existing methods. By fusing blockchain technology with sophisticated optimization algorithms, this research advances the state of the art by improving WSN security and energy efficiency. The implications of this work suggest significant improvements in the lifespan and reliability of wireless sensor networks, which are crucial for a wide range of applications.
... Using FSA-based generative adversarial capsule network optimization and CHS token-based block chain technology, safe dynamic optimal routing for WSN is suggested in this part. 37,38 Figure 1 shows the proposed SDOR-SA-GAC-FSA-CHS-BWSN methodology. This workflow is based on a self-attention-based generative adversarial capsule network. ...
One of the key strategies in wireless sensor network (WSN) for sending data packets to the base station (BC) is known as routing. However, malicious node outbreaks will occur, which exaggerate the functions of WSNs during the routing procedure. A secure routing protocol is necessary to protect the effectiveness of WSN and routing fortification. In real‐time scenarios, the existing routing protocol is volatile dynamically; it makes difficult to identify the performance of unprotected routing nodes. In this manuscript, a unique routing strategy is proposed for secured dynamic optimal routing (SDOR) in WSN that combines block chain technology optimized with a generative adversarial capsule network. Every routing sensor node contains a secret key, which is used to construct a crypto hash signature (CHS) token for flow access. The proposed block chain‐based WSN is used to provide SDOR information using a self‐attention‐based generative adversarial capsule network that is improved using the flamingo search algorithm. Following that, the security on the proposed block chain WSN is assessed from six angles. Block chain token transactions are evaluated using measures including average latency, average energy usage, and throughput. The proposed SDOR‐SA‐GAC‐FSA‐CHS‐BWSN delivers 53.87%, 42.57%, and 32.87% lower average packet delay, 28.97%, 37.73%, and 34.75% lesser identification time analyzed to the existing methods, such as trusted distributed routing scheme for WSNs using block chain (SDOR‐DCNN‐SSOA‐BWSN), secure authentication with DSM‐KL ascertained presentation optimization of hybrid block chain‐enabled model for multi‐WSN (SDOR‐DSM‐KL‐BWSN), and optimizing the valid transaction utilizing reinforcement learning‐based block chain ecosystem in WSN (SDOR‐RIL‐BWSN).
... The review is based on the publication of a paper in the fields of power efficiency, securitybased delay, error-free protocol, and cluster-based computing. The majority of the paper was based on the cluster formation and the power efficiency upgrade of the network [32][33][34][35][36][37]. ...
WSN consist of tiny sensors that are distributed over the entire network and have the capability of sensing the data, processing it, and conveying it from one node to another. The purpose of the study is to minimize the power utilization per round and elevate the network lifespan. In the present case, nature-inspired mechanisms are used to minimize the power utilization of the network. In the proposed study, the Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (BOA) is used to choose the optimal quantity of cluster heads from the dense nodes (available nodes). The parameters to be considered for the choice of the cluster head are: the remaining power of the node; distance from the other nodes in the network; distance from the base station; node centrality; and node degree. The particle swarm optimization (PSO) is used to form the cluster head by choosing certain parameters, such as distance from the cluster head and the BS. The path is chosen by means of the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Mechanism. The route is optimized by the distance, node degree, and the chosen remaining power. The inclusive performance of the projected protocol is measured in terms of stability period, quantity of active nodes, data acknowledged by the base station, and overall power utilization of the network. The results of the put redirect methodology are correlated with the extant mechanisms such as LEACH, DEEC, DDEEC, and EDEEC (Khan et al. in World Appl Sci J, 2013; Arora and Singh in Soft Comput 23:715–734, 2019; Saini and Sharma in 2010 First international conference on parallel, distributed and grid computing (PDGC 2010), 2010; Elbhiri et al. in 2010 5th International symposium on I/V communications and mobile network, 2010) and correlated with the swarm mechanisms such as CRHS, BERA, FUCHAR, ALOC, CPSO, and FLION. This review will help investigators discover the applications in this arena.
... Blockchain can also be used for securing routing information in the network, the work in Lazrag et al. (2020) proposes a trust-based model for initially evaluating high security routes for data communication. Trust levels are evaluated using the following equation, ...
... 7 To reduce the limitation, the sensor nodes are clustered to gather data before transmitting it to the base station. 8 Data aggregation is the process of combining all data in a more energy-efficient way. 9 WSNs sometimes contain redundant data, which means many sensors are used to sense the environment. ...
A secure routing scheme plays an integral role in ensuring the secure routing and efficiency of the wireless sensor networks. Recently, many studies have been undertaken to improve the data aggregation process, data security, and routing security. However, these approaches are highly suffered due to major limitations like time complexity, malicious attacks, and data insecurity. This research aims to develop an improved blockchain based encryption scheme for secure routing in wireless sensor networks using machine learning techniques. An improved artificial quantum beetle swarm neural network approach is proposed to perform the data aggregation among the sensor nodes. The cosine equivalent function and packet density correlation degree approach is emphasized to perform clustering in sensor nodes. Cluster head (CH) is selected based on the similarity of each sensor node. The Kalman filtering technique is introduced to filter out the data from unwanted malicious. This technique helps to filter the data before it is sent to the CH. Blockchain‐based encryption scheme is emphasized to secure the data efficiently. This approach helps prevent malicious attacks by securing the data more effectively. The differential evaluation based firefly routing protocol is presented to maintain correct secure routing. This approach helps to choose the optimal routing for the protected data transmission. Performance metrics such as latency, throughput, routing performance, energy consumption, FPR, blockchain (BC) computational performance, dead sensor count, and average hop count are analyzed and compared with existing techniques. In an experimental scenario, the proposed approach achieves a maximum packet delay of 500 slots, throughput of 581 times/s, the latency of 0.31 ms, the computation complexity of 0.6, and routing complexity of 2081 ms with a BC computation time of 95 ms. The performance of the proposed approach shows a better result than other existing approaches. image
... A routing technique that offers a shared memory across the network's nodes by utilizing blockchain technology has been demonstrated by Hilmi Lazrag et al. [27]. The technology is quite young; it originally gained popularity in the world of cryptocurrencies, and recently, it has been used in numerous industries where it has demonstrated its effectiveness. ...
For the past few years, centralized decision-making is being used for malicious node identification in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Generally, WSN is the primary technology used to support operations, and security issues are becoming progressively worse. In order to detect malicious nodes in WSN, a blockchain-routing- and trust-model-based jellyfish search optimizer (BCR-TM-JSO) is created. Additionally, it provides the complete trust-model architecture before creating the blockchain data structure that is used to identify malicious nodes. For further analysis, sensor nodes in a WSN collect environmental data and communicate them to the cluster heads (CHs). JSO is created to address this issue by replacing CHs with regular nodes based on the maximum remaining energy, degree, and closeness to base station. Moreover, the Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA) mechanism provides an asymmetric key, which is exploited for securing data transmission. The simulation outcomes show that the proposed BCR-TM-JSO model is capable of identifying malicious nodes in WSNs. Furthermore, the proposed BCR-TM-JSO method outperformed the conventional blockchain-based secure routing and trust management (BSRTM) and distance degree residual-energy-based low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (DDR-LEACH), in terms of throughput (5.89 Mbps), residual energy (0.079 J), and packet-delivery ratio (89.29%).
... Blockchain can also be used for securing routing information in the network, the work in Lazrag et al. (2020) proposes a trust-based model for initially evaluating high security routes for data communication. Trust levels are evaluated using the following equation, ...
... The secured route required for broadcasting the data packet was defined with the chosen CH utilizing the PSO based cellular automata with fitness measures. Lazrag et al. [13] present a routing protocol which utilizes Blockchain system for offering a shared memory amongst the network nodes. Alotaibi [14] establishes a novel secured routing method by applying a better way chosen and encrypted. ...
In Wireless sensor network (WSN) is a different type of ad-hoc network has of battery powered minimum cost sensor node with restricted computation and communication abilities used densely from a target region. The routing in WSN roles is an essential part due to their inherent energy storing ability and is suitable to extremely scalable networks. The trust in WSN roles an essential play in creating the network and addition or deletion of sensor nodes in a network very smooth and translucent. The trust was formalized as a computational method. This study develops a novel Trust Aware Manta Ray Foraging Optimization based Secure Routing (TAMRFO-SR) protocol for WSN. The proposed TAMRFO-SR model accomplishes optimal and secure routes for WSN. In addition, the TAMRFO-SR model is mainly stimulated by the fascinating characteristics of manta rays. Besides, the TAMRFO-SR model derives a fitness function with multiple parameters for secure route selection process. Moreover, the inclusion of trust in the route selection process assists in accomplishing enhanced security. The design of TAMRFO-SR model for secure data transmission depicts the novelty of the study. The experimental validation of the TAMRFO-SR model demonstrates better performance over the other approaches.
... The review is done on the basis of paper publication in the area of power efficiency, security based, delay, error free protocol and the cluster-based. The most of the paper were based on the cluster formation and based on the power efficiency upgradient of the network [65][66][67][68][69][70]. ...
WSN consist of tiny sensors which are distributed over the entire network having capabilities of sensing the data, processing it and convey it from one node to another node. The purpose of the study is to minimize the power utilization per round and elevate the network lifespan. In the present case, the nature inspired mechanisms are used to minimize the power utilization of the network. In the proposed study Butterfly Optimization Mechanism is used to choose the optimum quantity of CH from the dense nodes. The parameter is to be considered for the choosing of the CH is the remaining power of the node, interspace from the other nodes in the network, interspace from the BS, node centrality and node degree. The PSO is used to form the CH by choosing certain parameters such as interspace from the CH and the BS. The path is choosing by means of the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Mechanism. The route is optimized by the interspace, node degree and the choose remaining power. The inclusive performance of the projected protocol is measured in terms of stability period, quantity of active nodes, data acknowledged by the BS and the overall power utilization of the network. The results of the put redirect methodology are correlated with the extant mechanisms such as LEACH, DEEC, DDEEC, EDEEC [50–53] and also correlated with the swarm mechanisms such as CRHS, BERA, FUCHAR, ALOC, CPSO, FLION. This review will help investigators to discover the applications in this arena.
... Blockchain's ability on governing decentralized networks makes it especially suitable for designing a selfmanaging system (Lazrag et al. 2020). It can ensure the data is stored and updated in a secure, tamper-proof and irreversible way, and further facilitates data sharing and system management securely and efficiently without the endorsement from a central authority (Upadhyay et al., 2021). ...
As the key component of Industry 4.0, IoT has been widely used in various fields of industry. But cloud-based data storage, computation, and communication in IoT cause many issues, such as transmission delay, single point of failure, and privacy disclosure. Moreover, the centralized access control in IoT constrains its availability and scalability. Blockchain is a decentralized, tamper-proof, trustless, transparent, and immutable append-only database. The integration of Blockchain and IoT technologies has led to robust distributed applications, including smart healthcare, smart finance, smart supply chain, smart cities, smart manufacturing, smart government, smart agriculture, smart transportation, smart education, smart e-commerce, and smart grid. Blockchain should be consolidated with 5G and artificial intelligence to tackle the challenges associated with digital transformation in Industry 4.0.
... Lesson learned: Blockchain is the latest decentralised distributed system technology designed and invented which included the Merkle trees for digital timestamps by Bayer, Haber & Stornetta (1993). Proof of work, asymmetric cryptography, electronic signatures, and hash functions are all used in blockchain technology (Lazrag et al., 2020). ...
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) have been among the most prevalent wireless innovations over the years exciting new Internet of Things (IoT) applications. IoT based WSN integrated with Internet Protocol IP allows any physical objects with sensors to be connected ubiquitously and send real-time data to the server connected to the Internet gate. Security in WSN remains an ongoing research trend that falls under the IoT paradigm. A WSN node deployed in a hostile environment is likely to open security attacks such as Sybil attack due to its distributed architecture and network contention implemented in the routing protocol. In a Sybil attack, an adversary illegally advertises several false identities or a single identity that may occur at several locations called Sybil nodes. Therefore, in this paper, we give a survey of the most up-to-date assured methods to defend from the Sybil attack. The Sybil attack countermeasures includes encryption, trust, received signal indicator (RSSI), encryption and artificial intelligence. Specifically, we survey different methods, along with their advantages and disadvantages, to mitigate the Sybil attack. We discussed the lesson learned and the future avenues of study and open issues in WSN security analysis. Subjects Computer Networks and Communications, Security and Privacy
... The contribution by Lazrag et al., "Efficient and secure routing protocol based on Blockchain approach for wireless sensor networks," proposes a routing protocol that uses Blockchain technology to offer a shared memory between the network's nodes. 10 The simulation results have shown that this solution could be applicable and could resolve the issues cited above. ...
... Moreover, the successful block chain leads to minimal data loss. At the same time, 100 percent successful block chain may give little data loss due to other environmental problems in open wireless network [36]. The detailed experiment analysis and comparison details ensure that the proposed GBCRP has strong reliability and stability features to build the secure block chain based routing framework. ...
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) contain multiple wireless sensor nodes deployed around the geographical locations. The WSN used in military applications need more security and hence the deployment of trustworthy nodes and links in WSN provides more secure data transmission in Decentralized Military Sensor Networks (DMSNs). Moreover, the DMSNs work with different set of significance constraints including higher security requirements. The design of DMSNs targets surveillance tasks, intruder tracking tasks, army resource maintenance tasks and communication security requirements. Therefore, building a secure and dynamic DMSN against multiple threats is a challenging task. In addition, security principles developed for DMSN cause excessive energy consumption. Moreover, DMSN has completely open distributed architecture without having any base stations. Under this situation, the need for effective and secured data communication can be achieved with the help of a secure routing protocol. Block chains are generally used for making secure financial transactions. However, the routing protocols used in DMSN can support autonomous routing transactions from one node to other node. In this situation, block chain enabled routing procedures can ensure the trustworthiness of any data that is forwarded through different sensor nodes. Hence, a new Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) based Block Chain enabled secured Routing Protocol (GBCRP) is proposed in this paper which authenticates and validates the ongoing routing procedures of DMSN. Moreover, a new intrusion detection system is also proposed in this work using GAN which is deployed in the nodes of the DMSN for enhancing the security of communication. Since block chain based routing protocols do not provide security, the GBCRP works for creating volatile block chains using decentralized authentication principles and effective intrusion detection. The proposed system uses a Fully Decentralized Generative Adversarial Network (FDGAN) for monitoring the secure routing transactions by the development of an intrusion detection system. The results obtained from this work show that the proposed GBCRP providing better secured routing compared to the existing systems with respect to security, energy consumption and routing metrics.
... Therefore, it is easy to cause the problem of node misjudgment. Lazrag et al. proposed a method of data security sharing based on blockchain technology for distributed devices [24]. Although the method solves the problem of data security transmission, it does not make a reasonable evaluation of node security. ...
Ad hoc network is a special network with centerless and dynamic topology. Due to the free mobility of the nodes, routing security has been a bottleneck problem that plagues its development. Therefore, a multi-path QoS (quality of service) routing security algorithm based on blockchain by improving the traditional AODV (ad hoc on-demand distance vector) protocol (AODV-MQS) is proposed. Firstly, a chain of nodes is established in the network and the states of all nodes by making the intermediate nodes on the chain are saved. Secondly, the smart contract in the blockchain is set to filter out the nodes that meet the QoS constraints. Finally, two largest unrelated communication paths are found in the blockchain network through smart contract, one of which is the main path and the other is the standby path. Simulation experiments show that the performance of the proposed algorithm is better than other algorithms, especially in an unsafe environment.
... Therefore, it is easy to cause the problem of node misjudgment. Lazrag et al. proposed a method of data security sharing based on blockchain technology for distributed devices [24]. Although the method solves the problem of data security transmission, it does not make a reasonable evaluation of node security. ...
Ad Hoc network is a special network with centerless and dynamic topology. Due to the free mobility of the nodes, routing security has been a bottleneck problem that plagues its development. Therefore, a multi-path QoS (Quality of Service) routing security algorithm based on blockchain by improving the traditional AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) protocol (AODV-MQS) is proposed. Firstly, a chain of nodes is established in the network and the states of all nodes by making the intermediate nodes on the chain are saved. Secondly, the smart contract in the blockchain is set to filter out the nodes that meet the QoS constraints. Finally, two largest unrelated communication paths are found in the blockchain network through smart contract, one of which is the main path and the other is the standby path. Simulation experiments show that the performance of the proposed algorithm is better than other algorithms, especially in an unsafe environment.
This paper highlights the crucial role of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in the surveillance and administration of critical infrastructures (CIs), contributing to their reliability, security, and operational efficiency. It starts by detailing the international significance and structural aspects of these infrastructures, mentions the market tension in recent years in the gradual development of wireless networks for industrial applications, and proceeds to categorize WSNs and examine the protocols and standards of WSNs in demanding environments like critical infrastructures, drawing on the recent literature. This review concentrates on the protocols and standards utilized in WSNs for critical infrastructures, and it concludes by identifying a notable gap in the literature concerning quality standards for equipment used in such infrastructures.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of large number of small and low-cost devices equipped with sensing and communication facilities to monitor the environment. The collected data are transmitted to one or more base stations which can attach to other networks and/or databases. WSNs show particular promises in applications that involve complex, human-made systems such as underground mines, factory and industrial installation. In this paper, smart sensor network architecture for temperature and fire monitoring in underground mine is evaluated. Based on application requirements and site surveys, we develop a general architecture for this class of industrial applications. The architecture is based on multiple complementary wireless communications access networks between the environment and external environment, by using IEEE802.15/ZigBee, IEEE 802.11 and the Internet.
A trusted routing scheme is very important to ensure the routing security and efficiency of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). There are a lot of studies on improving the trustworthiness between routing nodes, using cryptographic systems, trust management, or centralized routing decisions, etc. However, most of the routing schemes are difficult to achieve in actual situations as it is difficult to dynamically identify the untrusted behaviors of routing nodes. Meanwhile, there is still no effective way to prevent malicious node attacks. In view of these problems, this paper proposes a trusted routing scheme using blockchain and reinforcement learning to improve the routing security and efficiency for WSNs. The feasible routing scheme is given for obtaining routing information of routing nodes on the blockchain, which makes the routing information traceable and impossible to tamper with. The reinforcement learning model is used to help routing nodes dynamically select more trusted and efficient routing links. From the experimental results, we can find that even in the routing environment with 50% malicious nodes, our routing scheme still has a good delay performance compared with other routing algorithms. The performance indicators such as energy consumption and throughput also show that our scheme is feasible and effective.
In this paper, we propose a novel blockchain-based contractual routing (BCR) protocol for a network of untrusted IoT devices. In contrast to conventional secure routing protocols in which a central authority (CA) is required to facilitate the identification and authentication of each device, the BCR protocol operates in a distributed manner with no CA. The BCR protocol utilizes smart contracts to discover a route to a destination or data gateway within heterogeneous IoT networks. Any intermediary device can guarantee a route from a source IoT device to a destination device or gateway. We compare the performance of BCR with that of the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol in a network of 14 devices. The results show that the routing overhead of the BCR protocol is 5 times lower compared to AODV at the cost of a slightly lower packet delivery ratio. BCR is fairly resistant to both Blackhole and Greyhole attacks. The results show that the BCR protocol enables distributed routing in heterogeneous IoT networks.
Objectives:
To introduce blockchain technologies, including their benefits, pitfalls, and the latest applications, to the biomedical and health care domains.
Target audience:
Biomedical and health care informatics researchers who would like to learn about blockchain technologies and their applications in the biomedical/health care domains.
Scope:
The covered topics include: (1) introduction to the famous Bitcoin crypto-currency and the underlying blockchain technology; (2) features of blockchain; (3) review of alternative blockchain technologies; (4) emerging nonfinancial distributed ledger technologies and applications; (5) benefits of blockchain for biomedical/health care applications when compared to traditional distributed databases; (6) overview of the latest biomedical/health care applications of blockchain technologies; and (7) discussion of the potential challenges and proposed solutions of adopting blockchain technologies in biomedical/health care domains.
In this technological era, every person, authorities, entrepreneurs, businesses, and many things around us are connected to the internet, forming Internet of thing (IoT). This generates a massive amount of diverse data with very high-speed, termed as big data. However, this data is very useful that can be used as an asset for the businesses, organizations, and authorities to predict future in various aspects. However, efficiently processing Big Data while making real-time decisions is a quite challenging task. Some of the tools like Hadoop are used for Big Datasets processing. On the other hand, these tools could not perform well in the case of real-time high-speed stream processing. Therefore, in this paper, we proposed an efficient and real-time Big Data stream processing approach while mapping Hadoop MapReduce equivalent mechanism on graphics processing units (GPUs). We integrated a parallel and distributed environment of Hadoop ecosystem and a real-time streaming processing tool, i.e., Spark with GPU to make the system more powerful in order to handle the overwhelming amount of high-speed streaming. We designed a MapReduce equivalent algorithm for GPUs for a statistical parameter calculation by dividing overall Big Data files into fixed-size blocks. Finally, the system is evaluated while considering the efficiency aspect (processing time and throughput) using (1) large-size city traffic video data captured by static as well as moving vehicles’ cameras while identifying vehicles and (2) large text-based files, like twitter data files, structural data, etc. Results show that the proposed system working with Spark on top and GPUs under the parallel and distributed environment of Hadoop ecosystem is more efficient and real-time as compared to existing standalone CPU-based MapReduce implementation.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are considered as a suitable solution for long-time and large-scale outdoor environmental monitoring. However, an important feature that distinguishes the WSNs from traditional monitoring systems is their energy constraints. In fact, these nodes have often a limited and usually nonreplenishable power source. Therefore managing these limited resources is a key challenge. In this paper we use an optimization scheme based on adaptive modulation and power control for a green routing protocol. The optimization mechanism is subject to certain QoS requirements in terms of total end-to-end delay time and bit error rate. The simulation results show that the proposed algorithm can, theoretically, reduce the consumed energy of the sensor nodes almost to half.
The advancement in wireless communications and electronics has enabled the development of low-cost sensor networks. The sensor networks can be used for various application areas (e.g., health, military, home). For different application areas, there are different technical issues that researchers are currently resolving. The current state of the art of sensor networks is captured in this article, where solutions are discussed under their related protocol stack layer sections. This article also points out the open research issues and intends to spark new interests and developments in this field.
The rising population and cost of medical services triggered the new technologies including Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) based on smart and intelligent biosensors nodes for sensing and monitoring the patient vital signs. The biosensor nodes have implanted inside or outside the human body to send the medical information to medical centers. For data dissemination in these services, different types of solutions and model have been designed to address the interference, body movement, disconnection quality of services issues in the network. This paper presents an Energy Aware Routing (EAR) protocol to minimize energy utilization and select preferable next hop by evaluating the link quality of sensor nodes. The proposed protocol evaluates the energy level, link quality, and remaining energy level to balance the load, minimize the energy utilization, and enhance the data transmission. Various simulations have conducted to evaluate the proposed protocols performance in terms of energy consumption, data delivery, delay, and data throughput. Experimental results indicated that the proposed protocol has a better mechanism for date routing and better solution to minimize the energy of sensor nodes in WBANs.
A top view camera having wide range lens installed overhead of the objects contributes greatly towards resolving the tracking problem and also maintains comprehensive visual access of the environment. Video analytics becoming more important to Internet of Things (IoT) applications including automatic people monitoring and surveillance systems. We followed an approach based on machine learning features based person tracking algorithm in industrial environment. The algorithm implements simple motion detection framework through motion blobs. The algorithm, rHOG uses the history of already imaged/blobed population with the anticipated blob position of the person observed. We have compared our results, acquired through five varying test sequences, with established algorithms used for object tracking. The results highlight that our algorithm beats others tracking algorithms by greater margins. The accuracy depicted in our results shows 99% of accuracy compared to the last known best algorithm, the Mean Shift algorithm, yielding 48% accuracy in result. Furthermore, unlike other blob based tracking algorithms, our algorithm has additional property to discriminate any blob as a Person or No Person. Our proposed tracking algorithm has the additional advantage of detecting stationary person for a long time, handling occlusion, abrupt change in the environment and keeps performing the tracking by compensating for the gaps in data pertaining to all the frames. IEEE
A blockchain is an underlying technology and basic infrastructure of the Bitcoin system. At present, blockchains and their applications are developing rapidly. However, the basic research of blockchain technology is still in the early stages. The efficiency and reliability of blockchain communication is one of the research problems that urgently need to be studied and addressed. Existing algorithms may be less feasible for blockchain-based communication because they only consider a single communication factor (node communication capability or node trust degree) and only focus on a single communication performance parameter(communication time or communication reliability). In this paper, to shorten the validation time of blockchain transactions and improve the reliability of blockchain-based communication, we first establish a multi-link concurrent communication model based on trust degree, and then we propose a novel integrated factor communication tree algorithm (IFT). This algorithm comprehensively considers the node communication link number and the node trust degree and selects several nodes with powerful communication capacity and high trust as the communication sources to improve the concurrency and communication efficiency. Simulation results indicate that the IFT algorithm outperforms existing algorithms. A blockchain communication routing scheme based on the IFT algorithm can increase communication efficiency by ensuring communication reliability.
Bitcoin is an online communication protocol that facilitates the use of a virtual currency, including electronic payments. Bitcoin's rules were designed by engineers with no apparent influence from lawyers or regulators. Bitcoin is built on a transaction log that is distributed across a network of participating computers. It includes mechanisms to reward honest participation, to bootstrap acceptance by early adopters, and to guard against concentrations of power. Bitcoin's design allows for irreversible transactions, a prescribed path of money creation over time, and a public transaction history. Anyone can create a Bitcoin account, without charge and without any centralized vetting procedure—or even a requirement to provide a real name. Collectively, these rules yield a system that is understood to be more flexible, more private, and less amenable to regulatory oversight than other forms of payment—though as we discuss, all these benefits face important limits. Bitcoin is of interest to economists as a virtual currency with potential to disrupt existing payment systems and perhaps even monetary systems. This article presents the platform's design principles and properties for a nontechnical audience; reviews its past, present, and future uses; and points out risks and regulatory issues as Bitcoin interacts with the conventional financial system and the real economy.
Recent innovations have made it feasible to transfer private digital currency without the intervention of an organization such as a bank. Any currency must prevent users from spending their balances more than once, which is easier said than done with purely digital currencies. Current digital currencies such as Bitcoin use peer-to-peer networks and open source software to stop double spending and create finality of transactions. This paper explains how the use of these technologies and limitation of the quantity produced can create an equilibrium in which a digital currency has a positive value. This paper also summarizes the rise of 24/7 trading on computerized markets in Bitcoin in which there are no brokers or other agents. The average monthly volatility of returns on Bitcoin is higher than for gold or a set of foreign currencies in dollars, but the lowest monthly volatilities for Bitcoin are less than the highest monthly volatilities for gold and the foreign currencies.
Wireless Sensor networks (WSNs) are composed of small hardware devices that possess the ability to measure and exchange a variety of environmental data. In this paper, we measured the radio characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4 for wireless sensor networks. The system is mainly composed of mobile and static ZigBee nodes, which are deployed on the underground mine galleries. Based on measured data, we describe the link characteristics such as received signal strength, latency and throughput for different scenarios. We consider the impact of these findings on the design of WSN for monitoring applications in underground mines.
In this paper we propose a Reduced-Complexity Differential Evolution (DE) for localization of multi-hop sensor networks. In relatively smaller population size of DE algorithm (Np<50). We study scenarios where the nodes do not receive signal from anchors directly (i.e., multi-hop). The nodes with unknown positions use a new algorithm based on non-linear least squares (NLLS) method for deriving their estimated location. We consider the problem of minimizing a cost function based on distance measurements between these nodes and some definite anchors. We use Reduced Complexity Differential Evolution (RCDE) to find the global minimum of this cost function which corresponds to the nodes estimated coordinates. The main characteristic of the DE algorithm is that it can get close to the optimal solution with low complexity, if the steps of the algorithm are designed appropriately. In this paper we show that the DE optimization method can be used in ad hoc sensor networks to estimate the location of nodes accurately. The performance in terms of mean localization squared error is evaluated by simulations for different scenarios. The sensitivity of the estimated position to the uncertainty on distance measurements, radio transmission, and irregular area are also evaluated.
A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network. The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.
We consider a graph with n vertices, all pairs of which are connected by an edge; each edge is of given positive length. The following two basic problems are solved. Problem 1: construct the tree of minimal total length between the n vertices. (A tree is a graph with one and only one path between any two vertices.) Problem 2: find the path of minimal total length between two given vertices.
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) have attracted considerable interest in
recent years as a convenient, flexible and low cost alternative to wired
sensor in many contexts. Deployment of sensor nodes is a critical task
as deployment should be efficient to increase network lifetime. To
address this problem, a hierarchical architecture is employed. In this
paper, we propose an incremental deployment algorithm. By examining the
node position, and the sensing cover area, the proposed algorithm
indicates which position should deployed clusterheads and how many new
clusterhead are necessary to cover the desired monitoring area. A
comparison between the proposed algorithm with grid-based and augmenting
placement are analyzed.
With the emergence of pervasive 64 bit computing we observe that it is more cost effective to compute a SHA-512 than it is to compute a SHA-256 over a given size of data. We propose a standard way to use SHA-512 and truncate its output to 256 bits. For 64 bit architectures, this would yield a more efficient 256 bit hashing algorithm, than the current SHA-256. We call this method SHA-512/256. We also provide a method for reducing the size of the SHA-512 constants table that an implementation will need to store.
In this article we presented a little introduction to the elliptic curves and it use in the cryptography. We described the concepts of digital signature, we presented the algorithm ECDSA (Elliptic Curves Digital Signature Algorithm) and we make a parallel of this with DSA (Digital Signature Algorithm). Follow we presented an application developed with the purpose of using ECDSA. Finally we presented our conclusions about this algorithm. Resumo. Neste artigo apresentamos uma breve introdução às curvas elípticas e sua utilização na criptografia. Descrevemos os conceitos de assinatura digital, apresentamos o algoritmo ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm) e fazemos um paralelo deste com o DSA (Digital Signature Algorithm). Em seguida apresentamos uma aplicação desenvolvida com o propósito de utilizar o ECDSA. Finalmente apresentamos nossas conclusões sobre este algoritmo.
When n identical randomly located nodes, each capable of
transmitting at W bits per second and using a fixed range, form a
wireless network, the throughput λ(n) obtainable by each node for
a randomly chosen destination is Θ(W/√(nlogn)) bits per
second under a noninterference protocol. If the nodes are optimally
placed in a disk of unit area, traffic patterns are optimally assigned,
and each transmission's range is optimally chosen, the bit-distance
product that can be transported by the network per second is
Θ(W√An) bit-meters per second. Thus even under optimal
circumstances, the throughput is only Θ(W/√n) bits per
second for each node for a destination nonvanishingly far away. Similar
results also hold under an alternate physical model where a required
signal-to-interference ratio is specified for successful receptions.
Fundamentally, it is the need for every node all over the domain to
share whatever portion of the channel it is utilizing with nodes in its
local neighborhood that is the reason for the constriction in capacity.
Splitting the channel into several subchannels does not change any of
the results. Some implications may be worth considering by designers.
Since the throughput furnished to each user diminishes to zero as the
number of users is increased, perhaps networks connecting smaller
numbers of users, or featuring connections mostly with nearby neighbors,
may be more likely to be find acceptance
Blockchain-based public key infrastructure for inter-domain secure routing
- Adlr Gómez-Arevalillo
- P Papadimitratos
Gómez-Arevalillo ADLR, Papadimitratos P. Blockchain-based public key infrastructure for inter-domain secure routing. Paper presented at: Proceedings
of the International Workshop on Open Problems in Network Security (iNetSec); May 30-31, 2017;20-38;
Blockchain-based public key infrastructure for inter-domain secure routing
- Gómez-Arevalilloadlr Papadimitratosp
Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy
- M Swan