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The hidden risk of using umbrella species as conservation surrogates: A spatio-temporal approach
Abstract
The use of a charismatic umbrella species as surrogate for sympatric species is often advocated as an efficient approach. However, comprehensive evaluations from a spatio-temporal perspective are few, leaving the long-term effectiveness of such practices remain uncertain. We modeled the habitat change for giant panda and eight sympatric mammalian species using observations from extensive camera trap surveys and remotely-sensed environmental predictors during two time periods, early 2000s and early 2010s. We found that the degree and spatial pattern of the habitat suitability change varied among species. The overall habitat suitability improved between the early 2000s and early 2010s for seven target species including giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca, suggesting positive effects of several recent conservation projects in restoring natural landscapes for certain species groups. However, the current nature reserve system designed for giant pandas did not adequately cover critical landscapes for several species, including the two species who experienced net habitat loss, Endangered forest musk deer Moschus berezovskii and Vulnerble Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus. To conserve multiple species simultaneously in this region, we recommend establishing nature reserves for other threatened species who share dissimilar habitat needs with giant panda, and adding a widely distributed omnivores, Asiatic black bear, as a surrogate species in central and southwest China. These findings reveal the risk of using umbrella species as a conservation shortcut in protecting animal communities in China, and have substantial implications for other regions where the majority of the conservation funds are directed toward a single charismatic species.
... For example, Li and Pimm (2016) found that over 96% of giant panda's (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) habitat overlapped the top 5% forest hotspots for endemic vertebrates in China, suggesting that panda habitat protection could benefit other vulnerable taxa. However, increasing evidence shows that using umbrella species may not always achieve anticipated conservation gains (Kramer et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2021). While charisma, large body size, and at-risk conservation status create flagship appeal and might help secure conservation resources, these might be poor indicators of a species' umbrella potential (Brennan et al., 2020;Diniz et al., 2018;Sattler et al., 2014), particularly when a single umbrella species is used to guide multi-species conservation (Wang et al., 2021). ...
... However, increasing evidence shows that using umbrella species may not always achieve anticipated conservation gains (Kramer et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2021). While charisma, large body size, and at-risk conservation status create flagship appeal and might help secure conservation resources, these might be poor indicators of a species' umbrella potential (Brennan et al., 2020;Diniz et al., 2018;Sattler et al., 2014), particularly when a single umbrella species is used to guide multi-species conservation (Wang et al., 2021). Therefore, evaluating relationships between candidate umbrella species and broader conservation goals across large spatiotemporal extents could help optimize conservation resource allocation (Diniz et al., 2018). ...
... Therefore, evaluating relationships between candidate umbrella species and broader conservation goals across large spatiotemporal extents could help optimize conservation resource allocation (Diniz et al., 2018). This task, however, presents many challenges ranging from lack of data to computing power and analytical design (Wang et al., 2021), and is often deemed impractical. ...
Conservation approaches that efficiently protect multiple values, such as the umbrella species concept, have been widely promoted with expected dramatic ecosystem changes. Due to its social and cultural importance, and recent declining trends, boreal populations of woodland caribou have been suggested as potential umbrella species for other declining taxa, such as boreal landbirds. We propose a generic pixel‐based umbrella index that focuses on fine‐grained habitat overlaps. In light of ongoing conservation efforts worldwide implementing area‐based targets (e.g., 30% by 2030), we used a random neutral model as baseline, as opposed to a no‐conservation scenario, which has been used elsewhere. We found that the conservation efficiency of caribou as an umbrella for 71 co‐occurring landbirds—three of which are priority species—in the Northwest Territories, Canada, is generally lower than our random model, as 53% of the species presented negative umbrella index medians with the interquartile range not overlapping zero. We conclude that in cases where area‐based targets drive decision‐making and the issue at stake involves identifying which areas to conserve—not whether to conserve—woodland caribou may be a leaky umbrella for most co‐occurring landbird species and these might need complementary conservation actions to be brought in from the rain.
... We showed that loggerhead turtles could work well as umbrella species for other marine megafauna in our study region, particularly when both breeding and non-breeding coastal habitats are selected for protection, and we recommend that this approach should be explored in other regions. One possible explanation is that, because sea turtle breeding areas are primarily restricted to certain coastal habitats with characteristics typically not associated with feeding, the food resources required by other taxa might not be supported as effectively [80,81]. Thus, it is important to understand what the different marine megafauna groups feed on and how these resources overlap. ...
... Thus, it is important to understand what the different marine megafauna groups feed on and how these resources overlap. For instance, previous studies demonstrated the importance of what animals feed on in the ability of individual species to serve as an effective surrogate to other wildlife [80,82,83] (i.e., herbivores versus carnivores), with our study also identifying the importance of life stage. As the seven sea turtle species feed on different items (including herbivores, omnivores and carnivores), with differences also arising across life stages [80,84,85], this should also be taken into consideration when evaluating their value as umbrella species or other wildlife, including in areas where they are present during non-breeding periods [80,84,85]. ...
... For instance, previous studies demonstrated the importance of what animals feed on in the ability of individual species to serve as an effective surrogate to other wildlife [80,82,83] (i.e., herbivores versus carnivores), with our study also identifying the importance of life stage. As the seven sea turtle species feed on different items (including herbivores, omnivores and carnivores), with differences also arising across life stages [80,84,85], this should also be taken into consideration when evaluating their value as umbrella species or other wildlife, including in areas where they are present during non-breeding periods [80,84,85]. ...
Quantifying the capacity of protected area networks to shield multiple marine megafauna with diverse life histories is complicated, as many species are wide-ranging, requiring varied monitoring approaches. Yet, such information is needed to identify and assess the potential use of umbrella species and to plan how best to enhance conservation strategies. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of part of the European Natura 2000 protected area network (western Greece) for marine megafauna and whether loggerhead sea turtles are viable umbrella species in this coastal region. We systematically surveyed inside and outside coastal marine protected areas (MPAs) at a regional scale using aerial drones (18,505 animal records) and combined them with distribution data from published datasets (tracking, sightings, strandings) of sea turtles, elasmobranchs, cetaceans and pinnipeds. MPAs covered 56% of the surveyed coastline (~1500 km). There was just a 22% overlap in the distributions of the four groups from aerial drone and other datasets, demonstrating the value of combining different approaches to improve records of coastal area use for effective management. All four taxonomic groups were more likely to be detected inside coastal MPAs than outside, confirming sufficient habitat diversity despite varied life history traits. Coastal habitats frequented by loggerhead turtles during breeding/non-breeding periods combined overlapped with 76% of areas used by the other three groups, supporting their potential use as an umbrella species. In conclusion, this study showed that aerial drones can be readily combined with other monitoring approaches in coastal areas to enhance the management of marine megafauna in protected area networks and to identify the efficacy of umbrella species.
... Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is one of the most recognized charismatic large-bodied mammals in the world and an umbrella species of wildlife conservation in China (Li and Pimm, 2016;Kang et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2021aWang et al., , 2021b. Many endangered and vulnerable species (e.g. the golden snub-monkey Rhinopithecus roxellana, lesser panda Ailurus fulgens and blood pheasant Ithaginis cruentus) that are sympatric with the giant panda have been well protected via the strict protection of giant pandas (Xu et al., 2014), although a latest study indicated that forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) had few net habitat improvements under such conservation efforts (Wang et al., 2021a). ...
... Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is one of the most recognized charismatic large-bodied mammals in the world and an umbrella species of wildlife conservation in China (Li and Pimm, 2016;Kang et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2021aWang et al., , 2021b. Many endangered and vulnerable species (e.g. the golden snub-monkey Rhinopithecus roxellana, lesser panda Ailurus fulgens and blood pheasant Ithaginis cruentus) that are sympatric with the giant panda have been well protected via the strict protection of giant pandas (Xu et al., 2014), although a latest study indicated that forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) had few net habitat improvements under such conservation efforts (Wang et al., 2021a). As the most effective way to protect giant panda and its sympatric species, the Chinese government has established 67 giant panda nature reserves (GPNR) since 1963, which cover approximately 58% of the areas that are considered as giant panda habitats (State Forestry Administration, 2015). ...
... As the most effective way to protect giant panda and its sympatric species, the Chinese government has established 67 giant panda nature reserves (GPNR) since 1963, which cover approximately 58% of the areas that are considered as giant panda habitats (State Forestry Administration, 2015). Despite the great conservation efforts by the government, some medium-and large-bodied mammal (MLM) species in the GPNRs are experiencing population decline that leads to mammalian defaunation and incomplete ecosystem functioning (Wen et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2021a). The threats to these animals include climate warming, logging, livestock farming, wildlife tourism and infrastructure construction within reserves (Wei et al., 2020;Kang, 2021;Wang et al., 2021a). ...
The charismatic giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is an iconic species of wildlife conservation worldwide. As the most effective measure to protect giant pandas and their habitats, China has established 67 giant panda nature reserves (GPNR) during the last five decades, which also bring benefits to many sympatric medium- and large-bodied mammals (MLM). To better inform the planning of the GPNR network with the view of preserving regional MLM diversity, we investigated the zeta diversity (a novel index to measure species compositional turnover considering the contributions of both rare and common species) patterns (i.e. zeta decline and retention rate curve) of MLMs across 40 GPNRs. The effects of species’ body mass and conservation status on the zeta diversity patterns were tested. Further, we applied the multi-site generalized dissimilarity modelling (MS-GDM) framework to explore the impacts of environmental and geographic distances on MLM turnover. The results indicated that there are a core set of 17 MLM species sympatric with the giant panda in the GPNRs. Species’ body mass can affect the patterns of zeta decline and retention rate curves, and the number of large-bodied species shared by multiple GPNRs is higher than that of medium-bodied species across zeta orders. The MS-GDM revealed the important roles of difference in habitat heterogeneity and spatial distance between GPNRs in driving MLM turnover. Consequently, we advocate maintaining and increasing the diversity of (natural) habitats in GPNRs to protect giant panda’s sympatric MLM diversity. The government should consider optimizing the GPNR network (e.g. incorporating multiple small GPNRs into one single large reserve) to capture the most turnover of MLMs, and the newly-established Giant Panda National Park is relevant to fulfilling this long-term goal.
... In terrestrial ecosystems, megafaunal species (> 15 kg, terrestrial mammals) are often used as flagship or indicator species to provide an umbrella in developing priorities for other taxa and ecosystems, yet they are known to be poor indicators for small-bodied species or the ecosystems they frequently depend on 14,15 . These measures do not ensure effective conservation and often lead to biases in funding allocation, decisions on conservation and management priorities 16,17 thus compromising effective conservation of other taxa with possible ramifications for ecological function 18,19 . ...
... important to develop priorities, as frequently priorities fail to represent what is genuinely important or do not represent communities effectively 14,58 . In particular, species deemed as "charismatic" may monopolise funding whilst failing to provide significant benefits to the wider ecological community 14,15 . ...
... important to develop priorities, as frequently priorities fail to represent what is genuinely important or do not represent communities effectively 14,58 . In particular, species deemed as "charismatic" may monopolise funding whilst failing to provide significant benefits to the wider ecological community 14,15 . Whilst various taxa have been used as indicators for diversity in subterranean habitats 59 , bats represent better surrogates for cave conservation because they not only provide the main source of energy for cave-ecosystems but are also easier to assess and reflect changes from both internal and surfaces 50,51 . ...
Research and media attention is disproportionately focused on taxa and ecosystems perceived as charismatic, while other systems with high levels of endemism, are often under-protected and overlooked such as caves and subterranean ecosystems. Yet these more challenging systems are also threatened, with karsts for example losing around 6% of their area each year, highlighting the urgent need for protection, especially as up to 90% of cave endemic species may be undescribed. Bats are keystone to cave ecosystems making them potential surrogates to understand cave diversity patterns and assay conservation priorities. Almost half (48%) of known bat species use caves for parts of their life histories, with 32% endemic to a single country, and 15% currently threatened. We combine global analysis of cave bats from the IUCN with site specific analysis of 1930 bat caves from 46 countries to develop global priorities for the conservation of the most vulnerable cave ecosystems. Globally, 28% of caves showed high diversity and were highly threatened and 4% had high diversity but not currently threatened. Amongst regions, the highest concentration of conservation priority caves were in the Palearctic, and tropical regions except the Afrotropics, which requires more intensive data sampling. Our results further highlight the importance of prioritising bat caves using locally collected data, and parameter selection is optimised (i.e., appropriate landscape features and threats). Finally, to protect and conserve these ecosystems it is crucial that we identify priorities in species and habitat-level, and map vulnerable habitats with the highest biodiversity and distinctiveness.
... According to the maximum training sensitivity plus specificity (MaxSS) and the mean value of the habitat suitability index of the suitable habitat, the habitats were divided into nonsuitable habitat, subsuitable habitat, and highly suitable habitat (Wang, Winkler, et al., 2021). ...
... As important components of the forest ecosystem, giant pandas and Chinese red pandas are the flagship species for biodiversity conservation in the mountain forests of southwest China, which are of great significance for maintaining regional biodiversity and ecosystem stability (Li & Pimm, 2015 It is necessary to strengthen the restoration of fragmented habitats and connectivity management for the protection of rare animals such as giant pandas and Chinese red pandas, which will help to increase the suitable habitats for giant pandas and Chinese red pandas and promote the spread and exchange of individuals (Haddad et al., 2015;Smith & Rulifson, 2015;Wang, Winkler, et al., 2021). We suggest to formulate corresponding protection measures according to the habitat distribution of each species and the preference of environmental factors, and then promote the protection of multiple species, so as to achieve the comprehensive protection and management of more species distributed in the same region, and optimize the umbrella effect on other species while protecting giant pandas. ...
The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and the Chinese red panda (Ailurus styani) are distributed in the same region in the mountain forest ecosystem on the eastern edge of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and share the same food sources. In order to understand how sympatric giant pandas and Chinese red pandas maintain interspecific relationships to achieve stable coexistence, we used species distribution models and diurnal activity rhythms to analyze the spatial and temporal niche characteristics of giant pandas and Chinese red pandas in the Daxiangling Mountain system based on 187 camera traps data. The results show that: (1) In the Daxiangling Mountains, the total area of suitable habitats for giant pandas and Chinese red pandas is 717.61 km2 and 730.00 km2, respectively, accounting for 17.78% and 18.25%, respectively, of the study area. (2) The top five environmental factors contributing to the model of giant panda and Chinese red panda are precipitation seasonality, temperature seasonality, distance to the road, and elevation and vegetation type. (3) The total overlapping area of suitable habitats for giant pandas and Chinese red pandas is 342.23 km2, of which the overlapping area of highly suitable habitats is 98.91 km2. The overlapping index of suitable habitats is 0.472, and the overlapping index of highly suitable habitats is 0.348, which indicates that the two achieve spatial niches are separated to achieve stable coexistence. (4) The overlapping index of the daily activity rhythm of giant panda and Chinese red panda is 0.87, which is significantly different (p < .05). The existence of Chinese red panda will significantly affect the daily activity rhythm of giant panda (p < .001). This research can provide scientific reference for the researches about population and habitat protection of giant pandas and Chinese red pandas, so as to understand the driving mechanism of resource allocation and population dynamics of sympatric species.
... oning scheme performs well for maintaining giant panda populations and habitats (Y. . Nevertheless, recent studies have suggested that the giant panda does not deliver strong umbrella co-benefits to sympatric species that have dissimilar habitat preferences and distribution patterns, which may also respond differently to anthropogenic disturbances F. Wang et al., 2021). A similar deficiency has been reported at a finer spatial scale . It has therefore become a priority to better assess, understand and improve the conservation of broader ecological communities within the framework of the GPNP, while not compromising on giant panda conservation management. ...
... g designation has been based principally on the distribution of suitable habitat, resulting in the giant panda providing an umbrella species effect, with the potential to protect a diversity of co-occurring wildlife (Li and Pimm, 2016;Shen et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the actual effectiveness of this potential has been questioned Shen et al., 2020;F. Wang et al., 2021). Our study is the first to objectively assess how well conservation priorities set for giant pandas in the GPNP also encompass the needs of other sympatric endangered vertebrates. ...
Informed zoning of protected areas to designate where certain activities can take place is important to their success. The conventional strategy has been to design protected areas based on flagship species; however, this has often proven ineffective for protecting other sympatric wildlife. Here, using China's Giant Panda National Park (GPNP) as an example, we evaluated the effectiveness of integrating multiple conservation parameters for flagship and sympatric endangered species to optimize zoning designations, without compromising or jeopardizing the primary goal of protecting giant pandas. We conducted a stepwise spatial prioritization according to taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity for 48 endangered bird and 23 mammal species. Conservation priority areas for each taxon were spatially congruent across diversity indices but differed between taxa. Species richness provided only a weak indicator of conservation values. The current designation scheme for giant panda protection performs moderately well in terms of sheltering sympatric endangered birds and mammals, but there is still scope for improvement. After balancing competing land uses, we identified 7731 km 2 with the highest conservation values across taxa and diversity indices, with 26 % of this optimal priority area lying outside of current core protection zones of the GPNP. We recommend that GPNP's current zoning designation criteria are modified to conserve a broader range of species alongside giant pandas, especially to better protect sites from human disturbance. Our findings also have the broader potential to inform conservation planning for protected areas worldwide, enabling the protection of flagship species to be integrated with broader regional biodiversity conservation.
... We found that larger bats, herbivores, and island endemics are more prone to hunting, suggesting that threat vulnerability can be trait dependent. Globally, bats are hunted and threatened equally as other wildlife species, but 'charismatic species' such as megafaunal species tend to receive an overwhelming proportion of these funds under the guise of being 'umbrella' or 'indicator' species (Feldhamer et al., 2002;Gerber, 2016;Wang et al., 2021). Many studies also show that funding often neglects species deemed less charismatic, such as bats (Gerber, 2016;Macdonald et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2021). ...
... Globally, bats are hunted and threatened equally as other wildlife species, but 'charismatic species' such as megafaunal species tend to receive an overwhelming proportion of these funds under the guise of being 'umbrella' or 'indicator' species (Feldhamer et al., 2002;Gerber, 2016;Wang et al., 2021). Many studies also show that funding often neglects species deemed less charismatic, such as bats (Gerber, 2016;Macdonald et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2021). For example, Ripple et al. (2016) focused on the hunting of all mammalian taxonomic groups, but only recorded 27 (3 %) bat species facing hunting as a threat, which is very low compared to the actual extent of species threatened by hunting (Mildenstein et al., 2016 and this study), and while we find evidence for hunting in 254 species (19 % of global bats) with 58 % are in the least threatened categories. ...
Bats are routinely neglected in conservation, often regarded as uncharismatic and constantly maligned despite their provision of economic and ecosystem services. Yet many species are threatened, and while the loss of roosting and foraging habitat has been explored, the impacts of hunting on species survival are less well understood. Here, we analysed the hunting risk of 1320 bat species (of 1400 known) from around the world and explored the association between ecological traits and socioeconomic variables. Globally, at least 19 % of species are threatened by hunting. Large-bodied bats with narrow distributions are at increased risk of hunting, particularly in tropical regions. Multiple threats, such as habitat loss and modification, are likely to exacerbate the pressures experienced by hunted species. Furthermore, accessibility to bat habitats and low-income drive bat hunting in developing countries. With the global economic recession and the need for economic recovery following the pandemic, hunters may rely more on wildlife for subsistence and pose a threat to both biodiversity and public health. Achieving the balance between economics and conserving biodiversity is challenging due to socioeconomic factors, and the complex interplay of different forms of threat. Therefore, interventions to reduce bat hunting activities should include greater investment to facilitate sustainable livelihood development in the rural economy, and elevating public knowledge about bat ecosystem services, and their potential role in the transmission of zoonotic diseases.
... This region is considered one of the 34 global biodiversity hot spots (Myers et al., 2000), with rich animal and plant resources and containing vulnerable and endangered wild animals such as giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), golden monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanae), and snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Moreover, due to its rich vegetation types and extensive forest ecosystems, there are a number of large forest-dwelling ungulates in this area including Sichuan takin (Budorcas tibetanus), forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii), Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii), Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus), and sambar deer (Wang et al., 2021). ...
... Surplus occurrence records from each grid cell were deleted based on the "ENMTools" package in R 4.0.3 to avoid spatial autocorrelation (Dan et al., 2010). We estimated the variance expansion factor (VIF) between the environmental variables and removed the environmental variables with VIF >10 to avoid multiple collinearities (Wang et al., 2021). The remaining variables were then used to build the preanalysis model, and environmental variables with contribution <1 were removed from the final MaxEnt model (Yang et al., 2020). ...
Habitat suitability assessment is the basis for wildlife conservation management and habitat restoration. It is a useful tool to understand the quality of wildlife habitat and its potential spatial distribution. In order to reveal the habitat suitability and connectivity of sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) to promote species and biodiversity conservation, this study collected records of sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) from over 2,000 camera traps in the forests of Southwest China in the past 5 years to assess the overall situation of their habitat. The results of the species distribution model revealed that the suitable habitat area for sambar in the five major mountain ranges (Minshan, Qionglai, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling, and Liangshan) in Southwest China is 18,231 km ² , accounting for 17.02% of the total area. The most suitable habitat of sambar is primarily distributed in Qionglai, as well as the intersection areas of Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling, and Minshan. The temperature annual range, temperature seasonality, elevation, and distance to road were important factors affecting the distribution of suitable habitat for sambar. Analysis of landscape pattern shows that there were 273 habitat patches, with a maximum patch area of 9,983 km ² , accounting for 54.8% of the total suitable habitat area. However, the segmentation index and separation index of each habitat patch were 0.99 and 106.58, respectively, indicating a relatively high habitat fragmentation in the study area. The results of habitat connectivity analysis showed that the Qionglai mountains have the largest suitable habitat area and the highest connectivity among habitat patches. However, habitat connectivity between the five mountains is very low, suggesting that gene flow among these mountain ranges is probably limited. We therefore recommend strengthening protection of sambar and their habitat, with special attention to the establishment of corridors between the different mountain populations.
... These conservation strategies also aim to conserve this species which may confer a protective umbrella to numerous co-occurring species (Roberge & Angelstam 2004). Nonetheless, previous studies have suggested that the giant panda conservation strategies seem not benefit its co-occurring species, for many species in the giant panda protected areas have experienced net habitat loss or become extinct in the past two decades (Wang et al., 2021). Moreover, the giant pandas mainly distribute in an important global biodiversity hotspot in southwest China, in which species might be particularly vulnerable to climate change owing to the long-term climatic stability in these regions (Ohlemüller et al., 2008). ...
... For example, as the most vulnerable species to future climate change, the Gray Wolf mainly distributed in higher altitude regions compared to the giant pandas, and therefore may experience greater climate change and have greater climate-related vulnerability. Overall, this finding suggests that protecting the giant panda might not benefit its co-occurring species, especially in a rapidly changing world (Wang et al., 2021), and highlights the necessity of taking more targeted conservation strategies to mitigate some of the negative effects of climate change on these three species. ...
It is widely accepted that anthropogenic climate change is driving species redistribution globally, which would potentially lead to a reshuffling of ecological communities worldwide. Here, we used tuned MaxEnt models to forecast range shifts, changes in species richness and species turnover of the giant panda with its 22 sympatric mammalian species under different future climate change scenarios. We found that more than 78% of these mammalian species will experience range contraction under all future scenarios, and importantly, at least three species were predicted to lose more suitable habitat than the giant pandas. We also predicted net losses of mammalian species under future climate change. In particular, the greatest species richness declines mainly occur in Daxiangling and Liangshan mountains, with high species losses and low species gains. Similarly, we found that the strongest species turnovers mainly occur in Qionglai and Liangshan mountains. Our findings highlight that future climate change will pose a major threat to the distribution and diversity of the giant panda with its sympatric mammalian species, challenging the effectiveness of using umbrella species to guide ecosystem conservation and management under climate change. Therefore, a more holistic ecosystem protection strategy, rather than the single-species rescue approach, should be implemented to protect mammal communities in a changing world.
... Population dispersal of certain charismatic species (e.g., tiger, elephant) has been facilitated through the initiation of landscapescale habitat connectivity approaches (Brodie et al., 2016). But, such single or few species-focused management approaches often come at the cost of undermining the ecological needs and threats of many other sympatric species that have important ecological and conservation value (Wang et al., 2018(Wang et al., , 2021. This is especially true for species having a less charismatic demeanor with poor representation in the network of PAs (Guan et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2021). ...
... But, such single or few species-focused management approaches often come at the cost of undermining the ecological needs and threats of many other sympatric species that have important ecological and conservation value (Wang et al., 2018(Wang et al., , 2021. This is especially true for species having a less charismatic demeanor with poor representation in the network of PAs (Guan et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2021). The south Asian endemic sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) exemplifies the conservation challenges faced by such species (Puri et al., 2015). ...
Once widespread throughout the tropical forests of the Indian Subcontinent, the sloth bears have suffered a rapid range collapse and local extirpations in the recent decades. A significant portion of their current distribution range is situated outside of the protected areas (PAs). These unprotected sloth bear populations are under tremendous human pressures, but little is known about the patterns and determinants of their occurrence in most of these regions. The situation is more prevalent in Nepal where virtually no systematic information is available for sloth bears living outside of the PAs. We undertook a spatially replicated sign survey-based single-season occupancy study intending to overcome this information gap for the sloth bear populations residing in the Trijuga forest of southeast Nepal. Sloth bear sign detection histories and field-based covariates data were collected between 2 October and 3 December 2020 at the 74 randomly chosen 4-km 2 grid cells. From our results, the model-averaged site use probability (ψ ± SE) was estimated to be 0.432 ± 0.039, which is a 13% increase from the naïve estimate (0.297) not accounting for imperfect detections of sloth bear signs. The presence of termite mound and the distance to the nearest water source were the most important variables affecting the habitat use probability of sloth bears. The average site-level detectability (p ± SE) of sloth bear signs was estimated to be 0.195 ± 0.003 and was significantly determined by the index of human disturbances. We recommend considering the importance of fine-scale ecological and anthropogenic factors in predicting the sloth bear-habitat relationships across their range in the Churia habitat of Nepal, and more specifically in the unprotected areas.
... A total of 12 site-level covariates were selected (see more detailed description and data resources in Table S1), including two covariates that could reflect habitat quality (tree density and normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI), four covariates that could reflect topographical variation (elevation, slope, aspect and topographic position index, TPI), and six covariates that represent different types of anthropogenic disturbances (distance to nearest road, distance to nearest built-up area, distance to nearest cropland, distance to nearest plantation land, RAI of local people presence, and RAI of livestock presence. We also added site-level annual average temperature to explain the variation in detection probability because temperature has a potential effect on the detection capability of camera traps, and is often considered to influence detectability (Wang et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2021). All covariates were standardized with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. ...
Research on the coexistence of congeneric species is essential for understanding community assemblages. Smaller competitors are expected to avoid larger ones, either spatially or temporally, to reduce interspecific competition. According to the spatial scaling law, the greater the difference in body size, the weaker the competitive interactions of the competitors. However, this is not confirmed in the guild of tropical forest ungulates. In this study, we assessed the competitive interactions of Williamson’s mouse deer ( Tragulus williamsoni ), an endangered species and one of the smallest ungulates in the world, with sympatric larger ungulates. We hypothesized that: 1) because of its extremely small body size, competition with the larger ungulates would be relatively weak, allowing spatial co-existence but still requiring temporal avoidance, and 2) the strength of avoidance would increases with decreasing differences in body size. We set up 238 camera traps from January 2017 to January 2021 to survey Williamson’s mouse deer and the sympatric larger ungulate species, that is, northern red muntjac ( Muntiacus vaginalis ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), Chinese serow ( Capricornis milneedwardsii ), and sambar ( Rusa unicolor ), in the protected areas of Mengla County, southwestern China. We then performed spatio-temporal analyses, including occupancy models, daily activity patterns, and a time interval analysis. Spatially, there was no significant avoidance. Temporally, Williamson’s mouse deer had different daily activity patterns and direct temporal avoidance of all larger ungulate species. The lack of spatial avoidance and strong temporal avoidance supported our first hypothesis, but the stronger avoidance of much larger species ran counter to our second hypothesis. Our results revealed the coexistence mechanism between Williamson’s mouse deer and sympatric larger ungulates and suggested that the difference in body size is limited in explaining the competitive interactions of tropical forest ungulates due to the effects of multiple ecological processes. This deepens our understanding of the relationship between species trait differences and community assembly in tropical forest ecosystems.
... Mammal inventories can provide fundamental data for the conservation and management of species and remnants, guiding actions to minimize population decline (Rocha et al. 2018). Large-bodied mammals, carnivores in particular, can act as effective umbrella species (Roberge and Anglestam 2004; but see Wang et al. 2021) because protecting such mammals may confer protection to other species that occur in the same area. We evaluated the species richness and composition of medium and large-sized mammals in a large cerrado fragment surrounded by degraded areas and productive areas on a private farm (geographical coordinates of the farm were not informed at the request of the property owner) in the eastern region of the state of Goiás (GO), Brazil ( Figure 1). ...
The degradation of the Cerrado ecoregion constitutes one of the greatest threats to mammals in Brazil. Effective conservation requires the identification of impacted species, particularly in unprotected areas. We report the species richness and composition of medium- and large-sized mammals in a Cerrado fragment in the state of Goiás, between July 2017 and August 2021. The sampling effort comprised 648 active search hours and 5,670 camera-trap-days. We recorded 32 species, among them, eight threatened. Rare species, such as Leopardus wiedii, were observed. Tapirus terrestris was the most frequent species (N = 34), and Carnivora was the most represented order (13 species). Species richness (36) was the highest recorded in Goiás in medium and large-sized mammal surveys. The recorded species, which include endangered and large predator species, are under anthropic pressure, requiring short-term and long-term conservation actions.
... As such, conservation efforts largely focus on single species or subsets of species (e.g., umbrella, flagship, and keystone species ;Simberloff 1998;Caro and O'Doherty 1999), tracking their populations or responses to management to infer outcomes for communities and ecosystems. Despite the common use of single species to guide conservation planning, growing evidence indicates such management may only rarely confer adequate benefits for all co-occurring species (Simberloff 1998;Roberge and Angelstam 2004;Roberge et al. 2008;Carlisle et al. 2018;Wang et al. 2021). ...
Context
Individual species often drive habitat restoration action; however, management under this paradigm may negatively affect non-target species. Prioritization frameworks which explicitly consider benefits to target species while minimizing consequences for non-target species may improve management strategies and outcomes.
Objectives
We examined extents to which conifer removal, an approach frequently implemented to restore sagebrush ecosystems, can be conducted without detrimental effects to conifer-associated species, including the imperiled Pinyon Jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus). Additionally, we prioritized sites for conifer removal, and predicted abundance responses for multiple species following simulated conifer removal at selected sites to achieve variable management objectives.
Methods
We used model-predicted changes in species’ densities following simulated conifer removal to identify optimal removal sites under single species, multi-species (ecosystem), and multi-ecosystem management scenarios. We simulated conifer removal at prioritized sites and evaluated resulting changes in abundance for six passerine species.
Results
Management prioritized for a single species (Brewer’s Sparrow) provided the greatest per-unit-effort benefits for that species but resulted in the lowest population outcomes for all other species considered. In comparison, prioritizations for multiple species within a single ecosystem (i.e., pinyon–juniper or sagebrush) resulted in larger population benefits for species associated with that ecosystem and reduced detrimental effects on non-target species associated with another ecosystem. For example, single species management for Brewer’s Sparrow resulted in an average increase of 1.38% for sagebrush-associated species and a 4.58% decrease for pinyon–juniper associated species. In contrast, when managing for multiple sagebrush-associated species sagebrush-associated songbird populations increased by 3.98% and pinyon–juniper associated species decreased by 2.36%, on average.
Conclusions
Our results illustrate single species management can result in detrimental outcomes and/or opportunity costs for non-target species compared to management designed to benefit multiple species. Our framework can be used to balance undesired consequences for non-target species and is adaptable for other systems and taxa.
... Although the umbrella species concept is not free from criticism (Seddon and Leech 2008;Wang et al. 2021), it has never ceased to be applied in different conservation contexts (Fleishman et al. 2001;Lambeck 2003;Breckheimer et al. 2014). Umbrella species are those whose requirements cover those of other organisms in the community (Roberge and Angelstam 2004;Caro 2010). ...
Farmland biodiversity is in alarming decline worldwide due to agriculture intensification. In this context, the umbrella species concept may help in better targeting conservation efforts, focusing on species whose requirements may best cover those of other components of biological communities. We test this idea using the little bustard (Tetrax tetrax), a strongly declining steppe bird depending on extensive agricultural landscapes of south-western Europe, to explore the degree to which its habitat requirements can predict those of other sympatric endangered steppe birds. We use little bustard and other nine species distribution data at 10 × 10 km scale in Castilla-La Mancha (the most important region for the little bustard in Spain and the EU) and habitat favourability models to identify variables explaining little bustard favourability that can robustly predict habitat favourability also for the other nine species. Models fitted with variables explaining little bustard favourability and applied on co-occurring species yielded varying performance results. Models support the role of the little bustard as umbrella species only for a part of the steppe bird community, and more precisely, for species linked to cereal and grassland-dominated landscapes, but not for landscape generalist species, distributed over mosaic landscapes including shrublands and woody crops. Results also highlight the importance of favourable extensive cereal steppes for the conservation of strongly endangered species (little and great bustard, Montagu’s harrier, pin-tailed sandgrouse, calandra lark), some of which are largely understudied (pin-tailed sandgrouse and calandra lark), despite their marginal coverage by the Natura 2000 protected area network.
... However, contrasting evidence exists concerning the effectiveness of giant panda conservation as vehicle for achieving broader conservation goals, with some reports indicating that these efforts have been effective in protecting other species or sequestering carbon (Li and Pimm, 2016;Wei et al., 2018) while other reports indicate that they have been ineffective in protecting other species Wang et al., 2021). In addition, previous estimates of carbon budgets in the giant panda habitat's terrestrial ecosystems have varied greatly due to limited sample sizes, sampling of unrepresentative data, multiplicity of data sources, and inconsistent methodologies. ...
Biodiversity and climate are interconnected through carbon. Drivers of climate change and biodiversity loss interact in complex ways to produce outcomes that may be synergistic, and biodiversity loss and climate change reinforce each other. Prioritizing the conservation of flagship and umbrella species is often used as a surrogate strategy for broader conservation goals, but it is unclear whether these efforts truly benefit biodiversity and carbon stocks. Conservation of the giant panda offers a paradigm to test these assumptions. Here, using the benchmark estimates of ecosystem carbon stocks and species richness, we investigated the relationships among the giant panda, biodiversity, and carbon stocks and assessed the implications of giant panda conservation for biodiversity and carbon-focused conservation efforts. We found that giant panda density and species richness were significantly positively correlated, while no correlation was found between giant panda density and soil carbon or total carbon density. The established nature reserves protect 26 % of the giant panda conservation region, but these areas contain <21 % of the ranges of other species and <21 % of total carbon stocks. More seriously, giant panda habitats are still facing high risks of habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation is negatively correlated with giant panda density, species richness, and total carbon density. The ongoing giant panda habitat fragmentation is likely to cause an additional 12.24 Tg C of carbon emissions over 30 years. Thus, giant panda-focused conservation efforts have effectively prevented giant panda extinction but have been less effective in maintaining biodiversity and high‑carbon ecosystems. It is urgent for China to contribute to the development of an effective and representative national park system that integrates climate change issues into national biodiversity strategies and vice versa in dealing with the dual environmental challenges of biodiversity loss and climate change under a post-2020 framework.
... In China and many other countries, the use of flagship species or umbrella species as a surrogate for sympatric species is a common approach, which has been theoretically and empirically considered as being both effective (Li and Pimm, 2016;Thornton et al., 2016) and ineffective (Ozaki et al., 2006;Shen et al., 2020). Our research findings suggest this approach could have significant hidden risks, as alluded to by Wang et al. (2021). Therefore, when establishing PAs for umbrella species, it is also necessary to allocate funds to establish PAs for other species whose habitat requirements differ from those of umbrella species. ...
An ambitious new Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework "Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework" has been developed. However, the combined effects of climate change and human modification can undermine the potential benefits of the global post-2020 conservation efforts. The co-benefits of stabilizing the climate, conserving biodiversity, and maintaining intact wilderness areas may help to persuade the general public of the need to quickly expand existing protected areas (PAs). To maximize the co-benefits after 2020, the careful optimization of existing (PAs) network and scientific identification of conservation targets are both essential. Here, we mapped hotspots of biodiversity, climate vulnerability, and wilderness in Southwest China (SWC). By analyzing the representativeness and gaps of the existing PAs network in SWC, we devised post-2020 conservation targets and highlighted their implications for decision-makers. Our results showed that the incongruence between hotspots of different species exists, indicating that habitats suitable for one taxon may not fully harbor other taxa. According to our assessment, the five jurisdictions of SWC have warmed on average by 0.4°C-1.1 °C over the past 60 years alone. In particular, biodiversity hotspots in SWC are undergoing stark climatic changes. We uncovered prominent conservation gaps in SWC's network of PAs, especially in terms of climate vulnerability and biodiversity. Due to their insufficient number and unreasonable spatial distribution, the PAs network in SWC may be not capable of meeting its biodiversity, climate vulnerability, and wilderness conservation objectives. To rectify this, we proposed a 3-step mission: milestone 2025, milestone 2030, and goal 2050, which aims to protect 23%, 28%, and 60% of the terrestrial area in SWC, respectively. Taken together, our study derived conservation priority areas with relatively clear spatial boundaries and importance levels, thus providing detailed, timely information for decision-makers to expand the PAs network and implement conservation measures varying in strictness in post-2020 conservation practice.
... In China and many other countries, the use of flagship species or umbrella species as a surrogate for sympatric species is a common approach, which has been theoretically and empirically considered as being both effective (Li and Pimm, 2016;Thornton et al., 2016) and ineffective (Ozaki et al., 2006;Shen et al., 2020). Our research findings suggest this approach could have significant hidden risks, as alluded to by Wang et al. (2021). Therefore, when establishing PAs for umbrella species, it is also necessary to allocate funds to establish PAs for other species whose habitat requirements differ from those of umbrella species. ...
... Furthermore, the Sichuan takin is sympatric with the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), a flagship species of global wildlife conservation. Serving as an umbrella species, giant pandas benefit from numerous protected areas (PAs) across their range, within which extensive measures are taken to protect and restore habitat and connectivity (Wang et al., 2021). In addition to updating the distribution of Sichuan takin to be more accurate, conservation planning and recovery efforts would be bolstered by determining the ratio of takin habitat under protection by giant panda nature reserves or other PAs (Guan et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2019). ...
Abstract Species distributions are one of the fundamental factors needed for understanding and conserving wildlife. While the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the primary applied reference for biodiversity conservation, limitations in data availability and analyses of the distributions of some species may limit accurate threat classification assessments and conservation recommendations. Improving the accuracy of species distributions in light of growing data and analytical methods is a key step to increasing the efficacy of the Red List. In this study, we reassessed the distribution of takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), a large ungulate in Sichuan Province, southwest China, classified by the IUCN as vulnerable. Using species distribution models and reported habitat requirements, we updated the takin distribution map. Our updated distribution range in the study area (79,449 km2) was 61.31% of the current distribution range (CDR) on the IUCN Red List. This reduction was in large part due to the inclusion in the CDR of substantial areas of lowland plains, high human disturbance, and non‐forest habitat, which provide no suitable habitat for takin. According to our results, suitable takin habitat covered 18.97% of the CDR, suggesting a substantially overestimated distribution. However, there are high proportions of habitat (40%) still covered by the nature reserve network, indicating the importance of protected areas (PAs) in the conservation threaten species. We recommend that experts apply the basic approach presented herein to update the Red List distributions for more species to increase the accuracy of assessments and resulting conservation applications.
... Notre sélection a été menée sur la construction d'écoprofils sur le territoire (Albert & Chaurand, 2018). Une autre stratégie aurait pu être mobilisée, en considérant davantage des espèces parapluies par exemple, même si l'emphase sur les espèces parapluies est de plus en plus critiquée (Lindenmayer et al., 2002;F. Wang et al., 2021). ...
L’objectif d’absence de perte nette de biodiversité constitue l’une des ambitions centrales de
la loi française de 2016 sur la Reconquête de la Biodiversité, de la Nature et des Paysages.
Dans la pratique, l’atteinte de cet objectif implique souvent la mobilisation de la séquence
Éviter – Réduire - Compenser (ERC) dans le cas d’atteintes environnementales qui résultent
de l’aménagement du territoire. L’application efficace de la séquence ERC à l’échelle des
territoires souffre d’un manque de planification qui limite la réelle prise en compte des enjeux
écologiques et le respect de toutes les étapes de la séquence.
Le principal objectif de ces travaux de thèse est d’étudier les contributions possibles de quatre
outils écologiques – la génétique du paysage, l’ADN environnemental, la simulation
numérique des dynamiques de populations et la télédétection – à l’amélioration de
l’application de la séquence ERC. Pour répondre à cet objectif, ce travail de thèse est structuré
autour de trois axes de recherche.
Le premier axe est dédié à l’analyse des méthodes d’évaluation de l’équivalence
écologique et à l'identification des bénéfices et risques que l'intégration des 4 outils pourraient avoir.
Le deuxième axe vise à tester la mobilisation d'un outil de simulation numérique comme support de modélisation d'accompagnement pour la planification territoriale de la séquence ERC à l'échelle d'une métropole. Cet axe empirique repose sur une étude opérationnelle menée pour la métropole de Nîmes en parallèle des travaux de thèse.
Enfin, le troisième axe de la thèse permet de mieux comprendre les freins et leviers de la mobilisation d'une telle approche par les élus locaux pour l'intégration de la biodiversité dans l'aménagement du territoire.
Soutenance disponible ici : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NybQk5vldMo&ab_channel=TERROIKO
... Furthermore, the Sichuan takin is sympatric with the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca ), a flagship species of global wildlife conservation. Serving as an umbrella species, giant pandas benefit from numerous protected areas (PAs) across their range, within which extensive measures are taken to protect and restore habitat and connectivity (Wang et al.,2021). In addition to updating the distribution of Sichuan takin to be more accurate, conservation planning and recovery efforts would be bolstered by determining the ratio of takin habitat under protection by giant panda nature reserves or other PAs (Guan et al, 2015;Zhang et al., 2020). ...
Species distributions are one of the fundamental factors needed for understanding and conserving wildlife. While the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the primary applied reference for biodiversity conservation, limitations in data availability and analyses of the distributions of some species may limit accurate threat classification assessments and conservation recommendations. Improving the accuracy of species distributions in light of growing data and analytical methods is a key step to increasing the efficacy of the Red List. In this study, we reassessed the distribution of takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), a large ungulate in Sichuan Province, southwest China , classified by the IUCN as vulnerable. Using species distribution models and reported habitat requirements, we updated the takin distribution map. Our updated distribution range in the study area (79,449km2) was 61.31% of current distribution range (CDR) on the IUCN red list. This reduction was in large part due to the inclusion in the CDR of substantial areas of lowland plains, high human disturbance, and non-forest habitat, which provide no suitable habitat for takin. According to our results, suitable takin habitat covered 18.97% of the CDR, suggesting a substantially over-estimated distribution. However, there are high proportions of habitat (40%) still covered by the nature reserve network, indicating the importance of protected areas (PAs) in conservation threaten species. We recommend that experts apply the basic approach presented herein to update the Red List distributions for more species to increase the accuracy of assessments and resulting conservation applications.
... In contrast, Simberloff (1998) warns that flagship species might not be good surrogates for broader biodiversity or ecosystem protection because there is the potential for the flagship species to disappear and public emotional investment to turn to disenchantment. Wang et al. (2021) also warn of the risk of using umbrella species as a conservation shortcut and diverting scarce funds toward a single charismatic species. Once a flagship species has disappeared, there is little hope for other species or the environment in general (Fleishman et al., 2001). ...
We investigated the success of the Koala Conservation and Education Program conducted in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia from 2000-2009 by interviewing 28 individuals, from various stakeholder groups involved in the project. Transcripts were analysed using grounded theory to identify common themes, keywords and phrases. We conclude that the chosen 'flagship' species, the koala, was crucial for the success of the project which culminated in the adoption of the Koala Plan of Management and habitat overlays into the City of Ballarat's planning scheme. Local people were concerned about the koala based on its conservation status nationally and globally rather than because of its local or Victorian status. We conclude that the concept of 'flagship' species in the case of the koala, is more a global than a local construct. He is committed to exploring the connections that people have with the flagship species, Koala. He has been working collaboratively on a series of journal articles on various aspects of koala conservation through his association with the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster and Koala Research-CQ. Honorary Professor Barry Golding AM is widely published in the international adult education field. His research has gravitated towards informal learning in community settings, with a specialization in older men's learning and community Men's Sheds: see www.barrygoanna.com. Barry Kentish (EdD) worked with Federation University and its predecessors, for almost three decades. His diverse research included aspects of freshwater ecology, bird pest management and latterly environmental ethics and the links to higher and community environmental education. The movement of his research towards a more philosophical basis is founded on his contention that it is essential for ethical considerations to underpin and inform environmental management decisions. Gabrielle McGinnis is a PhD graduate from the University of Newcastle, with research interests in Indigenous methodologies, biocultural heritage conservation and sustainable tourism development using digital technologies. Gabrielle is CEO and Founder of BrodiMapi LLC, whose mission is to provide digital mapping and marketing services to those who wish to preserve, conserve and share biocultural heritage. She is currently focusing on koala tourism and its history as a researcher, digital media manager and is a co-founding member of the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster. Ian D. Clark is an Adjunct Professor at Federation University and Monash University. He holds a PhD from Monash University in Aboriginal historical geography and has been researching Victorian Aboriginal and settler colonial history since 1982. His research interests include biography, local history, toponyms, the history of tourism, and genealogy. He is a co-founding member of the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster, a collaboration of researchers from different disciplines concerned with the future of the iconic koala. Tim Cadman is a Research Fellow in the Institute for Ethics, Governance and Law and the Law Futures Centre at Griffith University. Tim specialises in the governance of sustainable development, natural resource management including forestry, and climate change. He is currently overseeing the implementation of a research project in Nepal focused on the protection of the Red panda through habitat conservation and restoration at the landscape level, in collaboration with local communities. Fred Cahir (PhD) lives and works on Wadawurrung Country at Ballarat, Victoria. He is Associate Professor of Aboriginal History in the School of Arts at Federation University Australia. His research in recent decades has been focused on Victorian Aboriginal history during the colonial period, and on understanding the contribution Aboriginal people made to the foundations of our nation-state, and of the roles they played on the frontier, especially in connection to fire, flood and food. Flavia Santamaria!s PhD researched the impact of translocation on the health, food selection and movement of koalas from French Island to forests around Ballarat, Victoria. Flavia has worked on projects that included GIS koala habitat mapping and koala surveys in Victoria and Queensland. Her current and future research foci are on koalas' response to stress and kKoala ecology, and in particular the impact of anthropogenic environmental changes on koala populations, including the potential pressure of environmental stress on their health (i.e., Chlamydia). She is committed to educating communities on sustainability using the koala as a flagship species. Statement of authenticity: This manuscript is an original work that has not been submitted to nor published anywhere else."
... Clearly, the critiques to the umbrella species conservation concept apply to the monitoring equivalent [7][8][9] . Nevertheless, when developing a monitoring protocol, one should always test if and to what extent other species may be covered, since small tweaks to the program may allow conservation practitioners to derive broader benefits. ...
Developing cost-effective monitoring protocols is a priority for wildlife conservation agencies worldwide. In particular, developing protocols that cover a wide range of species is highly desirable. Here we applied the ‘umbrella species’ concept to the context of ecological monitoring; specifically testing the hypothesis that protocols developed for the American marten would contextually allow detecting occupancy trends for 13 other mammalian species (i.e., an umbrella effect). We conducted a large-scale four-year camera trapping survey across a gradient of forest disturbance in Maine, USA. We sampled 197 sites using a total of 591 cameras and collected over 800,000 photographs to generate detection histories for the most common terrestrial species. By combining multi-season occupancy modelling and power analyses, we estimated the required sampling effort to detect 10%, 25% and 50% declines in the fourteen species. By conducting a spatially explicit comparison of sampling effort, we found evidence that monitoring protocols for American marten would provide an umbrella effect for up to 11 other mammal species. The capacity of the umbrella effect varied among species, with fisher, snowshoe hare, red squirrel, and black bear consistently covered under several scenarios. Our results support the application of the umbrella species concept to monitoring (here defined as ‘umbrella monitoring species’), providing empirical evidence for its use by management agencies.
... Conservation science has long been plagued with a strong bias towards charismatic species, with non-charismatic yet ecologically important groups often overlooked in terms of research, policy and conservation (Donaldson et al., 2017). While the rationale is that charismatic species may serve as umbrella or flagship species for biodiversity conservation, this is not always the case (Zacharias and Roff, 2001;Wang et al., 2021). Extensive research and campaigns about the whale shark in India, combined with policy interventions, have led to the apparently successful conservation of this species (Bloch et al., 2019). ...
With global biodiversity currently facing unprecedented losses, it is critical that resources are allocated and used effectively to mitigate these threats, especially in resource-limited tropical countries of the global south. Chondrichthyans (sharks, rays and chimaeras) are particularly threatened by overexploitation, with India being amongst the top fishing nations for these species and a priority region for their conservation. We conducted a scoping review of chondrichthyan literature in India to assess the relevance of this research to the conservation of these threatened species. Between March and April 2021, we searched for peer reviewed and grey literature across national and international databases and found 482 chondrichthyan publications. While the number of publications exponentially increased with time, the literature is dominated by short-term fisheries studies, biological records and observations, with less than 10% of studies addressing socio-economic and management themes. Research was biased towards specific states, particularly Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and towards charismatic species like the whale shark, leading to under-representation of potentially important regions and taxa. Overall, our study found low relevance and applicability of India's research literature to chondrichthyan conservation. There is a need for more directed and applied research explicitly aimed at informing conservation. We highlight specific data gaps, such as the need for improved understanding of the socio-economic aspects of chondrichthyan fisheries, species risk assessments at the regional level, data on critical habitats, and the evaluation of existing policies. Addressing these gaps can help ensure that effort is allocated to the regions, species and topics that need it the most, for improved conservation outcomes.
... Many reserves have only one flagship species, which provides protection to other species through its umbrella function, but studies have shown that the umbrella function of flagship species may not provide sufficient protection for other species (S. Li et al. 2020;Wang et al. 2021). Wolong Nature Reserve mainly focuses on the protection of giant pandas with little focus on the protection of snow leopards, leading to a relative lack of research on snow leopards and their alpine ecosystem. ...
There is increasing conflict between snow leopards and humans in many protected areas, the main driver of which is the overlap in spatial utilization between snow leopards and livestock. Understanding the spatial utilization and microhabitat selection of snow leopards in areas featuring different levels of livestock grazing is important to better understand and resolve this conflict, but such studies are rare. Here, we conducted line transect and plot surveys in low- and high-grazing-disturbance areas (LGDAs and HGDAs) in Wolong National Reserve, southwestern China. We compared snow leopard spatial utilization and microhabitat characteristics between LGDAs and HGDAs. Results showed that snow leopards had aggregated distribution in both LGDAs and HGDAs, but the distribution of snow leopards in HGDAs was more centralized than in LGDAs. Herb cover and height in LGDAs were greater than in HGDAs. We fit a resource selection function (RSF) that showed that snow leopards preferentially selected higher elevation, smaller basal diameter of shrubs, and lower height of herbs in LGDAs. In contrast, there were no significant microhabitat factors in our snow leopard RSF in HGDAs. Our results indicate that high-intensity grazing tends to reduce the habitat types available to and preferential selectivity of habitat by snow leopards. We recommend that livestock grazing should be controlled to restore the diversity of the alpine ecosystems in Wolong Nature Reserve. Our findings also highlight the need for evaluating the impact of livestock grazing on rare animals in alpine environments (e.g., snow leopard) in other areas facing similar issues.
A forward-looking approach that incorporates biodiversity and nature-based solutions is needed for climate change adaptation. In this research, we identified conservation priorities in 2050 for Southwest China (SWC) based on habitat suitability, climate stability, and carbon storage capacity and presented the results for 12 SSP-GCMs combinations. Our findings indicate that the mean temperature of the SWC may increase significantly, with the largest predicted rise being of 2.78 • C and the smallest being 1.36 • C. The carbon storage capacity of terrestrial ecosystems in 89.03 % of the SWC's protected areas (PAs) is forecast to increase by 2050. Among the 237 PAs, habitat suitability is expected to increase in 158 PAs. The climate change intensity in all PAs is expected to remain at a rate of the weakest 15 % in the entire SWC. Based on our research, areas with high habitat suitability, climate stability, and carbon storage capacity at the same time in 2050 would cover 23.80 % of the SWC, with an area of about 550,000 km 2. The representation of the SWC's existing PAs network reveals that the PAs' overlap with conservation hotspots is only 13.71 %, with just 12.69 % of these hotspots being adequately protected. Thus we propose a stepwise post-2020 conservation plan for the SWC from now through to the mid-point of the century. By 2030, 25 % of the SWC is expected to be protected, with the target increasing to 33 % and 43 % by 2040 and 2050, respectively. To achieve these goals, significant efforts are required like developing a dynamic future planning mechanisms.
The implementation of habitat management guidelines for golden‐winged warblers ( Vermivora chrysoptera ) is believed to benefit additional species. To address widespread population declines of the golden‐winged warbler, species‐specific best management practices were developed and are guiding habitat‐based conservation programs across the species' breeding range. To date, thousands of hectares of golden‐winged warbler nesting habitat have been created across portions of the Appalachian Mountains and Great Lakes regions in the United States. The American woodcock ( Scolopax minor ) is expected to benefit from this habitat management. The woodcock has been declining for decades (0.84%/year in the eastern United States) largely because of loss of early successional communities like those required by the golden‐winged warbler. We examined the extent to which habitat management targeting golden‐winged warblers contributes to American woodcock conservation goals across a broad geographic extent. Additionally, we assessed various site‐ and landscape‐level factors to elucidate the context dependencies associated with successful conservation outcomes for this non‐target species. From 2015 to 2017, we conducted 1,554 American woodcock surveys at 774 unique locations treated with golden‐winged warbler best management practices across the Great Lakes and Appalachian Mountains. Woodcock density was 0.84–1.24 males/ha in the Great Lakes region and 0.30 males/ha in the Appalachian Mountains. Density was also dependent upon within‐stand conditions (e.g., basal area, woody regeneration) and landscape features (e.g., wetland cover, mixed forest cover), the latter of which yielded strong geographic heterogeneity in woodcock densities. American woodcock can benefit from habitat management targeting the golden‐winged warbler, but the extent of these benefits is influenced by regional, landscape, and within‐stand contexts.
The umbrella-species strategy has been proposed as an attainable tool to achieve multi-species and community conservation with limited investment. There have been many umbrella-related studies since the concept’s inception; thus, a summary of global study efforts and recommended umbrella species is important for understanding advances in the field and facilitating conservation applications. Here, we collated 213 recommended umbrella species of terrestrial vertebrates from 242 scientific articles published during 1984–2021 and analyzed their geographic patterns, biological features, and conservation statuses to identify global trends in the selection of umbrella species. We found a considerable geographic bias: most studies and, consequently, recommended umbrella species are from the Northern Hemisphere. There is also a strong taxonomic bias, with grouses (order Galliformes) and large carnivores being the most popular umbrella species and amphibians and reptiles being largely overlooked. In addition, wide-ranging and non-threatened species were frequently recommended as umbrella species. Given the observed biases and trends, we caution that appropriate species need to be chosen for each location, and it is important to confirm that popular, wide-ranging species are effective umbrella species. Moreover, amphibians and reptiles should be investigated for their potential as umbrella species. The umbrella-species strategy has many strengths and, if applied appropriately, may be one of the best options in today’s conservation research and funding landscape.
This paper documents our comparative study on the community environments of giant pandas Ailuropoda melanoleuca between Wolong National Nature Reserve (Wolong NNR), Tangjiahe NNR, and Heizhugou NNR in Sichuan, China using infrared camera data collected from 2017 to 2021, in an attempt to explore the ecological relations of the giant panda with other animals. Results showed that the giant panda belonged to the species association networks of Tangjiahe lower altitude network (Tangjiahe LAN) and Wolong LAN. In Tangjiahe LAN, the giant panda had symmetric associations with two species: the Asiatic golden cat (Catopuma temminckii) and Temminck’s tragopan (Tragopan temminckii). In Wolong LAN, the panda was directly associated with six species. Three types of associations were found in Wolong NNR. The first type was mutually asymmetric association between the panda and the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanae), in which the two species benefited from each other. The second type was a uni-directional asymmetric association between the giant panda and the red panda (Ailurus fulgens), in which the giant panda benefited from the red panda. The third type was symmetric association between the giant panda and other four species, including the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), sambar (Rusa unicolor), and tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), in which they competed for similar ecological resources. In Heizhugou NNR, species didn’t form a network and the giant panda was not directly associated with any species. Accordingly, it is suggested that conservation resources be invested on Wolong NNR in the case of resources shortage, because it will ensure the giant panda to further survive easier and, at the same time, will also benefit more other species in surviving. It is also suggested that the state budget currently made for ecological restoration be made with priority to Heizhugou, helping the natural community to recover in the NNR.
It is vitally important to understand the ecological roles of medium and small carnivores in the context of the massive decline in the number of large carnivores around the world. Based on a spatial association network of terrestrial birds and mammals, this study analyzed the ecological roles of medium and small carnivores in the community in Liancheng National Nature Reserve. From October 2019 to June 2020, we obtained 3559 independent detections of 20 terrestrial birds and mammals from 112 camera traps. There are seven species that are medium and small carnivores present in the study area, including red fox (Vulpes vulpes), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), Chinese mountain cat (Felis bieti), stone marten (Martes foina), Asian badger (Meles leucurus), Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica) and mountain weasel (Mustela altaica). By calculating the Phi coefficient of all species pairs, a spatial association network composed of twelve species was constructed. We analyzed the characterization of spatial associations by the Shannon–Wiener index and Lambda statistic. The results showed that: (1) the status of the network reflects the changes of community composition and structure after the decline in large carnivores and other species; (2) with the exception of the Chinese mountain cat and stone marten, the other five medium and small carnivores were located in the network, which played an important role in the complexity of the network and the maintenance of the community; (3) the medium and small carnivores could not take the place of the large carnivores in order to control the population of herbivores, such as Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana). The results of this study provide guidance for determining the direction and focus of conservation efforts.
Establishing adequate nature reserves and managing them effectively requires an enormous amount of resources, and is particularly challenging when species and communities are believed to have diverse needs. Decision-makers need to understand how wildlife survives in human-disturbed habitat and how they can coexist with anthropogenic activities. Forest livestock grazing is one of the main sources of income for many local communities in Yunnan Province, China, but its association with endangered green peafowl (Pavo muticus) is largely unknown. We linked our field survey data with satellite imagery and conducted occupancy modeling and diel activity analysis to examine the spatio-temporal response of green peafowl to free-ranging livestock in Yubaiding Nature Reserve. Although it is widely believed that many grazing practices should be prohibited in green peafowl habitat, we found that green peafowl occurrence probability was positively associated with moderate cattle and goat abundance. Our temporal analysis also showed that green peafowl did not avoid livestock grazing or individual people. In contrast to green peafowl tolerance to ordinary human activities, we found significant negative associations between green peafowl and major infrastructure. Our findings show that limits on grazing intensity are a possible management strategy for conserving green peafowl habitat instead of an outright grazing ban. Our study will contribute immediately to green peafowl conservation planning in China. Our study also has implications for the conservation plans for other species in other locations, because our findings convey that conservation targets can promote the synergy between species conservation and human activity.
Incorporating the carbon services of wild animals into financial markets has the potential to benefit both climate and conservation through the development of carbon offsets that are equitable and nature positive. However, for this paradigm to be successful, many challenges regarding science, finance and law still need to be overcome.
Conservation approaches in tiger landscapes have focused on single species and their habitat. Further, the limited extent of the existing protected area network in India lacks representativeness, habitat connectivity, and integration in the larger landscape. Our objective was to identify sites important for connected tiger habitat and biodiversity potential in the Greater Panna Landscape, central India. Further, we aimed to set targets at the landscape level for conservation and prioritize
these sites within each district in the landscape as specific management/conservation zones. We used earth observation data to derive an index of biodiversity potential. Marxan was used to identify
sites that met tiger and biodiversity conservation targets with minimum costs. We found that to protect 50% of the tiger habitat with connectivity, 20% of the landscape area must be conserved. To conserve 100% of high biodiversity potential, 50% moderate biodiversity potential, and 25% low
biodiversity potential, 55% of the landscape area must be conserved. To represent both tiger habitat and biodiversity, 62% of the total landscape area requires conservation or restoration intervention. The prioritized zones can prove significant for hierarchical decision making, involving multiple stakeholders in the landscape, including other tiger range areas.
Prioritizing threatened species protection has been proposed as an efficient response to the global biodiversity crisis. We used in-situ conservation data to predict the potential habitat area of four flagship species: the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), golden monkey (Rhinopithecus roxella quinlingensis), takin (Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi), and crested ibis (Nipponia nippon). We then designed systematic conservation planning schemes for various scenarios given species habitat preferences and anthropogenic activities and conducted a cost-effectiveness assessment. Broadly, the geographical distributions of suitable habitats for giant pandas, golden monkeys, and takins exhibited high spatial congruence (correlation coefficients of 0.59–0.90), and areas of high congruence were concentrated in the northern portion of the Qinling Mountains at high elevation (>1500 m). By contrast, the crested ibis was negatively correlated in space with its sympatric species (−0.47 to −0.29). Crested ibis habitats were clustered in the southern portion of the region at low elevation (<1500 m). A hypothetical conservation priority area (CPA) based on the giant panda, golden monkey, and takin included 39.64% of the Qinling Mountains and 100%, 99.99%, 99.59%, and 7.84% of the suitable habitats for giant pandas, golden monkeys, takins, and crested ibises, respectively. The same area included 99.07%, 70.87%, and 39.96% of the highly important areas for the ecosystem services of biodiversity conservation, water supply, and soil retention, respectively, and only 4.62%, 16.83%, and 13.4% of the area were associated with high-density residential area, impervious surfaces, and cropland, respectively. Therefore, we conclude that a CPA approach based on the specialist species could result in effective, low-cost biodiversity conservation in the Qinling Mountains. However, we note that existing protected areas account for only 26.52% of the CPA. We recommend that the main area of the proposed Qinling National Park should be based on the CPA developed here.
Nature reserves are an effective tool in protecting species that are threatened by anthropogenic factors. However, various subtle but significant human disturbances still negatively affect wildlife, such as the incursion of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) into wildlife communities. We conducted camera trap surveys and tracked GPS-collared dogs in and around a network of 17 nature reserves, and examined the spatio-temporal responses of eight abundant large and medium-sized wild animals to domestic dogs, including seven mammals (leopard cat, Prionailurus bengalensis; wild boar, Sus scrofa; Reeve's muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi; tufted deer, Elaphodus cepha-lophus; hog badger, Arctonyx albogularis; Siberian weasel, Mustela sibirica, and yellow-throated marten, Martes flavigula), and one pheasant (golden pheasant, Chrysolophus pictus). Our occupancy models indicated that the presence of domestic dogs negatively affected the occurrence probability of all focal species except for the yellow-throated marten. For wild boar, Reeve's muntjac, leopard cat and golden pheasant that we had sufficient data to further examine their temporal response to domestic dogs, we found that three species but leopard cat demonstrated temporal avoidance of domestic dogs, and dogs temporally followed the detections of these species. By overlapping the predicted distribution of dogs with nature reserve boundaries, we estimated that wildlife in approximately 19.8% of the 17-nature reserve network were potentially under the negative impact by domestic dog activity. Our study revealed the urgent need for nature reserves within the giant panda range, and possibly elsewhere, to consider domestic dogs as a significant human disturbance.
Protected areas (PAs) form the backbone of global conservation efforts. Although many studies have evaluated the impact of PAs on land cover, human disturbances, and people’s welfare, PAs’ impact on wildlife habitat quality remains poorly understood. By integrating wildlife habitat mapping and information of 2,183 rural households, we assessed the impacts of nature reserves (a type of PAs) across the entire geographic range of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) on panda habitat suitability change between 2001 and 2013 using the matching approach. We found the impact of nature reserves is concentrated in areas susceptible to human pressure, where 65% of the habitat suitability increase is attributable to the nature reserves’ protection. The impact of nature reserves has spilled over to nearby unprotected areas and enhanced habitat suitability there. Nature reserves supported by the central government showed higher performance in improving habitat suitability than their counterparts supported by local governments. Older nature reserves perform better than those established more recently. Our results also show that local households’ participation in tourism and labor migration (people temporarily leaving to work in cities) enhanced the ability of nature reserves to improve habitat suitability. These results and methods provide valuable information and tools to support effective management of PAs to enhance the habitat quality of giant pandas and other wildlife species in China and elsewhere.
Camera traps are a key tool in ecological studies, and are increasingly being used to understand entire communities. However, robust inferences continue to be hampered by low detection of rare and elusive species. Attractants can be used to increase detection rates, but may also alter behaviour, and little research has evaluated short-term, localized response to the presence of attractants. We conducted three camera trap surveys in Kibale National Park, Uganda, using food baits and scent lures (“attractants”) at each camera station to entice small carnivores to pass in front of camera stations. To examine the interrelationship between scavenging and response to attractants, we also placed camera traps at five food refuse pits. We modelled the effect of attractant and duration of trap placement on the detection probability of small carnivores and selected African golden cat Caracal aurata prey items. We examine transient site response of each species, by comparing our observed likelihood of detection in each 24 h period from 1–7 d following refreshing of attractants to randomly generated capture histories. African civet Civettictis civetta, rusty-spotted genet Genetta maculata, African palm civet Nandinia binotata, and marsh mongoose Atilax paludinosus detection probabilities were highest and Weyns’s red duiker Cephalophus wenysi detection probability was lowest immediately after attractants were placed. Within 24 h after attractant was placed, rusty-spotted genet and African palm civet were more likely to be detected and African golden cat, red duiker, and blue duiker Philantomba monticola were less likely to be detected. Our results suggest that attractants can increase detection of small-bodied species and include some arboreal species in terrestrial camera trap sampling. However, attractants may also alter short-term visitation rates of some species, with potentially cascading effects on others. Community level and intraguild interaction studies should control for the potentially confounding effects of attractants on spatial activity patterns.
The practical value of the single species approach to conserve biodiversity could be minimal or negligible when sympatric species are limited by factors that are not relevant to the proposed umbrella species. In this paper, we quantitatively evaluated: (1) habitat suitability and potential movement corridors of a single umbrella species, giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca); (2) habitat suitability of sympatric mammals; and (3) the potential effectiveness of the single species corridor planning to preserve suitable habitat and its connectivity of other focal species.
We collected species distribution, environmental and anthropogenic data, and conducted species occupancy modelling for giant panda and six other sympatric species (i.e. takin Budorcas taxicolor, tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus, Chinese goral Naemorhedus griseus, Reeve’s muntjac Muntiacus reevesi, leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis, and yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula). We then conducted circuit models to identify potential corridors for each species, and evaluated the effectiveness of giant panda corridors to restore the habitat connectivity for these sympatric mammals.
Occupancy modelling revealed that each species had a unique set of environmental variables associated with its distribution in the Qinling Mountains. We found that giant panda and all other focal species had some degree of fragmentation to their suitable habitat that required restoring habitat connectivity. Among the eight potential giant panda corridors, conservation efforts to reduce anthropogenic impacts would significantly improve the effectiveness of six corridors, while the other two corridors would require altering the vegetation. Five proposed giant panda corridors had remarkable overlap with corridors proposed for other species. We suggest two giant panda corridors as a priority due to their potential to maximize the benefits to both giant panda and a broader suite of mammals. Corridor planning in this region of China will likely continue using the single species policy, but our results highlight that not all potential giant panda corridors have equal effectiveness for other wildlife species. When offered multiple alternative actions, conservation planners can prioritize corridor development based on a multi-species perspective without loss of connectivity for the priority species.
This approach has strong implications to the conservation of wildlife communities in China, and elsewhere, where conservation plans developed for a single species garner most available funding and institutional support.
The conservation status of the iconic giant panda is a barometer of global conservation efforts. The IUCN Red List has downgraded the panda's extinction risk from "endangered" to "vulnerable". Newly obtained, detailed GIS and remotely sensed data applied consistently over the last four decades show that panda habitat covered less area and was more fragmented in 2013 than in 1988 when the species was listed as endangered.Despite recent IUCN downgrading of the giant panda's conservation status from 'endangered' to 'vulnerable', new GIS and remote sensing data reveal panda habitats to cover less area and be more fragmented than previously.
The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is no longer Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) storied Redlist. The decision to downlist the panda to Vulnerable has its foundation in a systematic assessment of population parameters as determined by China State Forestry Administration's circa decadal national survey and other scientific outputs, compared against standardized criteria used by IUCN to determine the status of all species. This decision has not been without controversy and disagreement, perhaps reflecting disparities between how people view the term “Endangered” and the criteria established by the IUCN. Here, we explore the architecture of recovery of this iconic “Endangered” species, make transparent the process of the IUCN downlisting decision, evaluate emerging threats to pandas on the horizon, and contemplate the meaning of this milestone for endangered species conservation. Through this revelation we find profound reasons for hope for species conservation everywhere, and a useful example of success in the making. However, this positive message comes with measured caution. The Chinese government and conservation community must maintain its focus and investment on panda conservation, and contend with strategies to address new threats. If they do not, the panda will return to “Endangered” status once again. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
The giant panda attracts disproportionate conservation resources. How well does this emphasis protect other endemic species? Detailed data on geographical ranges are not available for plants or invertebrates, so we restrict our analyses to three vertebrate taxa: birds, mammals, and amphibians. There are gaps in their protection and we recommend practical actions to fill them. We identified patterns of species richness, then identified which species are endemic to China and then which, like the panda, live in forests. After refining each species' range by its known elevational range and remaining forest habitats as determined from remote sensing, we identified the top 5% richest areas as the centers of endemism. Southern mountains, especially the eastern Hengduan Mountains, were centers for all three taxa. Over 96% of the panda habitat overlapped the endemic centers. Thus, investing in almost any panda habitats will benefit many other endemics. Existing panda national nature reserves cover all but one of the endemic species that overlap with the panda's distribution. For whole China, of particular interest are 14 mammal, 20 bird, and 82 amphibian species that are inadequately protected. Most of these the IUCN currently deems threatened. But 7 mammal, 3 bird, and 20 amphibian species are currently non-threatened, yet their geographical ranges are <20,000 km(2) after accounting for elevational restriction and remaining habitats. These species concentrate mainly in Sichuan, Yunnan, Nan Mountains and Hainan. There is a high concentration in the east Daxiang and Xiaoxiang Mountains of Sichuan where pandas are absent and where there are no national nature reserves. The others concentrate in Yunnan, Nan Mountains and Hainan. Here, 10 prefectures might establish new protected areas or upgrade local nature reserves to national status. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Because secretive marsh birds are difficult to detect, population status and habitat use for these birds are not well known. We conducted repeated surveys for secretive marsh birds across 264 sites in the Upper Mississippi River and Great Lakes Joint Venture region to estimate abundance, occupancy, and detection probabilities during the 2008 and 2009 breeding seasons. We identified species groups based on observed species co-occurrences. Two species, least bittern Ixobrychus exilis and American bittern Botaurus lentiginosus, co-occurred with other species less often than expected by chance, and two species groups, rails (Virginia rail Rallus limicola and sora Porzana carolina) and open-water birds (pied-billed grebe Podilymbus podiceps, common moorhen Gallinula chloropus, and American coot Fulica americana; coots were only surveyed in 2009), co-occurred more often than expected by chance. These groupings were consistent between years. We then estimated the relation of these species and groups to landscape and local site characteristics by using zero-inflated abundance models that accounted for incomplete detection. At the landscape level (5-km radius), the amount of emergent herbaceous wetland was positively associated with least bittern occupancy, whereas the amount of woody wetland was negatively associated with least bittern, rail, and open-water bird occupancy. At the local level, habitat variables that were associated with abundance were not consistent among groups or between years, with the exception that both least bitterns and open-water birds had a strong positive association between abundance and water-vegetation interspersion. Land managers interested in marsh bird management or conservation may want to consider focusing efforts on landscapes with high amounts of emergent herbaceous wetland and low amounts of woody wetland, and managing for high amounts of water-vegetation interspersion within the wetland.
The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a global conservation icon, but its habitat selection patterns are poorly understood. We synthesized previous studies on giant panda habitat selection. We confirmed that pandas generally selected forests with moderate to high bamboo densities, mid-elevations, both primary and secondary forests, and areas more distant from human activities. Pandas did not select steep slopes. We also highlighted the interactive effects among different habitat components, such as weaker selection for gentle slope and large patch size in disturbed secondary forests compared with primary forests. Pandas selected for land cover and disturbance at the level of the geographic range and selected for variables such as slope and bamboo density at the level of the home range. Furthermore, selection for higher bamboo cover did not change with bamboo availability, but selection against secondary forest declined as availability of this forest type increased. Our results have implications for the conservation of pandas, particularly the need for inclusion of areas previously seen as less suitable (e.g., moderate slopes and secondary forest) in protected area and habitat restoration planning. © 2014 International Association for Bear Research and Management.
Ridge regression has been widely applied to estimate under collinearity by defining a class of estimators that are dependent on the parameter k. The variance inflation factor (VIF) is applied to detect the presence of collinearity and also as an objective method to obtain the value of k in ridge regression. Contrarily to the definition of the VIF, the expressions traditionally applied in ridge regression do not necessarily lead to values of VIFs equal to or greater than 1. This work presents an alternative expression to calculate the VIF in ridge regression that satisfies the aforementioned condition and also presents other interesting properties.
Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are declining throughout much of their range. In China they are partially protected by a nature reserve system and rely heavily on hard mast as a food source prior to winter denning. Bears may compensate for mast shortages by raiding agricultural crops and killing livestock, mainly outside reserves where they are exposed to increased threats of poaching. We hypothesized that stress would vary with availability of high-quality refugia and fluctuations in mast abundance. We collected fecal samples from free-ranging bears in and around nature reserves in southwestern China, recorded habitat characteristics at each fecal sample location, and quantified abundance of hard mast. We used feces for genetic and endocrine analysis and identified 106 individuals. Feces collected outside reserves, or in agricultural fields within reserves, contained elevated concentrations of glucocorticoid metabolites compared to samples collected in intact, mast-producing forests within reserves. Relationships with habitat variables indicated that the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis of the Asiatic black bear is responsive to human activity, abundance of hard mast, extent of forest cover, and quality of diet. Our findings demonstrate biological reactions of a large mammal to variable forest quality, human threats, and foraging relative to boundaries of protected areas.
Conserving or restoring landscape connectivity between patches of breeding habitat is a common strategy to protect threatened species from habitat fragmentation. By managing connectivity for some species, usually charismatic vertebrates, it is often assumed that these species will serve as conservation umbrellas for other species. We tested this assumption by developing a quantitative method to measure overlap in dispersal habitat of 3 threatened species—a bird (the umbrella), a butterfly, and a frog—inhabiting the same fragmented landscape. Dispersal habitat was determined with Circuitscape, which was parameterized with movement data collected for each species. Despite differences in natural history and breeding habitat, we found substantial overlap in the spatial distributions of areas important for dispersal of this suite of taxa. However, the intuitive umbrella species (the bird) did not have the highest overlap with other species in terms of the areas that supported connectivity. Nevertheless, we contend that when there are no irreconcilable differences between the dispersal habitats of species that cohabitate on the landscape, managing for umbrella species can help conserve or restore connectivity simultaneously for multiple threatened species with different habitat requirements.
Definición y Evaluación del Concepto de Especie Paraguas para Conservar y Restaurar la Conectividad de Paisajes
Aim
The world's network of protected areas ( PA s) plays a critical role in biodiversity conservation. The management expertise within PA s is a function of the training, support and depth of the staff tasked with protecting the resources and should be a significant factor determining the distribution of wildlife species. However, there are few measurable linkages between wildlife populations and management effectiveness. Here, we addressed whether the management expertise within a PA is an important covariate explaining the occupancy of large terrestrial mammals, and identify the attributes of mammal species that would be effective for comparative monitoring of management effectiveness within PA s of developing countries.
Location
Six PA s within giant panda region, south‐west China.
Methods
We used systematic camera‐trapping as the primary field methodology to detect the presence of large mammals and used expert scoring to assess the management level of these PA s. Occupancy modelling and logistic regression were used to determine those mammal species with adequate detections to control for ecological covariates and to compare differences in management level between the sampled PA s.
Results
Thirty‐eight mammal species were recorded with a total sampling effort of 16,521 camera‐days at 722 sample sites. Among the 14 examined mammals, Takin ( Budorcas taxicolor ) was the most detected mammal (333 detections at 153 locations), whereas Asiatic black bear ( Ursus thibetanus ) was estimated with the highest occupancy rate (ψ = 0.49) and leopard cat ( Prionailurus bengalensis ) was estimated with the highest detection probability ( P = 0.55). The independently assessed estimate of management expertise was a significant positive predictor for the occupancy of 11 of the 14 mammal species.
Main conclusions
Our results suggest that there are measurable consequences for increasing PA patrolling and that standardized monitoring of large mammals is an adequate comparative measure of management effectiveness across diverse PA s that experience extensive poaching pressure.
Surrogates, such as umbrella species, are commonly used to reduce the complexity of quantifying biodiversity for conservation purposes. The presence of umbrella species is often indicative of high taxonomic diversity; however, functional diversity is now recognized as an important metric for biodiversity and thus should be considered when choosing umbrella species. We identified umbrella species associated with high taxonomic and functional biodiversity in urban areas in Switzerland. We analyzed 39,752 individuals of 574 animal species from 96 study plots and 1397 presences of 262 plant species from 58 plots. Thirty-one biodiversity measures of 7 taxonomic groups (plants, spiders, bees, ground beetles, lady bugs, weevils and birds) were included in within- and across-taxa analyses. Sixteen measures were taxonomical (species richness and species diversity), whereas 15 were functional (species traits including mobility, resource use, and reproduction). We used indicator value analysis to identify umbrella species associated with single or multiple biodiversity measures. Many umbrella species were indicators of high biodiversity within their own taxonomic group (from 33.3% in weevils to 93.8% in birds), to a lesser extent they were indicators across taxa. Principal component analysis revealed that umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity represented different aspects of biodiversity, especially with respect to measures of taxonomic and functional diversity. Thus, even umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity were complementary in the biodiversity aspects they represented. Thus, the choice of umbrella species based solely on taxonomic diversity is questionable and may not represent biodiversity comprehensively. Our results suggest that, depending on conservation priorities, managers should choose multiple and complementary umbrella species to assess the state of biodiversity.
Ecological research uses data collection techniques that are prone to substantial and unique types of measurement error to address scientific questions about species abundance and distribution. These data collection schemes include a number of survey methods in which unmarked individuals are counted, or determined to be present, at spatially- referenced sites. Examples include site occupancy sampling, repeated counts, distance sampling, removal sampling, and double observer sampling. To appropriately analyze these data, hierarchical models have been developed to separately model explanatory variables of both a latent abundance or occurrence process and a conditional detection process. Because these models have a straightforward interpretation paralleling mechanisms under which the data arose, they have recently gained immense popularity. The common hierarchical structure of these models is well-suited for a unified modeling interface. The R package unmarked provides such a unified modeling framework, including tools for data exploration, model fitting, model criticism, post-hoc analysis, and model comparison.
The size of the home range is examined in mammals. It is determined, mainly, by the amount of energy expended by the species, and, therefore, the home range area may vary according to the direct and indirect influences of weather and climate on the animal. But the kind of food that is utilized will also influence home range size. Those species that must hunt for their food need larger areas for food gathering than those species that feed on the vegetation. As a result the largest hunters appear to have their food habits regulated by considerations of the efficient use of the food materials in their home range. Finally, the home range size affects population density, which in turn influences the behavior in the population.
Human-wildlife conflicts often spur retaliatory killing, which may be a major threat to some wildlife species. Asiatic black bears depredate crops and livestock and also attack humans. We investigated whether human–bear conflicts in Sichuan Province, southwestern China, resulted in increased bear poaching. We conducted semi-structured interviews within 429 15 × 15-km cells across the province, asking villagers about bear occurrence, population trends, attitudes toward bears, human–bear conflicts, responses to bear damage, and bear poaching. Bears raided crops (n = 174 cells), killed livestock (n = 114 cells), and attacked people (n = 49 cells). Fifty percent and 43% of villagers held negative and neutral attitudes toward bears, respectively; attitudes were more negative among people who had previous interactions with bears or lived where bear encounters were more likely. Although killing bears was illegal, villagers in 117 cells (38%) indicated that bear poaching occurred around their villages. However, killing bears was not significantly linked to damage: indeed, killing was more common in areas without human–bear conflicts. Poachers killed bears mainly for trade of their valuable parts (gall bladder and paws, 78.5%). Tibetan people experienced bear damage and also had negative attitudes toward bears, but reported less poaching than Han or Yi people, due to their religious beliefs. Our study indicated that human-wildlife conflicts shaped people’s attitudes toward bears, but strong economic incentives, not attitudes, prompted illegal killing. Whereas mitigation of human–bear conflicts could help foster more positive attitudes toward bears and the nature reserves that protect bears, this strategy will not remove the primary threat against this species.
Conservation planners often seek short cuts when making decisions about land use by directing management towards one or a few species that will benefit the wider ecosystem. The umbrella species concept is one such pro-posed short cut. An umbrella species comprises a population of individuals of a particular species whose resource re-quirements and habitat needs encompass the sufficient home ranges and resource needs of viable populations of co-occurring species. We examined the 17 published criteria available to identify a potential umbrella species and recommend that conservation managers wishing to apply this concept could focus on only seven criteria: well-known biology; large home range size; high probability of pop-ulation persistence; co-occurrence of species of conserva-tion interest; management needs that are beneficial to co-occurring species; sensitivity to human disturbance; and ease of monitoring. We note however, that rigorous assessment of candidate umbrella species requires such detailed knowledge of candidate and co-occurring species that it seems less of a short cut than planners may wish.
Anthropogenic effects on wildlife are typically assessed at the local level, but it is often difficult to extrapolate to larger spatial extents. Macro-level occupancy studies are one way to assess impacts of multiple disturbance factors that might vary over different geographic extents. Here we assess anthropogenic effects on occupancy and distribution for several mammal species within the Appalachian Trail (AT), a forest corridor that extends across a broad section of the eastern United States. Utilizing camera traps and a large volunteer network of citizen scientists, we were able to sample 447 sites along a 1024 km section of the AT to assess the effects of available habitat, hunting, recreation, and roads on eight mammal species. Occupancy modeling revealed the importance of available forest to all species except opossums (Didelphis virginiana) and coyotes (Canis latrans). Hunting on adjoining lands was the second strongest predictor of occupancy for three mammal species, negatively influencing black bears (Ursus americanus) and bobcats (Lynx rufus), while positively influencing raccoons (Procyon lotor). Modeling also indicated an avoidance of high trail use areas by bears and proclivity towards high use areas by red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Roads had the lowest predictive power on species occupancy within the corridor and were only significant for deer. The occupancy models stress the importance of compounding direct and indirect anthropogenic influences operating at the regional level. Scientists and managers should consider these human impacts and their potential combined influence on wildlife persistence when assessing optimal habitat or considering management actions.
Nondetection of a species at a site does not imply that the species is absent unless the probability of detection is 1. We propose a model and likelihood-based method for estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are 1. The model provides a flexible framework enabling covariate information to be included and allowing for missing observations. Via computer simulation, we found that the model provides good estimates of the occupancy rates, generally unbiased for moderate detection probabilities (0.3). We estimated site occupancy rates for two anuran species at 32 wetland sites in Maryland, USA, from data collected during 2000 as part of an amphibian monitoring program, Frog-watch USA. Site occupancy rates were estimated as 0.49 for American toads (Bufo amer-icanus), a 44% increase over the proportion of sites at which they were actually observed, and as 0.85 for spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer), slightly above the observed proportion of 0.83.
Behavioural ecologists often study complex systems in which multiple hypotheses could be proposed to explain observed phenomena.
For some systems, simple controlled experiments can be employed to reveal part of the complexity; often, however, observational
studies that incorporate a multitude of causal factors may be the only (or preferred) avenue of study. We assess the value
of recently advocated approaches to inference in both contexts. Specifically, we examine the use of information theoretic
(IT) model selection using Akaike’s information criterion (AIC). We find that, for simple analyses, the advantages of switching
to an IT-AIC approach are likely to be slight, especially given recent emphasis on biological rather than statistical significance.
By contrast, the model selection approach embodied by IT approaches offers significant advantages when applied to problems
of more complex causality. Model averaging is an intuitively appealing extension to model selection. However, we were unable
to demonstrate consistent improvements in prediction accuracy when using model averaging with IT-AIC; our equivocal results
suggest that more research is needed on its utility. We illustrate our arguments with worked examples from behavioural experiments.
KeywordsEffect size–Inference–Model weighting–Null hypotheses–Process-based models–Statistics
Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) are an iconic conservation species, but despite significant research effort, do we understand what they really need? Estimating and mapping suitable habitat play a critical role in conservation planning and policy. But if assumptions about ecological needs are wrong, maps with misidentified suitable habitat will misguide conservation action. Here, we use an information-theoretic approach to analyse the largest, landscape-level dataset on panda habitat use to date, and challenge the prevailing wisdom about panda habitat needs. We show that pandas are associated with old-growth forest more than with any ecological variable other than bamboo. Other factors traditionally used in panda habitat models, such as topographic slope, are less important. We suggest that our findings are disparate from previous research in part because our research was conducted over a larger ecological scale than previous research conducted over more circumscribed areas within individual reserves. Thus, extrapolating from habitat studies on small scales to conservation planning on large scales may entail some risk. As the Chinese government is considering the renewal of its logging ban, it should take heed of the panda's dependency on old growth.
Model selection is a topic of special relevance in molecular phylogenetics that affects many, if not all, stages of phylogenetic
inference. Here we discuss some fundamental concepts and techniques of model selection in the context of phylogenetics. We
start by reviewing different aspects of the selection of substitution models in phylogenetics from a theoretical, philosophical
and practical point of view, and summarize this comparison in table format. We argue that the most commonly implemented model
selection approach, the hierarchical likelihood ratio test, is not the optimal strategy for model selection in phylogenetics,
and that approaches like the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian methods offer important advantages. In particular,
the latter two methods are able to simultaneously compare multiple nested or nonnested models, assess model selection uncertainty,
and allow for the estimation of phylogenies and model parameters using all available models (model-averaged inference or multimodel
inference). We also describe how the relative importance of the different parameters included in substitution models can be
depicted. To illustrate some of these points, we have applied AIC-based model averaging to 37 mitochondrial DNA sequences
from the subgenus Ohomopterus (genus Carabus) ground beetles described by Sota and Vogler (2001).
Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence, Second Edition, provides a synthesis of model-based approaches for analyzing presence-absence data, allowing for imperfect detection. Beginning from the relatively simple case of estimating the proportion of area or sampling units occupied at the time of surveying, the authors describe a wide variety of extensions that have been developed since the early 2000s. This provides an improved insight about species and community ecology, including, detection heterogeneity; correlated detections; spatial autocorrelation; multiple states or classes of occupancy; changes in occupancy over time; species co-occurrence; community-level modeling, and more. Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence, Second Edition has been greatly expanded and detail is provided regarding the estimation methods and examples of their application are given. Important study design recommendations are also covered to give a well rounded view of modeling.
China has implemented forest policies and expanded protected areas to halt deforestation and protect giant panda habitats. These policies simultaneously encouraged local communities to raise livestock that then freely range in forests. This grazing had unintended consequences. As an alternative livelihood, it has become the most prevalent human disturbance across the panda's range. How do free-ranging livestock impact giant panda habitats and what are the implications for future conservation and policy on a larger scale? We use Wanglang National Nature Reserve as a case study. It has seen a nine-fold livestock increase during past 15 years. We combined bamboo survey plots, GPS collar tracking, long-term monitoring, and species distribution modelling incorporating species interaction to understand the impacts across spatial and temporal scales. Our results showed that livestock, especially horses, lead to a significant reduction of bamboo biomass and regeneration. The most intensively used areas by livestock are in the valleys, which are also the areas that pandas prefer. Adding livestock presence to predictive models of the giant panda's distribution yielded a higher accuracy and suggested livestock reduce panda habitat by 34%. Pandas were driven out of the areas intensively used by livestock. We recommend the nature reserve carefully implement a livestock ban and prioritise removing horses because they cause the greater harm. To give up livestock, local communities prefer long-term subsidies or jobs to a one-time payment. Thus, we recommend the government provide payments for ecosystem services that create jobs in forest stewardship or tourism while reducing the number of domestic animals.
Primary forests are characterized by high vertical and horizontal stand diversity, which provides habitat for a diverse range of species with complex habitat requirements. Detailed knowledge of related ecological processes and habitat development of primary forest species are essential to inform forest management and biodiversity conservation decisions, but relationships are not well documented. We collected dendrochronological data and inventoried numerous structural elements in permanent plots throughout the primary temperate forests within the Carpathian Mountains. We fit and compared multiple predictive models to quantify the importance of 200 years of natural disturbance dynamics on the occurrence probability of an umbrella species – the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus). We showed that a mixed-severity disturbance regime ranging from low through moderate to high severity disturbances is required to generate diverse forest habitats suitable for capercaillie. The variation in natural disturbance severity and its timing promoted key structural habitat elements, such as low natural regeneration density, low mature tree density, high ground vegetation cover, availability of forest gaps, and abundance of standing deadwood. This study demonstrates the importance of natural disturbance in maintaining the variety of conditions necessary to support primary forest specialist species. Managers of protected areas should be mindful that natural disturbances generate habitat for the capercaillie in mountain Norway spruce forests. Further intervention is unnecessary. Conservation planning and forest reserve design should shift focus to the large-scale spatial requirements needed to ensure that a wide range of forest developmental phases are represented in protected areas.
Livestock are a major human-induced threat to wildlife worldwide, especially in forest landscapes where livestock degrade the food and habitat of forest-dwelling wildlife. However, few empirical studies on this topic have been conducted at fine spatiotemporal scales that are crucial for wildlife-livestock interactions, in particular those involving multiple sympatric wildlife species under policy changes. Here, we demonstrate wildlife-livestock interactions through examining the interactions of several sympatric, threatened wildlife species with livestock in Wolong Nature Reserve, China, using data collected from infrared camera traps, DNA analysis of panda fecal samples and panda distribution predictive modeling along with habitat predictors. Camera trapping revealed an increase in livestock after the government implemented an incentive policy to encourage livestock production midway through the study. Three species (giant panda, red panda, and golden snub-nosed monkey) were displaced as more livestock encroached on forest habitat. In contrast, the detection rate of sambar deer was not affected by livestock encroachment, but sambar shifted the timing of visiting water sources (streams) to dusk (when livestock disturbance and other human activities were lower). The number of giant pandas detected via DNA testing of feces was relatively stable, but panda distribution modeling showed that pandas occurred across a wider area after disturbance. Our research shows that with increased livestock, different wildlife species may respond in different ways, which is likely associated with their biological traits (e.g., life history strategy and diet). Our study underscores the need for careful livestock policy making and planning.
China's national ecosystem assessment
China recently completed its first National Ecosystem Assessment covering the period 2000–2010. Ouyang et al. present the main findings of the assessment. Investment in the restoration and preservation of natural capital has resulted in improvements at the national level in most of the major ecosystem services measured. In particular, food production, carbon sequestration, and soil retention showed strong gains; on the other hand, habitat provision for biodiversity showed a gradual decline. Regional differences remain nonetheless, and there are serious environmental challenges still to be met in areas such as air quality and the wider global footprint of raw material imports.
Science , this issue p. 1455
We studied habitat selection of Reeves's muntjacs (Muntiacus reevesi) and wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Qingliangfeng Nature Reserve in northwestern Zhejiang, China. Habitat characteristics were measured on the basis of expected differences between species at 248 sites from 5 November 2005 to 21 January 2006. Habitat selection showed a certain extent of overlap, muntjacs and wild boars both selected habitats with shrub vegetation, low herbage density, gentle slopes, relatively close to residences, and moderate concealment. Differences in habitat selection were that muntjacs selected habitats with moderate tree density, greater shrub density and moderate canopy, whereas wild boars selected habitats with lower tree density. Muntjacs selected north-facing slopes and habitats distant from water-sources, whereas wild boars displayed no selection with regard to slope or distance from water sources. We suggest that the two species coexist in Qingliangfeng as a result of differential habitat selection associated with their species-specific anti-predator strategies. Muntjacs avoid predators by concealment whereas wild boars evade predators by running as their escape strategy.
In binary classification problems, the area under the ROC curve (AUC) is commonly used to evaluate the performance of a prediction model. Often, it is combined with cross-validation in order to assess how the results will generalize to an independent data set. In order to evaluate the quality of an estimate for cross-validated AUC, we obtain an estimate of its variance. For massive data sets, the process of generating a single performance estimate can be computationally expensive. Additionally, when using a complex prediction method, the process of cross-validating a predictive model on even a relatively small data set can still require a large amount of computation time. Thus, in many practical settings, the bootstrap is a computationally intractable approach to variance estimation. As an alternative to the bootstrap, we demonstrate a computationally efficient influence curve based approach to obtaining a variance estimate for cross-validated AUC.
Population estimation is important in conservation biology. Conservation projects are generally implemented on the basis of population estimation of objective animals. The Chinese forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) is an endangered mammal that dwells in the alpine forests. At present, it only exists in fragmented habitats in southwest China. There are currently no population estimates of the wild population of Chinese forest musk deer; therefore, we used distance sampling method and strip transect method to determine the relative population density quantified by the indices of abundance of this species. The results showed that the indices of abundance of the Chinese forest musk deer was 0.16 - 0.24 individuals/km(2) evaluated by using the distance method; and 0.11 +/- 0.21 individuals/k(2) evaluated by using the strip transect method. Our results suggested the indices of abundance varies according to the geographical variation, which may attribute to the economic imbalance between eastern part and western in China. In addition, many human disturbances were present in the habitat of Chinese forest musk deer. Extensive poaching was currently being practiced, as revealed by our field observation of 0.14 snares/km(2). In addition, the population trend in Mayuhe and Yele seemed to be decreasing. Consequently, we can postulate that the Chinese forest musk deer had a small population density, and this finding could be attributed to the markedly high human disturbances, particularly poaching, in the habitat of forest musk deer.
The Ward error sum of squares hierarchical clustering method has been very widely used since its first description by Ward in a 1963 publication. It has also been generalized in various ways. Two algorithms are found in the literature and software, both announcing that they implement the Ward clustering method. When applied to the same distance matrix, they produce different results. One algorithm preserves Ward’s criterion, the other does not. Our survey work and case studies will be useful for all those involved in developing software for data analysis using Ward’s hierarchical clustering method.
Conservation biology and restoration ecology share a common interest in maintaining or enhancing populations, communities,
and ecosystems. Much could be gained by more closely integrating the disciplines, but several challenges stand in the way.
Goals differ, reflecting different origins and agendas. Because resources are insufficient to meet all needs, priorities must
be established. Rapid environmental changes create uncertainties that compromise goals and priorities. To realize the benefits
of integration, goals should be complementary, acknowledging the uncertainties that stem from temporal and spatial dynamics.
Priorities should be established using clearly defined criteria, recognizing that not everything can be conserved or restored;
some form of triage is inevitable. Because goals and priorities are societal concerns, conservation and restoration must include
people as part of—rather than separate from—nature. A more meaningful and integrated approach will blur disciplinary boundaries,
focus on outcomes rather than approaches, and use the tools of both disciplines.
AimRange shifts associated with 20th-century warming have been documented for a wide range of taxa, but many species are not migrating fast enough to keep pace with the rapidly changing climate. Tree species can experience particularly long time lags in their migration response, resulting in altered forest composition and potentially delaying the migration of other obligate species. Here we review potential causes of these time lags and develop a conceptual framework for understanding how migration timing affects the observed rate of change.LocationGlobal forest ecosystems.Methods
We synthesize evidence from present-day tree species migrations to determine how different migration constraints can delay tree species range shifts.ResultsThe rate of present-day tree migrations is frequently slower than expected, and many factors may contribute to observed migration lags. Migration constraints can be overcome given the right combination of circumstances, resulting in episodic range shifts that create temporal variability in migration rates. Given projected increases in forest disturbances and extreme climatic events, episodic range shifts are likely.Main conclusionsRecent efforts to explain the slow rate of tree migration have primarily focused on dispersal limitation and niche-based constraints such as competition and other biotic interactions. We argue that these constraints cannot be fully understood without considering the temporal context of tree migration. Attempts to forecast and manage future distribution shifts must consequently consider how migration timing may affect observed patterns of change.
Many nature reserves are established to protect the habitat needs of particular endangered species of interest but their effectiveness for protecting other species is questionable. In this study, this effectiveness was evaluated in a nature reserve network located in the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, China. The network of reserves was established mainly for the conservation of the giant panda, a species considered as a surrogate for the conservation of many other endangered species in the region. The habitat suitability of nine protected species, including the giant panda, was modeled by using Maximum Entropy (MAXENT) and their spatial congruence was analyzed. Habitat suitability of these species was also overlapped with nature reserve boundaries and their management zones (i.e., core, buffer and experimental zones). Results show that in general the habitat of the giant panda constitutes a reasonable surrogate of the habitat of other protected species, and giant panda reserves protect a relatively high proportion of the habitat of other protected species. Therefore, giant panda habitat conservation also allows the conservation of the habitat of other protected species in the region. However, a large area of suitable habitat was excluded from the nature reserve network. In addition, four species exhibited a low proportion of highly suitable habitat inside the core zones of nature reserves. It suggests that a high proportion of suitable habitat of protected species not targeted for conservation is located in the experimental and buffer zones, thus, is being affected by human activities. To increase their conservation effectiveness, nature reserves and their management zones need to be re-examined in order to include suitable habitat of more endangered species. The procedures described in this study can be easily implemented for the conservation of many endangered species not only in China but in many other parts of the world.
In the present study, formalin-fixed feces, oligonucleotide fingerprinting and SRY-gene based sexing were used to construct a family net for giant pandas in the Tangjiahe Natural Reserve and to assess contemporary gene flow (migration) in this population. A total of 124 fecal samples were attributed to 37 individuals (22 females and 15 males) that were then analyzed for family relationships. Based on DNA fingerprints, the deduced family net revealed the following facts: (i) First-order relatives possessed similarities from 50% to 90%, and similarities between unrelated individuals or distant relatives were as high as 77%, indicating that the Tangjiahe pandas are characterized by high genetic similarity; (ii) 15 matings were identified and 5 ones occurred between close relatives, implying that there is potential for inbreeding to impact the pandas; (iii) four mating pairs and 5 offspring presented long distance migrations, demonstrating the intra-reserve habitat is continuous; (iv) four pairs of full sibs (also female-male dyads) dispersed short distance and all of them gave birth to highly inbred offspring, reflecting long distance migration is vital for inbreeding avoidance; (v) 17 adult individuals dispersed short or moderate distance and formed three clusters on the landscape, indicating that it is necessary to find out whether there is a negative factor impacting the pandas.
The empirical habitat suitability index (HSI) has been widely used to examine the habitat characteristics of terrestrial animals, though rarely used in highly migratory fish such as tuna. This study used the geographic information system technique to establish empirical models of HSI for yellowfin tuna (YFT) in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO). Daily catch data from the Taiwanese purse seine fishery during 2003–2007 were aggregated monthly into sequential degrees before match processing the conducted data to obtain monthly remote-sensing data for multi-environmental factors, including sea surface temperature (SST), chlorophyll-a (chl-a), sea surface height (SSH) and sea surface salinity (SSS). According to the frequency distribution of each factor on which YFT were caught, this study transformed the values of the four factors into a suitability index (SI) ranging from low to high (0–1). These SI values were consequently combined into different empirical HSI models, and the optimum models were selected using the general linear model. The optimum empirical HSI for YFT in the study area was converted for SI (SST, SSH, chl-a and SSS) using the arithmetic mean model, of which the correct prediction rate was 71.9%. An agreement was present between the average HSI and total YFT catch. Furthermore, the high HSI area corresponds with the displacement of catch per unit effort (CPUE).
The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca (David, 1869)), red panda (Ailurus fulgens F.G. Cuvier, 1825), and tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872) are endemic to the Himalayan Hengduan Mountains; the red panda extends into India, Burma, Bhutan, and Nepal, and the tufted deer extends marginally into Burma, while the giant panda is endemic to China. In Sichuan Province, uniquely, all three species occur sympatrically. We investigated microhabitat characteristics at 150 fecal-group sites from November 2002 to March 2003 to improve understanding of microhabitat separation among the three species at the Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, Baoxing County, Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China. Density and height of bamboo were greater in the giant and red pandas' micro habitats than in those of the tufted deer. The red panda preferred microhabitats with greater tree-stump density, smaller trees, and shorter fallen log dispersion distance than the other two species. Tufted deer often occurred at sites with greater shrub density and herb cover and more open land with poorer concealment conditions than sites where the two panda species occurred. Both pandas' microhabitats were mostly concentrated on the upper hillside, unlike those of the tufted deer. The giant panda preferred microhabitats with a gentler slope and lower density of fallen logs. Selection of specific microhabitats by each species is an ecological adaptation dependent on behavior linked to its diet, body size, energy metabolism, and other factors. Microhabitat separation among these species reflects the integrated effects of their differences in diet, body size, and energy metabolism, which could facilitate their successful coexistence.
Many coefficients exist that give measures of resemblance between a pair of cases, or samples, as opposed to association between pairs of variables; others measure resemblance between a pair of populations. Some are based on quantitative variables, some on categorical variables that may be dichotomous or ordered, and others on a mixture of both types.
Keywords:
similarity coefficients;
dissimilarity coefficients;
distance measures;
resemblance
Abstract: The range-wide habitat status of many endangered species is unclear. We evaluated the status and spatial distribution of the habitat of the endangered giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) across its entire geo-graphic range (i.e., six mountain regions located in Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, China) by inte-grating field and remotely sensed data to develop a habitat distribution model. Results suggest that current suitable habitat corresponds to ca. 1/4 of the habitat baseline (i.e., maximum amount of habitat possible). The highest proportion of suitable habitat relative to the baseline is in the Qinling mountain region. Overall, around 40% of the suitable habitat is inside nature reserves, but the proportion of habitat inside them varied among different mountain regions, ranging from ca. 17% (Lesser Xiangling) to ca. 66% (Qinling). The habitat model also predicted the occurrence of potentially suitable habitat outside the cur-rently accepted geographic range of the species, which should be further evaluated as potential panda reintroduction sites. Our approach is valuable for assessing the conservation status of the entire habitat of the species, for identifying areas with significant ecological roles (e.g., corridors), for identifying areas suitable for panda reintroductions, and for establishing specific conservation strategies in different parts of the giant panda geographic range. It might also prove useful for range-wide habitat analyses of many other endangered species around the world.