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Chapter
Pathogens Transmitted through
Contaminated Rice
LekaLutpiatina
Abstract
Rice can be a source of food poisoning because it can be contaminated with
dangerous pathogens. Pathogens that often transmitted through rice are Bacillus
cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. This chapter aims to explain the dangers of patho-
gens transmitted through contaminated rice, modes of transmission, contamination
cases, and precautions. The method used in writing is to review articles. It is known
that pathogens transmitted through contaminated rice can cause food poisoning,
which occurs due to consuming rice containing pathogenic bacteria. Several cases
of contamination of Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in rice occurred in
Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Malaysia, Belgium, America, Australia, Korea, Iran,
China, and Nigeria. In general, prevention is by proper handling of raw materials,
controlling the temperature of cooking and storing rice, and personal hygiene of
food handlers.
Keywords: rice, pathogens transmitted, food poisoning, Bacillus cereus,
Staphylococcus aureus
. Introduction
Most of the world’s population, especially Asia, use rice as the primary source of
carbohydrates in their daily menu. Rice, as a staple food, is usually served with side
dishes to complement the taste and also complement one’s nutritional needs. Rice
can process with other food ingredients into new dishes, such as fried rice, yellow
rice, or uduk rice.
Rice can be a source of food poisoning because it contaminated with dangerous
pathogens. In general, food poisoning can cause by contaminant bacteria such as
Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella group (except Salmonella typhi),
Shigella, Vibrio, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Yersinia enterocolitis, Clostridium [].
Rice-based food poisoning more often caused by Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus
aureus based on several cases in the world [–]. Besides, Bacillus cereus and
Staphylococcus aureus are significant sources of microbiological harm from cereal
grains and related products [].
Bacillus cereus can found in soil, plants, and the intestinal tract of insects and
mammals. In poor environmental conditions, bacteria can turn into spore forms.
Bacillus cereus in spore form can found hiding in raw rice. The bacteria move from
the soil to the paddy fields, their spores persist for years, even surviving during
cooking due to their resistance to extreme temperatures. However, if rice left at
room temperature, in warm and humid conditions, the spores can turn into bacteria
and produce toxins that can cause vomiting and diarrhea [].
Recent Advances in Rice Research
Staphylococcus aureus is naturally present in the human body, so these bacteria are
one of the essential agents causing food poisoning that often occurs in society. The
most significant cause of Staphylococcus aureus entry into the food chain (which then
causes staphylococcal poisoning) is the low sanitation of workers handling food [].
According to the Food Standards Agency (FSA), there are nearly , food
poisoning cases each year. The lifestyle that has changed in recent years has resulted
in an increasing dependence on ready-to-eat food, eating out more than cooking,
busyness results in having less time to prepare and cook food. This habit is the
reason that increases the number of cases of food poisoning []. Apart from that,
environmental factors also influence the level of contamination. Food prepared
under unfavorable conditions and environment implies a higher incidence of food
poisoning than others []. Food poisoning occurs more frequently in developing
countries than in developed countries. This situation is due to differences in the
level of sanitation between developed and developing countries [].
. Pathogenic Bacillus cereus transmitted through rice
. Characteristics and diseases caused by Bacillus cereus
Bacillus cereus is a spore-forming bacteria that produces a toxin that causes vom-
iting or diarrhea. Symptoms are generally mild and short-lived (up to h). Bacillus
cereus commonly found in the environment (e.g., soil) and various foods. Spores
are able to withstand harsh environments, including average cooking temperatures.
Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive, motile (flagellated), spore-forming, rod-shaped
bacterium belonging to the genus Bacillus. Species in this genus include Bacillus
anthracis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus pseudomy-
coides, and Bacillus weihenstephanensis [, ].
Bacillus cereus is widespread and easy to find in the soil, where it adopts a sap-
rophytic life cycle, germinate, grow, and sporulate in this environment []. Spores
are more resistant to environmental stress than vegetative cells because of their
metabolic dormancy and hard physical properties [].
Bacillus cereus causes two types of diseases, namely emetic syndrome and
diarrhea syndrome. Emetic syndrome causes by emetic toxins produced by bacteria
during the growth phase in food, a diarrheal syndrome caused by diarrheal toxins
produced during bacterial growth in the small intestine [].
Bacillus cereus has a mesophilic or psychrotrophic strain. Mesophilic strains
grow well at °C but do not grow below °C, whereas psychrotrophic strains grow
well at cold temperatures but grow poorly at °C []. All Bacillus cereus isolates
associated with emetic toxin production have found to be mesophilic []. Bacillus
cereus growth is optimal in the presence of oxygen, although it continues to grow
under anaerobic conditions. Bacillus cereus cells grown in aerobic conditions were
less resistant to heat and acid than Bacillus cereus cells that grew anaerobically or
microaerobically []. Bacillus cereus’ mesophilic strains have shown to have higher
acid resistance than psychotropic strains [].
Spores are more resistant to dry heat than humid heat, with heat resistance
usually higher in foods with lower water activity. Spores are also more resistant
to radiation than vegetative cells []. Nisin is a preservative that used to inhibit
germination and spore growth. Antimicrobials that inhibit the growth of Bacillus
cereus include benzoic, sorbic, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acids [].
Symptoms of Bacillus cereus disease cause two types of foodborne illness, namely
emetic syndrome (vomiting) and diarrhea. Vomiting syndrome is poisoning caused
by the ingestion of a cyclic peptide toxin called cereulide that has been pre-formed
Pathogens Transmitted through Contaminated Rice
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93757
in food during growth by Bacillus cereus. This syndrome has a short incubation
period and recovery time. Symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and stomach cramps
occur within –h after ingestion, with recovery usually within –h [].
The diarrheal syndrome caused by enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus in the
host body, the incubation period before the onset of the disease is –h, and infec-
tion usually lasts –h. However, it can continue for several days. Symptoms are
generally mild, with stomach cramps, watery diarrhea, and nausea []. In a small
number of cases, both toxins produced, and vomiting and diarrhea develop [].
No form of the disease is considered life-threatening for normal healthy indi-
viduals, with few fatal cases reported []. Bacillus cereus has been associated with
the non-food-related illness, although this is rare. These bacteria have been found in
postoperative and traumatic wounds and can cause opportunistic infections, espe-
cially in individuals with immune system disorders, such as septicemia, meningitis,
and pneumonia. Bacillus cereus has also known to occasionally cause localized eye
infections in humans [].
The pathogenic mechanisms for Bacillus cereus emetic disease are well known.
Emetic toxins (cereulide) cause vacuole formation in HEp- cells in the laboratory
[]. Cereulide in experimental animals caused vomiting, potentially by binding
to -HT receptors in the stomach/small intestine to stimulate the vagus nerve and
brain []. Cereulide produced by the Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetase Complex
(NRPS) []. All NRPS clusters have characterized [], resulting in a precise
method for detecting cereulide-producing Bacillus cereus strains []. Emetic toxin
production has shown to occur in skim milk in the temperature range of –°C,
with more toxins produced at and °C than at higher temperatures []. Emetic
toxins are highly resistant to environmental factors, exhibiting stability from a pH
of – and heating to °C for min (pH.–.) [].
Three types of enterotoxins are associated with a form of diarrhea syndrome,
namely three components of the enterotoxin Hemolysin BL (HBL), three parts of
Non-Hemolytic Enterotoxin (NHE) and one element of cytotoxin K. Enterotoxins
are released into the small intestine by the surviving vegetative cells of Bacillus
cereus []. Diarrheal enterotoxins are stable at pH– and deactivated by heating
to °C for min [].
Up to of the vegetative cells of Bacillus cereus can survive as they travel
through the stomach. Diarrheal enterotoxins are unstable at low pH in the stomach
and degraded by digestive enzymes. Any previously formed enterotoxins in food
are destroyed during passage through the stomach so that they do not cause disease
if ingested []. In contrast, Bacillus cereus spores can pass unaffected by the gastric
barrier. Spores need to be triggered by nutrients and intestinal epithelial cells to
initiate germination. In the small intestine, spores germinate, grow and produce
enterotoxins [].
A vital virulence factor required to cause diarrhea symptoms is the ability of
vegetative cells and Bacillus cereus spores to adhere to the small intestine’s epithelial cell
walls. Spore and cell adhesion efficiency show to be low, around []. Enterotoxins’
ability to damage tissue and damage the plasma membrane of small intestinal epithe-
lial cells plays a role in causing diarrhea [].
. Mode of transmission Bacillus cereus food poisoning
The pattern of transmission Bacillus cereus food poisoning can be caused by
ingesting large numbers of bacterial cells and spores in contaminated food (diarrhea
type) or by ingesting food contaminated with pre-formed toxins (emetic type).
Transmission of this disease caused by the consumption of contaminated food,
improper handling/storage of food, and inadequate cooling of cooked food [].
Recent Advances in Rice Research
. Case contamination and precautions for Bacillus cereus in rice
Cases of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus on rice, either in the form of raw
rice or cooked rice and other processed rice products, are found in several countries.
Further explanations can see in Table .
Precautions for contamination of Bacillus cereus in rice:
. Processing (thoroughly cooked and quickly cooled) is one of the easiest ways
to prevent foodborne illness associated with Bacillus spp. [].
. Hot foods should store at °F/°C or higher [].
. Reheating cooked food should be stored at °F/°C [].
Year Foo d Country Findings Article title
Brown
rice and
glutinous
rice
Korea () of samples
of brown rice,
() of samples of
glutinous rice
Prevalence, Genetic diversity,
and Antibiotic Susceptibility of
Bacillus cereus Strains Isolated
from Rice and Cereals Collected
in Korea []
Raw rice Amerika Bacillus species spores
found in (.)
rice samples with an
average concentration of
.CFU/g
Detection of Toxigenic Bacillus
cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis in
US Rice []
Cooked
rice
(white
rice, fried
rice)
Belgia The concentration of
cereulide found in rice
dishes is around four
ng/g
Prevalence and Levels of Bacillus
cereus Emetic Toxin in Rice
Dishes Randomly Collected from
Restaurants and Comparison
with the Levels Measured in
a Recent Foodborne Outbreak []
Cooked
and raw
rice
Pakistan All rice samples showed
the presence of Bacillus
cereus, the highest
number: . ×
CFU/ml
Microbial Assessment of
Uncooked and Cooked Rice
Samples Available in Local
Markets of Lahore []
Baby food
(made
from rice)
Iran Bacillus cereus and its
enterotoxigenic genes
have found in infant
diets in Iran
Bacillus cereus in Infant
Foods: Prevalence Study and
Distribution of Enterotoxigenic
Virulence Factors in Isfahan
Province, Iran []
Local
unhulled
(coarse)
rice
Malaysia The number of Bacillus
cereus bacteria in all
samples found to be
more than MPN/g
Presence of Bacillus cereus from
Local Unhusked (Rough) Rice
Samples in Sarawak, Malaysia []
Cooked
rice
(yellow
rice)
Indonesia of yellow rice
contaminated with
Bacillus cereus
Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus
cereus in Yellow Rice []
Rice/
noodles
China out of rice/noodle
samples () were
positive for Bacillus
cereus
A Study on Prevalence and
Characterization of Bacillus
cereus in Ready-to-Eat Foods in
China []
Table 1.
Cases of Bacillus cereus contamination in rice (rice-based food).
Pathogens Transmitted through Contaminated Rice
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93757
. If frozen food is allowed to thaw, it must remain at °F/°C or lower [].
. Steaming under pressure, roasting, frying, and grilling foods will destroy the
vegetative cells and spores if temperatures within foods are ≥ ºF/ºC [].
. Foods that contain emetic toxins need to be heated to °F/°C for more
than min—reheating food until steaming is not sucient to kill emetic
toxins [].
. Pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus transmitted through rice
. Characteristics and diseases caused by Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the bacteria that cause food poisoning.
Staphylococcus aureus is commonly found in the environment (soil, water, and
air) and located on humans’ nose and skin. Staphylococcus aureus is a spherical,
Gram-positive, non-spore bacteria. The genus Staphylococcus divided into
species and subspecies. Staphylococcus aureus causes food poisoning by producing
Staphylococcal Enterotoxin (SE) [, ].
Staphylococcus aureus’s growth and survival depend on several environmental
factors such as temperature, water activity (aw), pH, presence of oxygen, and
food composition. These physical growth parameters varied for different strains
of Staphylococcus aureus []. The temperature range for Staphylococcus aureus
growth is –°C, with an optimum temperature of °C. Staphylococcus aureus is
resistant to freezing and does well in foods stored below −°C; however, viability
is reduced at − to °C. Staphylococcus aureus easily killed during pasteurization
or cooking. Staphylococcus aureus growth occurs in the pH range .–., with an
optimum of – [].
Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobe so it can grow in both aerobic
and anaerobic conditions. However, growth occurs at a much slower rate under
anaerobic conditions []. For non-sporing mesophilic bacteria, Staphylococcus
aureus has relatively high heat resistance []. A highly heat resistant Staphylococcus
aureus strain (D-value at °C>min in broth) has identified from foodborne
outbreaks in India [].
Several chemical preservatives, including sorbate and benzoate, inhibit the
growth of Staphylococcus aureus. The effectiveness of this preservative increases as
the pH decreases. Methyl and propyl parabens are also useful [, ].
Symptoms of staphylococcal food poisoning generally have a rapid onset,
appearing approximately h after ingestion (range –h). Common symptoms
include nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and diarrhea. The individual may not
show all the signs associated with the disease. In severe cases, headaches, muscle
cramps, and temporary changes in blood pressure and pulse may occur. Recovery is
usually between and days [, ]. Death is rare (. for the general popula-
tion) but occasionally reported in children and the elderly (death rate .) [].
Staphylococcus aureus can cause various health problems not related to food such
as skin inflammation (e.g., ulcers and style), mastitis, respiratory tract infections,
wound sepsis, and toxic shock syndrome [, ].
Staphylococcal food poisoning caused by the ingestion of foods containing
pre-formed SE [], there are several types of SE; enterotoxin A is most com-
monly associated with staphylococcal food poisoning. Enterotoxins D, E, and H,
and to a lesser extent B, G, and I have also associated with staphylococcal food
poisoning [, ].
Recent Advances in Rice Research
SE produced during the exponential phase of Staphylococcus aureus growth in
a strain-dependent quantity. Typically, the disease-inducing dose of SE occurs
when at least –CFU/g of Staphylococcus aureus are present [, ]. Most of
the genes for SE located in plasmid or prophage elements. Thus, transfer between
strains can occur, modifying the ability of Staphylococcus aureus strains to cause
disease and contributing to pathogen evolution [, ].
As the temperature decreases, the SE production rate also decreases. However,
SE remained stable under frozen storage. SE is highly resistant to heating and can
withstand the processes used to sterilize low-acid canned foods. SE production can
occur in the pH range .–., with an optimum of –. SE production can occur in
anaerobic and aerobic environments; however, toxin production is optimal under
aerobic conditions [].
. Mode of transmission. Staphylococcus aureus food poisoning
Staphylococcal food poisoning occurs when the food consumed contains SE
produced by Staphylococcus aureus. Food handlers carrying enterotoxin-producing
Staphylococcus aureus in their nose or hands are considered a significant source of
food contamination through direct contact or respiratory secretions [].
Year Foo d Country Findings Article title
Rames rice Indonesia The number of Staphylococcus
aureus in the rice sample: .
Log CFU/g
Study of Microbiological
Safety of Snack Food at
the FATETA-IPB Canteen,
Bogor []
Rice at the
restaurant
Brazil Rice containing Staphylococcus
aureus: CFU/g
An outbreak of
staphylococcal food
poisoning in the
Municipality of Passos,
MG, Brazil []
Rice cake Korea . of rice cakes were
contaminated with
Staphylococcus aureus
Occurrence of Toxigenic
Staphylococcus aureus in
Ready-to-Eat Food in
Korea []
Uduk rice Indonesia The frequency of isolation
of coagulase-positive
Staphylococcus aureus in uduk
rice samples was ., and
not all were found in sufficient
amounts to form enterotoxins.
Risks of Staphylococcus
aureus in Traditional
Ready-to-Eat Food and
Evaluation of Its Presence
in uduk Rice []
Kerala
matta rice
India Kerala matta rice samples
contained coagulase-positive
Staphylococcus aureus.
Outbreak of
Staphylococcal Food
Poisoning []
Yellow rice Indonesia of yellow rice contaminated
with Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus and
Bacillus cereus in yellow
rice []
Jollof rice Nigeria Staphylococcus aureus found in
jollof rice samples at the campus
cafeteria.
Identification and
anti-bacterial Testing
of Staphylococcus aureus
Isolated from Jollof Rice
sold at selected Cafeterias
in Federal University []
Table 2.
Cases of Staphylococcus aureus contamination in rice (rice-based food).
Pathogens Transmitted through Contaminated Rice
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93757
It estimated that in the US, Staphylococcus aureus accounts for . of foodborne
diseases caused by significant pathogens []. The incidence of staphylococcal
food poisoning is seasonal. Most cases occur in late summer when temperatures are
warm, and food is stored incorrectly [].
Foods associated with the staphylococcal food poisoning outbreak include meat
and meat products, poultry and egg products, milk and dairy products, salads, cream
sandwich products, and sandwich stuffing. Foods that require extensive handling
during preparation and stored above refrigeration temperature (°C) for a long time
after development frequently implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning []. Foods
high in starch (such as rice) and protein believed to support SE production [].
. Case contamination and precautions for Staphylococcus aureus in rice
Cases of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus on rice, either in the form of raw
rice or cooked rice and other processed rice products, are found in several countries
in the world. Further explanation can see in Table .
Precautions for contamination of Staphylococcus aureus in rice:
. e permissive temperature for growth and toxin production by Staphylococcus
aureus is between and °C. us, the ideal cooking and cooling tempera-
tures should be above °C and below °C, respectively, is below the recom-
mended temperature [].
. Serving food quickly when stored at room temperature, wearing gloves,
masks, hairpins during food handling and processing, washing hands fre-
quently, maintaining personal hygiene for food handlers can help prevent
Staphylococcus aureus contamination [].
. Other precautions such as raw material control, proper handling and process-
ing, adequate cleaning, and disinfection of equipment used in food processing
and preparation must take [].
. Environmental factors that can play an essential role in the proliferation of
bacteria and the production of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins are the stor-
age of rice at room temperature for an extended period between preparation
and consumption [].
. Conclusions
It knows that pathogens transmitted through contaminated rice can cause food
poisoning, which occurs due to consuming rice containing pathogenic bacteria.
Several cases of contamination of Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in rice
occurred in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Malaysia, Belgium, America, Australia,
Korea, Iran, China, Nigeria. In general, prevention by proper handling of raw
materials, controlling the temperature of cooking and storing rice, and personal
hygiene of food handlers.
Acknowledgements
Thanks go to students and lecturers of the Medical Laboratory Technology
Poltekkes Kemenkes Banjarmasin, Indonesia who have supported the writing of this
manuscript and to all parties who did not directly play a role in the writing process.
Recent Advances in Rice Research
Author details
LekaLutpiatina
Medical Laboratory Technology, Poltekkes Kemenkes Banjarmasin, Indonesia
*Address all correspondence to: leka.zns@gmail.com
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acronyms and abbreviations
HBL hemolysin BL
NHE non-hemolytic enterotoxin
SE staphylococcal enterotoxin
© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/.), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Pathogens Transmitted through Contaminated Rice
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93757
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