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The Importance of Memory and Notetaking in the Process of Interpreting
Mohammad Mansoor Naseri
Department of English, Kabul University, Afghanistan, 2017
Abstract
Interpreting is one of the serious and growing needs of the twenty-first century through
which the message is orally rendered from the source language into the target language. In fact,
interpreting bridges the communicative gap and functions as a communicative device in which
the speaker’s message is transmitted via the interpreter’s voice. Interpreting plays an important
part in international institutions like the United Nations, European Union, and the World Bank in
which many vital world-wide issues are discussed. Indeed, there are different modes of
interpreting that each requires a complete and full rendition of the message. To do so, great
memory and high notetaking skills are required. Therefore, the researcher tries to pinpoint the
importance of memory and notetaking in the process of interpreting.
Keywords: Memory, Notetaking, translation, consecutive, simultaneous and sight
interpreting
Introduction
Little is known about the history of interpreting since interpreting deals with spoken
language and there is less evidence of spoken language being recorded. However, we can
postulate that the history of interpreting coincides with the emergence of spoken language way
before the creation of the writing system.
In fact, interpreting has been in practice for a long period of time. When people speaking
different languages came into contact and they had no common language, they had to search for
someone who could interpret their speeches or they had to use gestures and signs to
communicate with each other. Thus, to effectively interpret, one should know at least two
languages to bridge the gap between people who do not speak the same language. The one who
knows two languages is known as a bilingual speaker. Growing up in a bilingual environment,
having parents speaking two different languages, moving from one country to another, and
learning a second language are the main factors of becoming a bilingual (Angelelli, 2004).
Interpreting is a very important factor in growing businesses in the modern world. Large
international firms now tend to do business with other countries all over the world. Therefore,
interpreting plays a crucial and effective role in successful interactions with people of other
countries to ensure that all parties understand each other. In addition to promoting businesses,
interpreting is widely used is United Nations, European Union, World Bank, NATO, and many
other known international organizations in which fundamental issues of the world are being
discussed and interpreting is required for each delegation.
This paper aims to highlight the importance of memory and notetaking in the process of
interpreting. Many endeavors are made to help interpreters not to jam and blackout during
interpreting. Before discussing the main issue, it would be logical to concentrate on the
differences and similarities of translation and interpreting.
Translation vs. interpreting
When it comes to the usage of technical terminologies like translation and interpreting,
many people tend to use the term ‘translation’ to cover both areas. However, they are not the
same and cannot be used interchangeably. In fact, Munday (2006) has believed that they are
two different activities which deal with different mediums of language – written vs. spoken - and
they have different nature and functions and require different skills.
In fact, translation refers to “an operation performed on languages: a process of
substituting a text in one language for a text in another language” (Catford, 1965, p. 1).
Therefore, translation deals with text or written medium of the language and it is not performed
in real-time. Thus, when the message is written and needs to be rendered in the written form of
the target language, a translator rather than an interpreter is needed to render it into another
written language.
On the other hand, interpreting refers to the verbal form of translation through which
the spoken utterances or written texts are rendered orally. To define interpreting more
precisely, Pochhacker (2004) believed that “interpreting is a form of Translation in which a first
and final rendition in another language is produced on the basis of a one-time presentation of an
utterance in a source language” (p. 11). He also maintained that being performed in real-time
and for immediate use are the main characteristics of interpreting. It is worth mentioning that
the final product of interpreting is always the spoken medium of the target language irrespective
of the oral or written source text.
Now that the differences and similarities of translation and interpreting is vivid, the
researcher sees the urge of briefly discussing the modes of interpreting which are common in
the twenty-first century and are essential concepts to be introduced. Although there have
existed many modes of interpreting in the literature, the most common modes of interpreting –
consecutive, simultaneous and sight – would be discussed.
Consecutive interpreting
In consecutive interpreting, the speaker usually makes pauses to give plenty of time for
the interpreter to render the speech verbally into another language. Consecutive interpreting is
mostly dependent on short-term memory in which the interpreter listens to the short original
speech and then starts re-expressing it. When longer renditions are required, notetaking plays a
significant role since a complete rendition of the original speech rather than a summary should
be presented. Therefore, the interpreter can ask the speaker to elaborate on what was meant if
some certain words or expressions are unknown and if he is unsure of the intention of the
speaker. Consecutive mode of interpreting is usually used in meetings, conferences, courts,
police stations, and interviews in which one of the parties has limited proficiency in the formal
language spoken in that setting.
Simultaneous interpreting
As the name suggests simultaneous interpreting coincides with the original speech. In
fact, original speech and the interpretation happen almost at the same time, so the interpreter is
required to listen and speak simultaneously. True or strict simultaneous interpreting is not
possible since the units of meaning differ from one language to another; as a result, there are
usually brief pauses or lag times prior to rendering and it is dependent on language structure like
word order, syntactic and semantic features, rate of speech delivery, type of discourse, and
jargons used in the original speech. This mode of interpreting is usually done via two common
methods of whispering and booth interpreting. In whisper interpreting, the interpreter sits close
to the client and whispers the rendition. However, booth interpreting requires modern
technologies through which the interpreting is transmitted to the headphones of the clients.
Sight interpreting
Sometimes, interpreters are asked to read a document and render it orally which is
known as sight interpreting. The interpreter should render everything that appears in the text
including the signatures, seals, dates, and numbers. In sight interpreting, the interpreter not only
renders the content, but he also specifies the location of the message in the text like the upper
left corner or on the right margin as an example. Moreover, the interpreter also reveals whether
the text is legible, partly legible or illegible for the audience. Phelan (2001) has shown that sight
interpreting could happen at business meetings or a court setting. During sight interpreting, if
the interpreter needs time to look at the document in detail, he should request it.
Now that some of the most common modes of interpreting were discussed, the
remaining of the paper will focus on issues of memory and notetaking that are of great
importance for interpreters to consciously be aware of such matters to help them at providing
flawless interpreting services.
The importance of memory in interpreting
Since much of interpreting involves recalling or remembering the original message to be
transferred in another language and because interpreting is hugely reliant on memory, memory
is an important concept in the field of interpreting that needs to be explained. Many people tend
to think that interpreters have a good memory. The word memory could imply recalling
information or experiences of the distant past, but it is not what the interpreters need.
Interpreters work in the present time or in the moment to recall what was just said. Thus,
interpreters require to have good short-term memory.
Kintsch (1998, p. 217) defined memory as “everything a person knows and remembers,”
and Matsumoto and Juang (2007) have believed that “memory refers to our ability to remember
past events, actions, people, objects, situations, learned skills, and so forth” (p. 75). For Bruno
(2002), “memory is a process that involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of cognitive
information” (85). To know more about memory, one should know about encoding, storage, and
retrieval which are essential concepts in understanding memory.
According to Bruno (2002), the use of symbols, associations, and insights that give useful
form to information input is known as encoding. In the process of encoding to improve recall and
retention, a “mnemonic device” will be used. For instance, if in a composition class one is asked
to remember the names of the coordinating conjunctions in the right order – for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so – FAN BOYS which is the combination of the first letter of each conjunction can be
used as a mnemonic device.
Storage refers to the retention of memories for a period of time. Memory storage can be
of two types: short-term memory and long-term memory. Short-term memory or working
memory refers to ‘temporary storage of information’ like remembering a telephone number for
a short period of time following by sudden forgetting. However, a memory that is stable,
constant, and persistent is known as long-term memory like remembering personal history and
content of a university subject.
Bruno (2002) maintained that recall and recognition are two phenomena that have key
roles in the process of retrieval. Recall refers to the retrieval of memory by an act of will like
seeing a friend recalling his/her name. When the presence of a stimulus facilitates the retrieval
of memory is known as recognition like finding the correct option in a multiple-choice exam.
During the process of interpreting, be it consecutive or simultaneous, several different
and complex cognitive tasks are carried out in the mind of the interpreter. In this process,
language comprehension is of great importance like word recognition, decoding, and encoding
syntactic and semantic structures of the message. The human organ which is responsible for
doing such a complex task is the brain which is also known as the human processor.
The study of memory in relation to interpreting has been a fascinating field of research.
Based on empirical studies, a hypothesis was developed that interpreters compare with their
counterparts – non-interpreters – inherently have larger short-term memory capacity. However,
this hypothesis was rejected due to lack of interpreting evidence during the testing process.
Thus, it was assumed that interpreting practice changes the cognitive structure of interpreters,
and it was maintained that the short-term memory of interpreters is not functionally or
structurally different from non-interpreters, but the intensive use and practice of interpreting
lead to the automatic subconscious process of information which extends the short-term
memory capacity.
Short-term memory is considered to be accountable for processing information in the
brain and it is responsible for making sense of the input receiving from sensory organs to convert
them into meaningful messages. Roberts (2014) has mentioned, “Information (ranging from one
or two to over seven chunks of information) is retained for between 15 and 30 seconds, which is
just long enough for it to be reused.” Fernandez and Cairns (2010) (citing George Miller) have
also believed that short term memory helps people to “remember approximately five to nine bits
of information for short periods of time” (239).
Short term memory plays a fundamental role in the process of interpreting. To be exact,
short term memory processes the speech sounds to recognize the overall message and helps in
storage and timely recall of such information. However, poor short-term memory may lead to
the omission of qualifiers, modifiers, subordinate clauses, and even sentences. Roberts (2014)
has pointed out the serious consequences of poor short-term memory that leads to saturation.
“saturation may occur when the source and target languages are syntactically very
different from each other, thereby forcing the interpreter to store a large amount
of information for long periods before being able to reformulate it. This saturation
can lead to the interpreter not having enough memory capacity to complete the
task. Moreover, the higher the density of the informational content of the source-
language speech, the harder it is for the interpreter to remember all of the chunks
of information.” (Roberts, 2014)
Since short term memory has a supporting role in effective interpreting, there are a few
exercises to strengthen it. The first one is shadowing which is extensively used in interpreting
courses. Shadowing is mostly is used for simultaneous interpreting in which the interpreter
repeats word for word after a speaker in the same language. This exercise forces the interpreter
to “store and recall small groups of sounds, words, and chunks of information in a relatively
short period of time” (Roberts, 2014). The second exercise is ‘attentive listening for key
elements’ which helps the interpreter to recall the information later (Roberts, 2014). In this
exercise, the interpreter listens to descriptive or narrative text about 100 words and then
answers ‘Wh’ questions like Who? Why? How? Where? When? and What? The third type of
exercise which is good for short term memory is visualization or creating mental images. In this
exercise, a mnemonic device can be used to visualize the description which later helps in
recalling. Visualization is a good technique that could be used in court interpreting in which the
interpreter describes what a witness has seen like a suspect or a place. The fourth type of
memory exercise is known as segmentation in which the interpreter breaks up large chunks of
information into smaller ones because it is easier to retain and recall limited chunks of
information (Roberts, 2014).
In addition to the four discussed exercises, writing down or notetaking is another exercise
that helps to recall information in a later stage. Since notetaking plays an extremely key role in
the process of interpreting especially in consecutive ones, the next section will discuss the
importance of note-taking.
The importance of note-taking in interpreting
Notetaking is the basic and essential skill to be learned by interpreters, especially for
consecutive interpreting. Seleskovitch (2002) has pointed out that the act of writing strengthens
concentration and helps the interpreter to recall and remember information in a timely manner.
Moreover, notes help the memory to relax because short term memory cannot keep every single
detail of speech. Notes will help the interpreter to recall the main ideas and make a logical
connection using cues and signals as Pochhacker (2001, p. 124) has believed that “interpreters’
notes serve to support memory both as an external storage device (e.g. for numbers and names)
and as retrieval cues for memorized conceptual structures or patterns of sense.” According to
Rozan (2004), notes have two primary functions:
1. To remind the interpreter at a glance of all the ideas in a given
passage of a speech and the links between them, and
2. To facilitate a fluent and stylish interpretation (which again means
that words must be given their contextual meaning rather than dictionary
equivalent). (p. 25)
One of the basic requirements of successful notetaking is understanding the speech
because without comprehending the source message, notetaking is impossible. In fact,
understanding the message in the source language and transferring it into the target language
are key elements of successful interpreting. In the process of interpreting, the interpreters do
not focus on individual source-language words, but rather pay close attention to the sense of the
speech considering the communicative situation of the utterance. Once the speech is
understood, the interpreter should consider the following questions: what to note, how to note,
and when to note.
In what to note stage, the interpreter should know that notetaking does not mean to
write down every single word of speech. In fact, Phelan has (2001, p. 9) also maintained that it is
always recommended to avoid writing down everything the speaker says because being “able to
analyze the speech and its theme or argument” are important points in the process of
notetaking. Notes are, in fact, cues and clues that help to remember the content and structure
of the speech. In other words, note functions as the skeleton outline of the speech.
During the stage of what to note, the interpreter should pay close attention to the main
ideas since the speed of writing is not the same as the speed of speech. The interpreter should
be able to note the relevant and essential ideas and discard the irrelevant ones. The main ideas
will later assist the interpreter to restructure the original speech. In addition to noting the main
ideas, writing down the links between ideas are also important since they determine the overall
meaning of the speech. The link markers are transition signals, conjunctions, and subordinators
that indicate consequences, causes, and effects. Sometimes, remembering proper names,
numbers, technical terminologies, and lists of things are troublesome in the process of
interpreting; therefore, it is also recommended that the interpreter should note
noncontextualized information. The last things to remember in what to note stage are verb
tenses, conditional clauses, and modes of the sentence because they are influential in
constructing the overall meaning of the sentences.
How to note is another important point that needs to be considered in the process of
notetaking. Since it is harshly difficult to take notes at the speed of speech, notes should be
economical and abbreviations and symbols should be used to save time. Pioneers of creating
symbols and abbreviations in notetaking for consecutive interpreting are Becker, Matyssek,
Herbert, and Rozan.
Abbreviations assist the interpreter to write down swiftly and save time for other
activities. The abbreviations must be clear, legible, and unambiguous for interpreters to decode
them effortlessly because the interpreters do not have sufficient time to reconsider their
meaning. Interpreters are advised to create their own systems of abbreviations. In fact, through
practice, interpreters can develop their own methods of notetaking. The approach towards
notetaking, indeed, varies from one to another since “some use a great number of symbols while
others hardly use any” (Phelan, 2001, p. 9). Thus, the notes of one interpreter might not be
readable or understandable for another one. Using too many abbreviations, however, deviates
the interpreter from focusing on the meaning of ideas; this means that “it easily leads the
interpreter to think in terms of words rather than ideas, which could harm interpretation” (Hanh,
2006, p. 22).
Therefore, using symbols may help the interpreters to represent ideas and focus on
sense. Like abbreviations, the interpreters must also create their own system of symbols in order
not to create difficulty in intense circumstances. Thus, using familiar and consistent symbols
must be considered to avoid confusion. However, using too many symbols should be avoided
since the interpreters might end up with a page full of symbols to be decoded. “This would
mean,” according to Razon (2004, p. 25), “that during notation more effort would be expended
‘symbolizing’ than analyzing.” Luckily, interpreters can find their own balance via extensive
practices.
In terms of taking notes in actual papers or notebooks, Rozan (2004) introduced a
method known as ‘diagonal presentation’ which is a vertical arrangement. Subject, verb and
object positions are considered prominent elements of a sentence, so the subject, verb and
objects are written in vertical layout in the diagonal system of writing which results in the clear,
concise and succinct presentation of notes. In this method, much of the focus would be on ideas
rather than notes and the interpreters, indeed, have the liberty of adding extra details in the left
margin if they wish to.
Language of the notetaking – source language or target language – is another element
worth discussing. Many theoreticians advocate the use of target language in the process of
notetaking; they argue that the target language firstly helps the interpreters to focus on the
deep structure of the message where the meaning is produced rather than the surface structure
of words and, secondly, accelerates the interpretation phase. Thus, they believe that the target
language will save time and help the interpreters to cognitively be ready to re-express the
message. However, others believe that notes should be taken in whichever language is easier for
the interpreters. This, in fact, suggests that notetaking is always easier and faster in the mother
tongue than in another language.
In when to note stage, finally, the interpreters should begin taking notes right after the
speaker starts his speech. The interprets should not wait until the unit of meaning is complete
because some information may be lost and they are supposed to start rendering right after the
speaker is finished and delay in interpreting is not acceptable.
Conclusion
Having good short-term memory and strong notetaking skills are two important elements
in the process of interpreting. In fact, consecutive, simultaneous and sight interpreting require a
complex cognitive process in which the short-term memory is responsible for processing speech
sounds to grasp the intended message. Thus, much of the interpreting deals with recalling and
processing the sense of the original speaker to be timely re-expressed for the audience in a quite
different language. Sometimes, it gets quite hard, however, to interpret highly dense
information when the syntactic structure and semantic unit of source language and target
language are very different. In fact, it is the time when the role importance of notetaking
appears in the process of interpreting. Notetaking enables the interpreters to better to
concentrate and better recall information in a timely manner, and it also assists the short-term
memory to relax. Therefore, interpreters should develop good short-term memory capacity
through extensive exercise and create their own system of notetaking to greater aid them in the
process of interpreting.
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