Available via license: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Volume 15(1), 5-20
https://doi.org/0.32799/ijih.v15i1.33925
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
5
The Survival of Aboriginal Australians through the Harshest
Time in Human History: Community-Strength
James A. Charles, Deakin University
Lewis O'Brien, Flinders University
Aboriginal People have inhabited the Australian continent before time began, but
archaeologists and anthropologists state there is evidence for approximately 51,000 to 71,000
years of continual habitation. During this time, the Australian continent has experienced
many environmental and climatic changes, which have contributed to mass animal extinction.
The skeletal remains of Aboriginal Australians were examined for evidence, which may be
indicative of fast running which would assist survival. The skull and mandible bones of the
Kaurna People were examined for signs evolutional traits related to survival. Aboriginal
culture, knowledge of medical treatment and traditional medicines were also investigated.
Oral storytelling of factual events, passed down unchanged for millennia, contributed to
survival. The Kaurna People exhibited evolutionary facial features that would have assisted
survival. Kaurna People had excellent knowledge of medicine and the capacity to heal their
community members. The process of mobility and relocation may have embedded the need to
be mobile in some Aboriginal Australian cultures, and why many Aboriginal tribes did not
invest too much time and resources in building permanent structures and dwellings.
Navigating these extremely harsh, rapidly changing conditions is an incredible story of
survival of Aboriginal Australians. The findings of this investigation suggest that Aboriginal
Australians’ survival methods were complex and multi-faceted. Although this paper could not
examine every survival method, perhaps Aboriginal Peoples’ knowledge of flora and fauna,
(for nourishment and medicine) living in clans, and avoiding mass cohabitation was
paramount to our survival.
Keywords: Aboriginal, Australia, survival, history, community-strength
Disclaimer
In some instances, in this paper the term ‘Aboriginal’ will be used. This will occur
when the author is specifically referring to Aboriginal Australians.
Warning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: This paper has images of bones from
deceased Aboriginal (Kaurna) People; however, it should be noted the images are copies of
pictures, and not the original photographs.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge several Aboriginal communities and their representatives
below for their support and contribution to this paper. The Awabakal, Worimi, Kaurna, Biripi,
Darug, Paakantji, Ngiyampaa and the Mutthi Aboriginal communities.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
6
Introduction
Aboriginal People have a sacred
connection to our land and we have inhabited
the Australian continent before time began,
and this has been expressed by Aboriginal
Australians in our Dreaming stories,
songlines, dance, and artworks (Brazil, 2000;
Charles, 2015; Mountford, 1981; Taçon,
1991). Archaeologists and anthropologists
estimated that Aboriginal People have
inhabited the Australian continent for
approximately 51,000 to 71,000 years
(Malaspinas et al., 2016) during the
Pleistocene period (Barker, Jones, McKay, &
McLeod, 2001). During this time, there has
been many extended periods of stability and
plentiful food supply. However, the
Australian continent has experienced many
environmental and climatic changes (i.e.,
fluctuating temperatures, ice ages, fluctuating
CO2 levels, extremely high dust levels, high
ice volume, high winds, large scale bush
fires, glacial movement, low rain fall,
extreme arid conditions, limited plant
growth, evaporation of fresh water lakes, and
dramatic sea level fluctuations. Please see
Figure 1) All of these events have contributed
to mass animal extinction (Bowler, 1976;
Fielding, 2008; Johnson, 2006; Malaspinas et
al., 2016; Monroe, 2011).
Figure 1
Note. Red graph (temperature), Purple graph
(dust level), Grey graph (ice volume), Yellow
graph (CO2 level) x-axis is time in years and
y-axis is volume (Best, 2016).
The very shape of the continent has
changed dramatically with the drop and rise
of sea levels, where approximately 8,000-
10,000 years ago the continent was much
larger with sea levels 100-150m lower than
the current sea levels in 2018 (please see
Figure 2) (Monroe, 2011; Voris, 2000). At
this time of low sea levels, the Australian
state of Tasmania to the south and the nation
of Papua New Guinea to the north created
land bridges to mainland Australia. The Great
Barrier Reef on Australia’s east coast was
above sea level, the land mass at that time
was much greater than today, and created an
ancient super continent i.e., Sahul
(Malaspinas et al., 2016).
Figure 2
Note. Map of Australia showing sea level
changes and archaeological sites for selected
periods between 35,000 and 8,000 year ago
(Ulm, 2016).
Surviving in Australia over the
millennia, over some extended periods,
would have been relatively easy with food
sources and fresh water plentiful. However,
over some extended periods it would have
been incredibly difficult, where some of the
environmental and climatic changes would
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
7
have been catastrophic for many Aboriginal
tribes and unimaginably difficult by today’s
relative mild environmental conditions. The
incredible speed of climate change would
have required great adaptability of our
ancestors (Voris, 2000), and many would
have found it extremely difficult to cope
with these drastic and sudden changes
(Monroe, 2011).
This paper focuses on the incredible
survival story of Aboriginal Australians
through a period from approximately 32,000
to 17,000 years ago which would have been
difficult for all forms of life on the continent
to survive (please see Figure 1). This paper
will also examine Aboriginal Australian
knowledge, Dreaming stories, and cultural
practices to investigate links with modern
scientific facts. During this time period
(32,000 to 17,000 years ago) the temperature
would have been approximately 10-20
degrees Celsius lower than today, likely
linked to extremely low CO2 levels at that
time. The depletion of plant life from low
temperature, high winds, bush fires, and low
rainfall and consumption of plants from
large herbivores would have contributed to
the extremely high dust levels and low
visibility also seen at this time. This
reduction of plant life may have contributed
to mass extinction of large herbivores
inhabiting Sahul at this time and the domino
effect that would have also contributed to
extinction of large carnivores and impacted
on Aboriginal Peoples’ food source
(Johnson, 2006). One of the most
challenging times to survive on Sahul was
approximately 25,000 years ago at the last
ice age (Williams, Ulm, Cook, Langley, &
Collard, 2013). When the continent became
incredibly arid, CO2 levels were at a low
point, plant life would have struggled to
grow, temperature was at its lowest point for
millennia, dust levels reached its peak,
visibility was low and fresh water lakes
emptied (Figure 1-3) (Williams et al., 2013).
Conditions were extremely harsh and it is
thought that the population of Aboriginal
Australians declined by approximately 60%
(Williams et al., 2013). Although there were
many extended difficult periods to survive
on Sahul, it is this period approximately
25,000 years ago which would have required
the knowledge passed down from our
ancestors about environmental change, and
adaptability, and it is a truly incredible feat
of resilience by the Aboriginal People of
Australia. These conditions were far harsher
conditions than those experienced when
Neanderthals became extinct 70,000 to
50,000 years ago (Shea, 2008), although
there is some evidence Neanderthals
survived up until approximately 28,000
years ago (Finlayson et al., 2006). This
paper will investigate the incredible survival
story of Aboriginal People, through some of
the harshest conditions in human history, the
link between scientific evidence, and the
strength of Aboriginal cultural knowledge
and oral history.
Methods
Scientific and Aboriginal evidence
was collected for comparison. Footprints
from Lake Mungo (Mungo National Park,
NSW Australia) were examined to predict
foot arch height and approximate the speed
in which some Aboriginal men were
running. The skeletal remains from
Karraundo-ngga (Kaurna language for
Hindmarsh area in Adelaide SA Australia)
including the broken femur bone of a
Kaurna (Aboriginal) man was examined for
treatment and therapy. The skull and
mandible bones were examined for signs of
evolutional traits related to survival in tough
environmental conditions. Aboriginal
culture, and knowledge of medical
treatment, therapies, and traditional
medicines were investigated that may have
contributed to survival.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
8
Relationship
The authors are Kaurna (Aboriginal)
men from the Adelaide Plains in South
Australia and have community, cultural, and
ancestral connections to the Kaurna People
examined in this paper. The Kaurna People
are the traditional owners of the Adelaide
Plains and we still maintain our cultural
heritage, beliefs, and connection to our land
and waterways. The authors also have
relationships with many Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander communities around
Australia. Written approval from the
Willandra Lakes Region World Heritage
Area Technical and Scientific Advisory
Committee and the Community
Management Council (TSAC and CMC),
representing the Paakantji, the Ngiyampaa,
and the Mutthi Mutthi Aboriginal Peoples
was provided to visit their country and
inspect the 21,000-year-old fossil footprints.
In addition, the first author was given access
to data previously collected by these
communities. 103 Kaurna People were
removed in the 1950s from a gravesite in
Karraundo-ngga and were housed in the
South Australian museum archives.
Approval was given from Uncle Lewis
Yerloburka O’Brien (Kaurna Elder) and the
South Australian Museum to inspect skeletal
remains of the author’s ancestors.
Limitations
This project examined skeletal
remains of Aboriginal People for possible
links to survival methods and techniques.
The skeletal remains examined were also of
relatively small number and the extent of
generalizability of the characteristics of
these bones to the greater Kaurna
community is unknown. The scope of this
research was restricted and not every aspect
or survival method was investigated.
Nevertheless, the authors believe these
findings make a valuable contribution to the
current understanding of survival of
Aboriginal People through one of the
toughest environmental conditions in human
history.
Results
Aboriginal Oral History
Interestingly, Aboriginal Australians
are sometimes undermined for not having
written documented history, but it may have
been oral story telling of factual events,
passed down unchanged for millennia which
contributed greatly to our survival. Many
Aboriginal tribes have been practising
survival education for millennia with
Dreaming stories, songlines, dance,
paintings, and carvings (Broome, 1982;
Charles, 2015; Isaacs, 1980). Many
Dreaming stories are about creation, but
many are also about teaching and learning as
some of this educating is designed to assist
survival. Many Dreaming stories are often
set in conflict between right and wrong,
jealousy, arguments, and disagreements
where listeners are able to learn from the
mistakes made by animals, creators, and
ancestors in these songlines, dance, stories,
and paintings (Broome, 1982; Charles,
2015). Traditional lifestyles were able to be
guided by Dreamtime stories, designed to
keep people safe and well (e.g., eating the
right foods and using medicines in the right
amount, prepared in the right way, and at the
right time of year (season), which is like
modern day health promotion) (Broome,
1982; Charles, 2015; Isaacs, 1980). There
are many Aboriginal oral Dreaming stories
which record that sea levels were much
lower than they are today (Barker et al.,
2001; Campbell, 1967). This is of course is a
true geological environmental fact about the
Australian continent and it is incredible that
this Aboriginal oral history has been shared
down approximately 320 generations
accurately for at least 8,000 years
(Campbell, 1967). These historic stories
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
9
were kept intact and unchanged, reflecting
precisely geological facts of the Australian
continent cooperated by many different
Aboriginal tribes in the same geographical
area (Barker et al., 2001). The ancestors of
the Gunaikurnai People, the traditional
owners of Gippsland area in Victoria,
Australia, have Dreaming stories of their
country extending further south which is
now covered by the ocean today (Fison &
Howitt, 1880; Fison & Howitt, 1880). The
Wurundjeri and “Wannadrung” (Note: name
may have been misinterpreted by colonists,
it may be Wadawurrung) tribes around what
is currently Port Phillip Bay in Victoria,
were reported as stating to the colonists that
there was previously plenty of kangaroo and
possum in the Port Phillip Bay, obviously
referring to a time when the sea level was
much lower (Barker, 1854). Similar
Aboriginal Dreaming stories were told by
nearby tribes of the Mornington Peninsula,
the Bunurong People, stating the low lands
(Port Phillip Bay) became flooded very
quickly following a violent storm and the
earth shaking (earthquake) (Rogers, 1966).
The Ngarrindjeri tribe of South Australia
also had oral history passed down
generations, of being able to walk to
Kangaroo Island, which is currently several
kilometres of the coast of South Australia
(Campbell, 1967) but the track to Kangaroo
Island would have been above sea level and
part of mainland Australia 8,000 – 10,000
years ago.
Refuges for Survival
There is research that suggests that
surviving the very harsh conditions of the
last ice age in Australia approximately
25,000 years ago was to seek refuge where
there was still fresh drinkable water, cover,
and plant life (Williams et al., 2013). It is
believed that all Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander people of Australia at that time
migrated to 11 distinct refugia (please see
Figure 3) and abandoned approximately
80% of the Australian landscape temporarily
because it was uninhabitable (Williams et
al., 2013). Although this theory seems
plausible, it should be noted that this study
could not investigate every part of the
continent or other possible populations and
refugia. Interestingly, based on Williams et
al 2013 theory, the main population centres
are several hundred kilometres inland or
possibly even thousands of kilometres
inland with sea levels being much lower at
that time, which seems counterintuitive to
survival considering the sources of
sustainability the ocean could provide, so
perhaps it was a fear of potential fast rising
oceans that led to inland settlement.
Figure 3
Note. Refuges of survival during the last ice
age in Australia (Williams et al., 2013).
Athleticism and Survival
Aboriginal Australians have
demonstrated great intelligence and
knowledge of our environment, which have
developed over the millennia (Watkins et al.,
2006; Webb, Cupper, & Robins, 2006).
Some of this ability to adapt to
environmental conditions has been an
evolutionary process (Webb, 2007) as a
knowledge and understanding of flora and
fauna would have been fundamental to
survival (Westaway, 2010). Physical ability
would have been paramount to survival and
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
10
integral to many Aboriginal cultures
(Robert, 1878; Taplin, 1879; Watkins et al.,
2006). Successful hunting would have
required great intellect, knowledge of the
fauna and the environment, but obviously
athleticism was essential for hunting (Grubb,
2011). Sahul had megafauna e.g., giant
kangaroo and emu 3 metres tall, and giant
wombat weighing over 1tonne. Although
approximately 85% of megafauna became
extinct about 50,000 years ago and most
disappeared 25,000 years ago, around the
time of the last ice age (Miller et al., 1999;
Roberts et al., 2001; Wroe & Field, 2006)
there is evidence of giant kangaroo and emu
surviving 21,000 years ago in Southern
Sahul, with paw prints found at Lake Mungo
in the Willandra Lakes World Heritage area
of NSW, Australia (Johnston, 2014).
Skeletal Anatomical Features
The Kaurna People of the Adelaide
Plains area in South Australia exhibit very
large nasal cavities (please see Figure 4)
which may have assisted with extremely
harsh ice age temperatures via warming very
cold air before entering the sinus passages,
throat, and lungs. These large nostrils would
have also limited entry of pathogens like
bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Barberán et al.,
2015; Dutkiewicz, 1978; Kellogg & Griffin,
2006) preventing infection(s) that may have
been life threatening, as these large nostrils
and hair would have captured pathogens
(Gonzalez-Martin, Teigell-Perez, Lyles,
Valladares, & Griffin, 2013). The Kaurna
People also exhibited a very broad and
pronounced brow and large eye sockets
useful for protecting the eyes in extremely
dusty, windy, and smoky (from bush fires)
conditions experienced 15,000 to 35,000
years ago, helping with visibility and
limiting eye infection(s) carried in dust
(Vismer, Marasas, Rheeder, & Joubert,
2002).
Figure 4
Skull of 60-year-old Kaurna Man
The skull and accompanying
mandible (please see Figure 5) of an
approximately 60-year-old Kaurna man
show the teeth to be in excellent condition
with no decay, which was the case with all
103 skeletal remains. This is an indication
that the Kaurna People, despite the difficult
environmental conditions, managed to
maintain a healthy, balanced diet, which
included adequate calcium levels, which is
known to improve bone (Fonseca & Ward,
2004) and strength (Kornegay & Thomas,
1981). These skeletal facial features and
bone health would likely have contributed to
the Kaurna Peoples survival in harsh
environmental conditions.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
11
Figure 5
Mandible of 60-year-old Kaurna Man
Culture, Medicine and Treatments
Figure 6 contains the right and left
femur of a Kaurna man with the right femur
having a completely healed compound
fracture at the neck and shaft of the femur.
These types of injuries are very difficult to
heal, even for modern medical professionals
(Davidovitch, Jordan, Egol, & Vrahas, 2010)
and usually require fixation surgery
(Christie, Court-Brown, Kinninmonth, &
Howie, 1988; Mackenzie, 1971). Even with
the best modern surgical practices and
medicines, the rate of non-union and
necrosis with these compound fractures is
approximately 50% (Davidovitch et al.,
2010). The fact that this Kaurna man had
this injury completely healed is strong
evidence the Kaurna People were in good
health, had excellent knowledge of medicine
and therapies, with the capacity to heal our
community members, including from serious
medical emergencies. The sizable
calcification around the fracture suggests
this 60 year old man lived for at least 5 years
after the incident which caused the fracture
(likely to be a fall from a great height)
(Bourque, Gross, & HAll, 2004).
Figure 6
Compound Fracture of Right Neck and Shaft
of Femur
The fall from a great height may
have been while climbing a tree, perhaps for
hunting (possum) or finding a scoping
viewpoint, which the Kaurna and other
tribes were known to do regularly
(Lumholtz, 1889; Watkins et al., 2006). This
suggests that at least part of the Kaurna
survival strategy and perhaps part of our
success was regular tree climbing. However,
the most important evidence for the Kaurna
Peoples ability to survive is the fact that this
60year-old man survived such a severe
compound fracture of the neck and shaft of
the femur bone. This would have been a life
ending injury in many cases for people from
other cultures without knowledge of
treatment and therapies, certainly in the
harsh environmental conditions of the time.
For the Kaurna man who was in his 60s (an
Elder), to survive such a horrific injury
would have taken an extreme level of
support from the Kaurna community i.e.,
“community-strength”, certainly from many
members working together. This may be the
most important aspect of survival in these
harsh conditions -the culture of
“community-strength” within tribes- and
perhaps one of the earliest examples of
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
12
“community-care” which many Aboriginal
tribes are known for today (Berry et al.,
2010; Rowley et al., 2000). This Kaurna
man would have been in extreme pain, for a
very long period of time, and would have
been immobile for many months and would
have required constant support (Fox et al.,
2000). The recovery and rehabilitation from
such an injury would have required
knowledge of treatment, therapies, and
medicines for serious injury. Indeed, the
Kaurna People did have knowledge of
medicine to reduce pain, a shrub (pituri
plant) that produces an alkaloid which
contains nicotine (Langley & Dickinson,
1890). The Kaurna people administered
pituri in high doses to reduce pain (Langley
& Dickinson, 1890; Watkins et al., 2006;
Watson, 1983). Pituri would have been an
important medicine (narcotic) (Johnston &
Cleland, 1933) with a compound fracture,
which would have been incredibly painful.
The possibility to die from blood loss
would have been possible with an injury of
this type. However, if the person did not
bleed out, the possibility of contracting an
infection would have been the greatest risk
of a life-ending event. The Kaurna People
had knowledge of medicine to prevent
and/or treat infection and this would have
been paramount to this man’s survival.
Honey has been used by Aboriginal
Australians for thousands of years to treat
wounds and a variety of skin complaints,
including the Kaurna People (Boorn et al.,
2010). Although it had been dismissed by
many western medical professionals for
many years, it is now commercially
available for many purposes (e.g.,
MediHoney). MediHoney has been shown to
be effective for a variety of wounds
including those colonised or infected with
multi-resistant staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) (Blaser, Santos, Bode, Vetter, &
Simon, 2007). Other studies showed
MediHoney to be effective against 58 strains
of staphylococcus aureus and 20 strains of
pseudomonas, and that honey dressing were
able to produce sterile wounds in 3-10 days
(Molan, 1999). It would have been likely
that this man’s wound would have been
treated with Honey as an antibacterial. Tea
Tree oil has also been used by many
Aboriginal Australian tribes as a disinfectant
against bacteria, fungi, and many other skin
problems (Carson, Hammer, & Riley, 2006;
Tong, Altman, & Barnetson, 1992),
including an effective agent against MRSA
(Caelli, Porteous, Carson, Heller, & Riley,
2000). This Aboriginal Australian traditional
medicine was also ignored by western
practitioners but is now commercially
available and widely used. The knowledge
of the properties of Tea Tree Oil, by the
Kaurna and other tribes and its abundance,
means it is very likely it would have been
used to treat this Kaurna man’s wound. The
Kaurna People would have had this man lay
in a bed of eucalyptus leaves and applied
some leaves directly to the wound site as an
antibiotic, as the leaves dry they will also
absorbed fluid and cushion the wound site.
There are many other traditional Aboriginal
medicines and treatments used for wounds,
pain, and injury that the Kaurna People
would have likely used (Watkins et al.,
2006). There was traditional knowledge of
medicines for inflammation that were widely
available to the Kaurna People and useful in
the treatment of this man (Devanesen,
2000). Many modern surgical techniques
involve surgical screws and internal braces
to the bone for such a fracture this Kaurna
man experienced (Christie et al., 1988). This
injury and accompanying wound would have
needed bracing of some form for it to heal
and reduce pain and allow union of the bone
(Herbert & Fisher, 1984) and the Kaurna
People did have exceptional knowledge of
human anatomy (Watkins et al., 2006). The
amount of sizable calcification tells us that
this man did in fact get back up and was
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
13
weight bearing for several years, which is an
incredible outcome and a credit to the
Kaurna Peoples knowledge and community-
strength.
Discussion
Aboriginal Oral History
The ancient historical geological
knowledge held by these Aboriginal
Peoples, of their country would have
assisted their survival. Knowing the
potential for massive sudden geological shift
and potential rise and fall of sea levels and
spread of disease would have likely
influenced their decisions about where to
live. Whether or not to have permanent
settlement at one site and committing great
time and resources in settling permanently
on the coast, or low-lying land. It is well-
documented that the Kaurna People of
Adelaide Plains in South Australia would
only have temporary dwellings and shift
from near the coast to the shelter of the hills
seasonally and main settlements that were
several kilometres inland. The Kaurna
People also spread out and lived in family
groups and clans (Watkins et al., 2006). This
regular rotation of dwelling was about flora
and fauna regeneration and disease
prevention i.e., leaving human and animal
waste behind to decompose. Interestingly
the permanent settlement at one single site,
and rapid gathering of the masses in
European cities led to the death of millions
from disease (Scott, Duncan, & Duncan,
1996). Perhaps the culture of nomadic
rotation of sites and dwellings of many
Aboriginal Australian tribes, living
separately of family groups and clans, but
supporting the entire tribe was based on
knowledge that was passed down from our
ancestors to look after mother earth, allow
regeneration, and preventing disease spread.
This was also based on preservation of time
and resources that could be lost with the
fluctuation of sea level and climate change.
This Aboriginal knowledge and culture of
community-strength would have contributed
to the survival of Aboriginal Australians.
Refuges for Survival
The mobility of these Aboriginal
People over such long distances to reach
refugia, through such incredibly difficult
environmental conditions, is staggering.
This mobility truly would have been a
“survival of the fittest” and certainly many
sacrifices would have had to been made to
reach these destinations. One can only image
the desperate journey to arrive at these
refugia. This is a clear demonstration of the
community-strength, adaptability, and
resilience of the Aboriginal People of
Australia. This process of mobility and
relocation may have embedded the need to
be mobile in some Aboriginal Australian
cultures, and why many Aboriginal tribes
did not invest too much time and resources
in building permanent structures and
dwellings and resisted cohabitation in one
large group (Watkins et al., 2006).
Athleticism and Survival
To successfully hunt these very large
and fast moving pre-historic animals it
would have taken great skill, knowledge and
athleticism by the Aboriginal People of this
time (Charles, 2017, 2018). Modern day
wombats have a top speed of 40km/hr,
kangaroos have a top speed of 70 km/hr, and
emu are one the fastest land birds on the
planet at 50km/hr (Bennett, 1987; Garland,
1983; Heglund, Fedak, Taylor, & Cavagna,
1982). There is no evidence for the running
speed of giant wombat, kangaroo and emu
but because of their size, and similar ratio,
they may have been even faster than their
modern relatives. However, regardless of
their speed, their size and strength alone
would have made hunting these giant
animals much harder and would have likely
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
14
take great athleticism and teamwork from
many members of the community. Despite
their possible great speed and known size of
these pre-historic animals, several studies
reported that Aboriginal Australians were
very successful hunters of megafauna
(Miller et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 2001;
Wroe & Field, 2006). This successful
hunting style, relying on community-
strength would have contributed to the
survival of Aboriginal Australians.
In conjunction with the required
knowledge of their environment, flora and
fauna, Aboriginal Peoples have evolved foot
structure and function that is conducive to
athleticism, which would have improved
hunting success and assisted their survival.
The first author has recently demonstrated
some aspects of foot and ankle morphology
and function that are highly prevalent in
modern day Aboriginal Peoples, including a
high arched foot type and reduced ankle
joint range of dorsiflexion (ankle equinus)
(Charles, 2015, 2017). The author found
ankle equinus was highly prevalent
especially in males and most commonly
affected the gastrocnemius muscle (Charles,
2015, 2017). This previous research
indicated that both the foot arch type and the
range of ankle joint dorsiflexion affected
plantar pressures, with a tendency to
increase the duration and degree of forefoot
loading (Charles, 2017, 2018), and this is
thought to have contributed to the
athleticism of Aboriginal Australians.
Although due to the cross-sectional nature of
these studies, the findings are not
generalizable to the total Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander population.
Although not generalizable, it is
possible both an ankle equinus and a high
arch foot type are an evolutionary
biomechanical development to increase
running speed and thereby improve hunting
ability and survival (Nigg, Cole, &
Nachbauer, 1993). The great running speed
of ancient Aboriginal Australians has been
documented at Lake Mungo in the Willandra
Lakes World Heritage area of NSW,
Australia (Johnston, 2014). Some of the men
running at Lake Mungo, are taking
approximately 25 steps to travel an
approximately 50 metres or if extrapolated
50 steps to travel 100m (Charles, 2018).
This stride pattern is similar to some of the
modern world’s high performance athletes
(Hanon & Gajer, 2009). If the Aboriginal
men at Lake Mungo are taking 50 steps to
travel 100m this would be an estimated sub
11 seconds to run 100m (Faccioni, 2016).
Using a pace calculator (Net, 2016) this is an
estimated top speed of 35km/h. It must also
be considered that these men were running
barefoot, in soft ground (mud), and likely
carrying a weapon(s) and/or other item(s)
(Charles, 2018). However, these calculations
of the ancient Aboriginal men running
100m, is an estimate based on an
extrapolation of a 50m run, and there is no
way of knowing if these men could have
maintained this stride pattern. This
athleticism would have been a key
component of survival of Aboriginal
Australians. Especially having to travel vast
distances to reach refuges and escape
unviable land and unliveable environmental
conditions (Williams et al., 2013). However,
athleticism and the ability run fast would
have only been part of the survival though
the last ice age.
Culture, Medicine and Treatments
It could be argued that the Kaurna
Peoples knowledge and use of traditional
medicines, therapies, and treatments would
have certainly contributed greatly to our
survival through difficult environmental
conditions.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
15
Conclusion
The Australian continent has
experienced many environmental and
climatic changes over the millennia that
would have been an extremely challenging
for the Aboriginal People of Australia.
However, a period of two thousand years,
approximately 24,000 to 26,000 years ago
which would have been especially tough to
survive through. Navigating these extremely
harsh, rapidly changing conditions is an
incredible story of survival of Aboriginal
Australians. The findings of this
investigation suggest that Aboriginal
Australians survival methods were complex
and multi-faceted. There is evidence of an
evolutionary component to survival,
including facial features and biomechanics
that would have contributed to survival.
Aboriginal Australians have demonstrated
incredible endurance and fitness for mobility
and a strong “will” to survive. However,
perhaps our community mindedness and
community-strength is a very powerful tool
of resilience and resistance. Our culture,
knowledge, and understanding of flora and
fauna for nourishment and medicine and
other medical treatments was paramount to
the survival of Aboriginal Australians. The
benefits of living in family groups or clans
and avoiding mass cohabitation, knowledge
was passed down from ancestors and was a
key aspect of preventing the spread of
disease, seen in other continents like Europe.
The potential for rapid change to earth’s
environment and its impact on all
inhabitants experienced by Aboriginal
Australians is perhaps a lesson for modern
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people of our
earth.
References
Barberán, A., Ladau, J., Leff, J. W., Pollard,
K. S., Menninger, H. L., Dunn, R. R., &
Fierer, N. (2015). Continental-scale
distributions of dust-associated bacteria
and fungi. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 201420815.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.142081511
2
Barker, J. E., Jones, F. F., McKay, H. F., &
McLeod, P. (2001). Gadi mirrabooka :
Australian Aboriginal tales from the
dreaming (H. F. McKay Ed.).
Englewood, Colo: Libraries Unlimited.
Barker, W. (1854). Report from the Select
Committee of the Legislative Council on
the Claims for the Discovery of Gold in
Victoria: together with the proceedings
of Committee, minutes of evidence and
appendix. Melbourne: John Ferres,
Government Printer.
Bennett, M. (1987). Fast locomotion of
some kangaroos. Journal of Zoology,
212(3), 457-464.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-
7998.1987.tb02916.x
Berry, H. L., Butler, J. R., Burgess, C. P.,
King, U. G., Tsey, K., Cadet-James, Y.
L., . . . Raphael, B. (2010). Mind, body,
spirit: co-benefits for mental health
from climate change adaptation and
caring for country in remote Aboriginal
Australian communities. New South
Wales Public Health Bulletin, 21(6),
139-145.
https://doi.org/10.1071/NB10030
Best, C. (2016, October 08). When is the
next Ice Age due? Retrieved from
http://clivebest.com/blog/?p=7344
Blaser, G., Santos, K., Bode, U., Vetter, H.,
& Simon, A. (2007). Effect of medical
honey on wounds colonised or infected
with MRSA. Journal of wound care,
16(8), 325-328.
https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2007.16.8
.27851
Boorn, K., Khor, Y. Y., Sweetman, E., Tan,
F., Heard, T., & Hammer, K. (2010).
Antimicrobial activity of honey from
the stingless bee Trigona carbonaria
determined by agar diffusion, agar
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
16
dilution, broth microdilution and time-
kill methodology. Journal of applied
microbiology, 108(5), 1534-1543.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2672.2009.04552.x
Bourque, W. T., Gross, M., & HAll, B. K.
(2004). Expression of four growth
factors during fracture repair.
International Journal of Developmental
Biology, 37(4), 573-579.
Bowler, J. M. (1976). Aridity in Australia:
Age, origins and expression in aeolian
landforms and sediments. Earth-Science
Reviews, 12(2), 279-310.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-
8252(76)90008-8
Brazil, J. (2000). Dreamtime superstore:
Encountering Australian aboriginal
beliefs. Third Text, 14(50), 61-72.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0952882000857
6837
Broome, R. (1982). Aboriginal Australians:
Allen & Unwin Sydney.
Caelli, M., Porteous, J., Carson, C., Heller,
R., & Riley, T. (2000). Tea tree oil as an
alternative topical decolonization agent
for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus. Journal of Hospital Infection,
46(3), 236-237.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-
6701(00)90830-2
Campbell, A. H. (1967). Aboriginal
traditions and the prehistory of
Australia. The Australian Journal of
Anthropology, 6(10), 476.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1835-
9310.1967.tb01351.x
Carson, C., Hammer, K., & Riley, T. (2006).
Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: a
review of antimicrobial and other
medicinal properties. Clinical
microbiology reviews, 19(1), 50-62.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-
62.2006
Charles, J. (2015). An evaluation and
comprehensive guide to successful
aboriginal health promotion. Austr
Indigen Health Bull, 16(1), 1-8.
Retrieved from
http://healthbulletin.org.au/articles/an-
evaluation-and-comprehensive-guide-
to-successful-aboriginal-health-
promotion
Charles, J. (2017). An investigation into
ankle joint dorsiflexion, musculoskeletal
injury, arch height, foot pressure and
diabetes in association with poor foot
health outcomes in an Aboriginal
population. (Research Doctorate -
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) By
Publication), University of Newcastle,
Newcastle. Retrieved from
http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/1353477
(uon:31102)
Charles, J. (2018). Musculoskeletal injury
and the correlation with foot plantar
pressure in an Australian Aboriginal
population. Australian Indigenous
Health Bulletin, 18(1). Retrieved from
http://healthbulletin.org.au/articles/musc
uloskeletal-injury-and-the-correlation-
with-foot-plantar-pressure-in-an-
australian-aboriginal-population
Christie, J., Court-Brown, C., Kinninmonth,
A., & Howie, C. (1988). Intramedullary
locking nails in the management of
femoral shaft fractures. The Journal of
bone and joint surgery. British volume,
70(2), 206-210.
https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-
620X.70B2.3346289
Davidovitch, R. I., Jordan, C. J., Egol, K. A.,
& Vrahas, M. S. (2010). Challenges in
the treatment of femoral neck fractures
in the nonelderly adult. Journal of
Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 68(1),
236-242.
https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e3181
c428ce
Devanesen, D. D. (2000). Traditional
Aboriginal medicine practice in the
Northern Territory.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
17
Dutkiewicz, J. (1978). Exposure to dust-
borne bacteria in agriculture.
Environmental studies. Archives of
Environmental Health: An International
Journal, 33(5), 250-259.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00039896.1978.
10667344
Faccioni, A. (2016). Complete Sprinting
Technique. Retrieved from
http://www.adriansprints.com/2011/03/c
omplete-sprinting-technique-
charlie.html
Fielding, C. R., Frank, T. D., Birgenheier, L.
P., Rygel, M. C., Jones, A. T., &
Roberts, J. (2008). Stratigraphic record
and facies associations of the late
Paleozoic ice age in eastern Australia
(New South Wales and Queensland).
https://doi.org/10.1130/2008.2441(03)
Finlayson, C., Giles Pacheco, F., Rodríguez-
Vidal, J., Fa, D. A., María Gutierrez
López, J., Santiago Pérez, A., . . .
Sakamoto, T. (2006). Late survival of
Neanderthals at the southernmost
extreme of Europe. Nature, 443, 850.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05195
Fison, L., & Howitt, A. (1880). Kamilaroi
andKurnai. In: George Roberston,
Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide and
Brisbane.
Fison, L., & Howitt, A. W. (1880).
Kamilaroi and Kurnai: Group Marriage
and Relationship, and Marriage by
Elopement... Also the Kurnai Tribe:
Their Customs in Peace and War:
George Robertson.
Fonseca, D., & Ward, W. E. (2004).
Daidzein together with high calcium
preserve bone mass and biomechanical
strength at multiple sites in
ovariectomized mice. Bone, 35(2), 489-
497.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2004.03.0
31
Fox, K., Magaziner, J., Hawkes, W., Yu-
Yahiro, J., Hebel, J., Zimmerman, S., . .
. Michael, R. (2000). Loss of bone
density and lean body mass after hip
fracture. Osteoporosis International,
11(1), 31-35.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s001980050003
Garland, T. (1983). The relation between
maximal running speed and body mass
in terrestrial mammals. Journal of
Zoology, 199(2), 157-170.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-
7998.1983.tb02087.x
Gonzalez-Martin, C., Teigell-Perez, N.,
Lyles, M., Valladares, B., & Griffin, D.
W. (2013). Epifluorescent direct counts
of bacteria and viruses from topsoil of
various desert dust storm regions.
Research in microbiology, 164(1), 17-
21.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2012.08
.009
Grubb, P. L. (2011). Persistence Hunting
and the Evolution of Human Endurance
Running. Graduate Student Journal of
Anthropology, 33.
Hanon, C., & Gajer, B. (2009). Velocity and
Stride Parameters of World-Class 400-
Meter Athletes Compared With Less
Experienced Runners. The Journal of
Strength & Conditioning Research,
23(2), 524-531.
https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318
194e071
Heglund, N. C., Fedak, M., Taylor, C., &
Cavagna, G. (1982). Energetics and
mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. IV.
Total mechanical energy changes as a
function of speed and body size in birds
and mammals. Journal of Experimental
Biology, 97(1), 57-66.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.44.0
30182.000525
Herbert, T. J., & Fisher, W. E. (1984).
Management of the fractured scaphoid
using a new bone screw. The Journal of
bone and joint surgery. British volume,
66(1), 114-123.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
18
https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-
620X.66B1.6693468
Isaacs, J. (1980). Australian dreaming:
40,000 years of Aboriginal history:
Lansdowne Press Sydney.
Johnson, C. (2006). Australia's Mammal
Extinctions : A 50,000 year history. Port
Melbourne: Cambridge University
Press.
Johnston, H. (2014). The Willandra Lakes
Region World Heritage Area, New
South Wales, Australia: Land Use
Planning and Management of
Aboriginal and Archaeological
Heritage. In Archaeological Dimension
of World Heritage (pp. 39-55):
Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-
4939-0283-5_4
Johnston, T. H., & Cleland, J. B. (1933).
The history of the Aboriginal narcotic,
pituri. Oceania, 4(2), 201-223.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-
4461.1933.tb00101.x
Kellogg, C. A., & Griffin, D. W. (2006).
Aerobiology and the global transport of
desert dust. Trends in ecology &
evolution, 21(11), 638-644.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.00
4
Kornegay, E., & Thomas, H. (1981).
Phosphorus in Swine. II. Influence of
Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Levels
and Growth Rate on Serum Minerals,
Soundness Scores and Bone
Development in Barrows, Gilts and
Boars 1. Journal of animal science,
52(5), 1049-1059.
https://doi.org/10.2527/jas1981.525104
9x
Langley, J. N., & Dickinson, W. L. (1890).
Pituri and nicotin. The Journal of
physiology, 11(4-5), 265-306.
https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1890.sp
000332
Lumholtz, C. (1889). Among cannibals: an
account of four years' travels in
Australia and of camp life with the
Aborigines of Queensland: London: J.
Murray.
Mackenzie, D. B. (1971). Simultaneous
ipsilateral fracture of the femoral neck
and shaft: report of 8 cases. South
African Medical Journal, 45(4), 459-
467.
Malaspinas, A.-S., Westaway, M. C.,
Muller, C., Sousa, V. C., Lao, O.,
Alves, I., . . . Willerslev, E. (2016). A
genomic history of Aboriginal
Australia. Nature, 2016(538), 207.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18299
Miller, G. H., Magee, J. W., Johnson, B. J.,
Fogel, M. L., Spooner, N. A.,
McCulloch, M. T., & Ayliffe, L. K.
(1999). Pleistocene Extinction of
<em>Genyornis newtoni</em>: Human
Impact on Australian Megafauna.
Science, 283(5399), 205-208.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.539
9.205
Molan, P. C. (1999). The role of honey in
the management of wounds.
https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.1999.8.8.
25904
Monroe, M. H. (2011). Australia: The Land
Where Time Began. In. Australia: M. H.
Monroe.
Mountford, C. P. (1981). Aboriginal
conception beliefs: Hyland House
Melbourne.
Net, C. (2016). Pace Calculator. Retrieved
from http://www.calculator.net/pace-
calculator.html?ctype=pace&ctime=00
%3A00%3A10&cdistance=100&cdista
nceunit=Meters&cpace=00%3A08%3A
10&cpaceunit=tpm&printit=0&x=53&y
=9
Nigg, B. M., Cole, G. K., & Nachbauer, W.
(1993). Effects of arch height of the foot
on angular motion of the lower
extremities in running. Journal of
biomechanics, 26(8), 909-916.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
19
https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-
9290(93)90053-H
Robert, B. (1878). The Aboriginies of
Victoria (Vol. 1).
Roberts, R. G., Flannery, T. F., Ayliffe, L.
K., Yoshida, H., Olley, J. M., Prideaux,
G. J., . . . Smith, B. L. (2001). New
Ages for the Last Australian
Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction
About 46,000 Years Ago. Science,
292(5523), 1888-1892.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1060264
Rogers, H. (1966). The early history of the
Mornington Peninsula: Hallcraft
Publishing Company.
Rowley, K. G., Daniel, M., Skinner, K.,
Skinner, M., White, G. A., & O'Dea, K.
(2000). Effectiveness of a community-
directed ‘healthy lifestyle’program in a
remote Australian Aboriginal
community. Australian and New
NZeland Journal of Public Health,
24(2), 136-144.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
842X.2000.tb00133.x
Scott, S., Duncan, C. J., & Duncan, S.
(1996). The plague in Penrith, Cumbria,
1597/8: its causes, biology and
consequences. Annals of human
biology, 23(1), 1-21.
ttps://doi.org/10.1080/03014469600004
232
Shea, J. J. (2008). Transitions or turnovers?
Climatically-forced extinctions of
Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the
east Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 27(23), 2253-2270.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008
.08.015
Taçon, P. S. (1991). The power of stone:
symbolic aspects of stone use and tool
development in western Arnhem Land,
Australia. Antiquity, 65(247), 192-207.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X0007
9655
Taplin, W. J. G. (1879). The Native Tribes
of South Australia. London: E. S. Wigg.
Tong, M. M., Altman, P. M., & Barnetson,
R. S. (1992). Tea tree oil in the
treatment of tinea pedis. Australasian
Journal of Dermatology, 33(3), 145-
149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-
0960.1992.tb00103.x
Ulm, S. (2016, January 16). Map showing
sea level changes over time. Retrieved
from
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-
16/map-showing-sea-level-changes-
over-time/9333538?nw=0
Vismer, H., Marasas, W., Rheeder, J., &
Joubert, J. (2002). Fusarium dimerum as
a cause of human eye infections.
Medical mycology, 40(4), 399-406.
https://doi.org/10.1080/mmy.40.4.399.4
06
Voris, H. K. (2000). Maps of Pleistocene sea
levels in Southeast Asia: shorelines,
river systems and time durations.
Journal of Biogeography, 27(5), 1153-
1167. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-
2699.2000.00489.x
Watkins, C., Gale, M. A., Adelaide, S. I. o.,
& School, K. P. (2006). Kaurna
Alphabet Book: With an Introduction to
the Kaurna Language: Kaurna Plains
School.
Watson, P. (1983). This precious foliage: A
study of the Aboriginal psycho-active
drug pituri: University of Sydney.
Webb, S. (2007). Further research of the
Willandra Lakes fossil footprint site,
southeastern Australia. Journal of
human evolution, 52(6), 711-715.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.02.
001
Webb, S., Cupper, M. L., & Robins, R.
(2006). Pleistocene human footprints
from the Willandra Lakes, southeastern
Australia. Journal of human evolution,
50(4), 405-413.
International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol. 15, 2020
20
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.10.
002
Westaway, M. (2010). Footprints of the First
Australians. Australasian Science
(2000), 31(2), 14.
Williams, A. N., Ulm, S., Cook, A. R.,
Langley, M. C., & Collard, M. (2013).
Human refugia in Australia during the
Last Glacial Maximum and Terminal
Pleistocene: a geospatial analysis of the
25–12 ka Australian archaeological
record. Journal of Archaeological
Science, 40(12), 4612-4625.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.01
5
Wroe, S., & Field, J. (2006). A review of the
evidence for a human role in the
extinction of Australian megafauna and
an alternative interpretation. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 25(21), 2692-2703.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006
.03.005
