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Actors of the most fiendish character: Explaining the associations between the Dark Tetrad traits and conspiracist ideation

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Abstract

It remains unclear why those scoring high on certain aspects of the Dark Tetrad (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism) are more inclined to believe in conspiracy theories. The present study (N = 474) aimed to clarify this issue by investigating the associations between the facets of the Dark Tetrad traits and conspiracist ideation in the context of five potential mediators. At least one facet of every Dark Tetrad trait was associated with conspiracist ideation, and nearly every association could be attributed, in part, to the tendency for those with aversive personalities to entertain odd beliefs, be fatalistic, and distrust others. Contrary to what the prior research might suggest, these results indicate that the conspiracist ideation found among those scoring high in the Dark Tetrad traits is the result of some shared feature of the traits rather than a feature that is unique to each trait.

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... Regarding the dark triad, narcissism and machiavellianism in particular have been shown to be positive predictors of conspiracy beliefs (e.g. Kay, 2021;Teličák & Halama, 2020). Cichocka et al. (2016) claimed that a narcissistic personality is more prone to conspiracy beliefs due to a tendency towards paranoid beliefs, as narcissistic personalities are overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. ...
... Cichocka et al. (2016) claimed that a narcissistic personality is more prone to conspiracy beliefs due to a tendency towards paranoid beliefs, as narcissistic personalities are overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. In addition, machiavellians have a low level of trust in the environment and a higher need for control, which can be compensated for by conspiracy beliefs (Douglas et al., 2017;Kay, 2021). Maladaptive personality traits have been used in several studies and are represented by an alternative model of personality disorders (PID-5) (APA, 2013). ...
... In our study, we focused on the Big Five personality traits and maladaptive traits as defined in the Personality Inventory for DSM-5. Several other trait models might be relevant to conspiracy theory, e.g., the dark triad (Kay, 2021) or cognitively based traits such as analytic cognitive style (Ballová Mikušková, 2021). These were not investigated here, but could also be important predictors or interact with other variables in predicting conspiracy beliefs. ...
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The aim of the study was to investigate how general personality traits (Big Five) and maladaptive traits (Personality Inventory for DSM-5) predict specific conspiracy beliefs related to COVID-19 and the Russian-Ukrainian war. 925 participants from Slovakia, recruited via an online panel of a research agency (50.6% women, mean age 50.9 years), were interviewed in October 2021 with the Big Five Inventory Short (BFI-S) and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 Brief Form (PID-5-BF). Later (July-August 2022 and April-May 2023), they completed the original scales to measure COVID-19 and Russian-Ukrainian war conspiracies. The results showed that after controlling for demographic variables, belief in specific conspiracies was positively predicted by extraversion and negatively predicted by agreeableness. Of the maladaptive traits, only psychoticism was a positive predictor of specific conspiracies. Since the effects were consistent across all types of conspiracies, the results suggest that personality traits may play a role in how people come to believe in specific conspiracies.
... Recientemente, se ha relacionado la mentalidad conspirativa con el narcisismo (Bowes et al., 2020;Cichocka et al., 2016;Cichocka et al., 2022;Kay, 2021b;Kay, 2021a;Stasielowicz, 2022). El trastorno de personalidad narcisista es una presentación extrema de rasgos que también se pueden observar de manera atenuada en la población no clínica, según la concepción actual (Krueger et al., 2005). ...
... Además, tanto la extraversión agéntica (por ejemplo, agrandar el ego para alcanzar admiración a través de sentirse únicos, exhibir encanto y tener fantasías de grandiosidad; Cichocka et al., 2022;Miller et al., 2021) como el antagonismo (por ejemplo, protegerse de amenazas percibidas exhibiendo rivalidad, agresión, supremacía y desprecio; Cichocka et al., 2022;Miller et al., 2021) como estrategias del narcisismo, se han asociado a la ideación conspirativa a través de diversos mecanismos Kay, 2021b;Kay, 2021a). Estos mecanismos incluyen la ideación delusoria, la credulidad, la necesidad de dominar y tener control, la paranoia y la necesidad de ser único (Ahadzadeh et al., 2021;Cichocka et al., 2022;Imhoff & Lamberty, 2017;Kay, 2021b;Kay, 2021a;Lantian et al., 2017;Sternisko et al., 2021;Suessenbach & Moore, 2020). ...
... Además, tanto la extraversión agéntica (por ejemplo, agrandar el ego para alcanzar admiración a través de sentirse únicos, exhibir encanto y tener fantasías de grandiosidad; Cichocka et al., 2022;Miller et al., 2021) como el antagonismo (por ejemplo, protegerse de amenazas percibidas exhibiendo rivalidad, agresión, supremacía y desprecio; Cichocka et al., 2022;Miller et al., 2021) como estrategias del narcisismo, se han asociado a la ideación conspirativa a través de diversos mecanismos Kay, 2021b;Kay, 2021a). Estos mecanismos incluyen la ideación delusoria, la credulidad, la necesidad de dominar y tener control, la paranoia y la necesidad de ser único (Ahadzadeh et al., 2021;Cichocka et al., 2022;Imhoff & Lamberty, 2017;Kay, 2021b;Kay, 2021a;Lantian et al., 2017;Sternisko et al., 2021;Suessenbach & Moore, 2020). ...
Article
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El auge de las teorías conspirativas ha generado interés en estudiar sus factores, necesidades y perfiles psicológicos asociados, crucial para desarrollar estrategias efectivas que contrarresten su propagación y preserven la integridad de la información en un contexto donde estas teorías representan una amenaza para la salud pública y los procesos electorales. El propósito de este estudio fue establecer si existe una correlación entre la ideación conspirativa/la mentalidad conspirativa ―la predisposición a creer, buscar y explicar la realidad con teorías conspirativas― y el narcisismo; y si la presencia de una mentalidad conspirativa podría predecir rasgos narcisistas. 143 participantes fueron reclutados a través de redes sociales y admitidos si eran mayores de edad residentes en Santo Domingo, República Dominicana durante los últimos cinco años. Correlacionamos las subescalas de la Escala Genérica de Creencias Conspirativas y del Inventario de Personalidad Narcisista y realizamos una regresión lineal. Observamos una relación pequeña y significativa entre algunas facetas del narcisismo y el factor de encubrimiento extraterrestre. También se encontró una correlación pequeña y significativa entre el exhibicionismo y el factor de corrupción gubernamental. Los resultados de la regresión lineal sugieren que cambios en la mentalidad conspirativa podrían llevar a cambios correspondientes en los rasgos narcisistas. Las correlaciones débiles podrían indicar que la mentalidad conspirativa se relaciona con el narcisismo pero que este último es explicado por otras variables no abordadas en este estudio. Estos resultados pueden entenderse en el contexto de las necesidades narcisistas que son satisfechas, en parte, por las teorías conspirativas.
... The Dark Tetrad comprises four related but distinct traits: Machiavellianism, which refers to manipulation, exploitation, and a cynical worldview; narcissism, which refers to grandiosity and entitlement; psychopathy, which refers to lack of empathy, guilt, and remorse (primary psychopathy), as well as impulsivity and thrill seeking (secondary psychopathy); and sadism which is reflected in enjoyment of other people's suffering and pain (e.g., Chabrol et al., 2009). Previous research showed that all Dark Tetrad traits positively correlated with conspiracy ideation (Kay, 2021). However, among Dark Triad (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), only Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy showed significant effects (March & Springer, 2019) and psychopathy emerged as dominant correlate of BCTs about COVID-19 (Ahadzadeh et al., 2021). ...
... Cichocka et al. (2016) showed that paranoid thoughts partially mediated the relationship between narcissism and BCTs. Furthermore, the tendency to have odd beliefs and to be fatalistic fully mediated the relationships between Dark Tetrad traits and conspiracist ideation (Kay, 2021). In this study, we took a step forward to explore the general cognitive mechanism that could explain relationships between dark traits and BCTs. ...
... Serbian adaptation of the following instruments was used: 15-item Generic Conspiracist Belief Scale (GCBS; Dinić et al., 2023a) measuring conspiracy belief related to government malfeasance, malevolent global conspiracies, extraterrestrial cover-up, personal wellbeing, and control of information; 5-item Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ; Milošević Đorđević et al., 2021) as a measure of general BCTs, across cultures (due to high correlations between the GCBS and CMQ, the first principal component was used as a conspiracy measure, in line with Kay, 2021); 10-item Rational-Experiential Inventory-short form (REI-short form; 9 items were from Purić & Jokic, 2021 and one is translated), measuring rational and experiential cognitive style; 18-item Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (NARQ; Dinić et al., 2023b) measuring two dimensions of grandiose narcissism, narcissistic admiration and rivalry; Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Dinić et al., 2023b) ...
Article
The aim of this study was to investigate the direct effects of the Dark Tetrad traits on beliefs in conspiracy theories as well as the indirect effects via rational and experiential cognitive styles. The study included 259 participants from the community population in Serbia. The results showed direct positive effects of Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy, and secondary psychopathy on conspiracy beliefs. Furthermore, only the rational cognitive style showed a significant mediation role, but the direction of its effect depends on the specific dark trait. Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, and narcissistic rivalry had an indirect effect on belief in conspiracy theories through a lower tendency toward rational style, while narcissistic admiration had an indirect effect through a higher tendency toward rational style. Surprisingly, the experiential cognitive style did not emerge as a significant mediator.
... Many studies tried to relate the Dark Triad or Dark Tetrad traits with conspiracy beliefs. Narcissism has been proved to be a positive predictor of conspiracy beliefs (Cichocka et al., 2016;Golec de et al., 2018;Teličák and Halama, 2020;Kay, 2021), although there are small number of studies that showed no effect of narcissism on higher propensity to believe in conspiracies (e.g. March & Springer, 2019). ...
... Machiavellianism, characterized by manipulativeness and strategic orientation (Jones & Paulhus, 2014), has been also found as a predictor of conspiracy beliefs (March & Springer, 2019;Teličák & Halama, 2020;Kay, 2021). The reason can be based on the assumption that machiavellians have low trust in the environment and, at the same time, a higher need for control, what is compensated by conspiracy beliefs (Douglas et al., 2017;Kay, 2021). ...
... Machiavellianism, characterized by manipulativeness and strategic orientation (Jones & Paulhus, 2014), has been also found as a predictor of conspiracy beliefs (March & Springer, 2019;Teličák & Halama, 2020;Kay, 2021). The reason can be based on the assumption that machiavellians have low trust in the environment and, at the same time, a higher need for control, what is compensated by conspiracy beliefs (Douglas et al., 2017;Kay, 2021). The positive relationship between psychopathy and conspiracy beliefs has been noted in some studies (March & Springer, 2019;. ...
Article
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The present study focused on whether Dark Tetrad characteristics (machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism) predict conspiracy beliefs (COVID-19 related and general) in the Slovak population. Three independent samples were used for the study. The first sample consisted of 804 (73.9% women) university students of the middle-sized Slovak university. The second sample consisted of 489 (61.2% women) Facebook users. The third group was recruited from an online panel of a research agency and included 600 respondents (49% women). The results provided different findings for the three research samples. Results showed that machiavellianism was a positive predictor of conspiracy beliefs (COVID-19 and general) among respondents from a research agency and a university (general only). Psychopathy positively predicted COVID-19 and general conspiracy beliefs only among respondents from the Facebook sample. Narcissism positively pre dicted COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs among university students. The results of the study suggest that there is no consistent pattern of relationship between Dark Tetrad and conspiracy beliefs across different samples in Slovakia. Future research should focus on whether these inconsistencies are due to sample characteristics or they express lack of stable relationships between these two psychological variables.
... Anomie A tendency to believe that social conditions and institutions are irreparably crumbling; typically a marker for social alienation 58,59 Argumentative A tendency to argue with others, especially when beliefs clash 60 Dogmatism A tendency to stubbornly and narrow-mindedly cling to one's beliefs, while disregarding or derogating the beliefs of others, regardless of evidence 60,61 Machiavellianism An anti-social personality trait characterized by willingness to manipulate others toward the end of gaining power [62][63][64][65] Narcissism An anti-social personality trait characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and need for admiration by others [62][63][64][65] Psychopathy An anti-social personality trait characterized by a lack of empathy and remorse, and egotism [62][63][64][65] Distrust of government Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of government 58 Distrust of police Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of police 58 Interest in politics Typically operationalized as the level of interest in or time spent following political news or campaigns 12,15 Manicheanism A tendency to view life as a constant struggle between good and evil 15,66 National narcissism A tendency to hold an inflated, exaggerated view of one's nation 67,68 Populism A tendency to view politics as a struggle between the inherently good "people" and the corrupt, evil "elite" 14 Trump support Typically operationalized using vote choice or feelings toward Trump 12,64 Social media usage Typically operationalized as the frequency of time spent on various platforms 33,76 Share false info. online A willingness to share online information one knows to be false 7 ...
... Anomie A tendency to believe that social conditions and institutions are irreparably crumbling; typically a marker for social alienation 58,59 Argumentative A tendency to argue with others, especially when beliefs clash 60 Dogmatism A tendency to stubbornly and narrow-mindedly cling to one's beliefs, while disregarding or derogating the beliefs of others, regardless of evidence 60,61 Machiavellianism An anti-social personality trait characterized by willingness to manipulate others toward the end of gaining power [62][63][64][65] Narcissism An anti-social personality trait characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and need for admiration by others [62][63][64][65] Psychopathy An anti-social personality trait characterized by a lack of empathy and remorse, and egotism [62][63][64][65] Distrust of government Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of government 58 Distrust of police Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of police 58 Interest in politics Typically operationalized as the level of interest in or time spent following political news or campaigns 12,15 Manicheanism A tendency to view life as a constant struggle between good and evil 15,66 National narcissism A tendency to hold an inflated, exaggerated view of one's nation 67,68 Populism A tendency to view politics as a struggle between the inherently good "people" and the corrupt, evil "elite" 14 Trump support Typically operationalized using vote choice or feelings toward Trump 12,64 Social media usage Typically operationalized as the frequency of time spent on various platforms 33,76 Share false info. online A willingness to share online information one knows to be false 7 ...
... Anomie A tendency to believe that social conditions and institutions are irreparably crumbling; typically a marker for social alienation 58,59 Argumentative A tendency to argue with others, especially when beliefs clash 60 Dogmatism A tendency to stubbornly and narrow-mindedly cling to one's beliefs, while disregarding or derogating the beliefs of others, regardless of evidence 60,61 Machiavellianism An anti-social personality trait characterized by willingness to manipulate others toward the end of gaining power [62][63][64][65] Narcissism An anti-social personality trait characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and need for admiration by others [62][63][64][65] Psychopathy An anti-social personality trait characterized by a lack of empathy and remorse, and egotism [62][63][64][65] Distrust of government Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of government 58 Distrust of police Typically operationalized as attitudinal distrust of police 58 Interest in politics Typically operationalized as the level of interest in or time spent following political news or campaigns 12,15 Manicheanism A tendency to view life as a constant struggle between good and evil 15,66 National narcissism A tendency to hold an inflated, exaggerated view of one's nation 67,68 Populism A tendency to view politics as a struggle between the inherently good "people" and the corrupt, evil "elite" 14 Trump support Typically operationalized using vote choice or feelings toward Trump 12,64 Social media usage Typically operationalized as the frequency of time spent on various platforms 33,76 Share false info. online A willingness to share online information one knows to be false 7 ...
Article
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While a robust literature on the psychology of conspiracy theories has identified dozens of characteristics correlated with conspiracy theory beliefs, much less attention has been paid to understanding the generalized predisposition towards interpreting events and circumstances as the product of supposed conspiracies. Using a unique national survey of 2015 U.S. adults from October 2020, we investigate the relationship between this predisposition—conspiracy thinking—and 34 different psychological, political, and social correlates. Using conditional inference tree modeling—a machine learning-based approach designed to facilitate prediction using a flexible modeling methodology—we identify the characteristics that are most useful for orienting individuals along the conspiracy thinking continuum, including (but not limited to): anomie, Manicheanism, support for political violence, a tendency to share false information online, populism, narcissism, and psychopathy. Altogether, psychological characteristics are much more useful in predicting conspiracy thinking than are political and social characteristics, though even our robust set of correlates only partially accounts for variance in conspiracy thinking.
... For example, primary psychopathic people were found to believe in conspiracy theories because they assume that others are manipulative as they are (Douglas & Sutton, 2011). Moreover, antisocial facets of psychopathy were associated with higher conspiracist ideation (Kay, 2021). Narcissism also predicted an increased belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories (Blanchard et al., 2023;Gligorić et al., 2021;Sternisko et al., 2021) and intentional dissemination of COVID-19-related conspiracy theories (Sternisko et al., 2021). ...
... Psychopathy is associated with the tendency to believe in a conspiracy (Hughes & Machan, 2021;March & Springer, 2019) because the higher odd beliefs/magical thinking strengthens the sense of control (Swami et al., 2011). Machiavellianism is associated with conspiracy theories because of paranoia, feelings of lack of control in life, and high distrust of others as well as elite organisations (Kay, 2021). Machiavellians usually identify themselves with people with power in the government and tend to act like them, that is, using the same manipulative tactics (Douglas & Sutton, 2011). ...
... Although this scale bypasses the issue of timeconsuming assessment and response fatigue in participants, it allows only a unidimensional evaluation of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism. As shown in previous research (Kay, 2021), DT can be evaluated considering a fine-grained approach to the internal structure of the DT, including primary and secondary psychopathy, grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, as well as a more granular evaluation of Machiavellianism (Volmer et al., 2019). Furthermore, future research could extend the impact of other personality taxonomies, such as the Light Triad, HEXACO and proactive personality. ...
Article
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With the spread of the Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the mass vaccination plan represents the primary weapon to control the infection curve. Unfortunately, vaccine hesitancy also spread out worldwide. This led to exploring the critical factors that prevent vaccination from improving the efficacy of vaccine campaigns. In the present study, the role of the Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) in vaccine hesitancy was investigated, considering the sequential mediating effects of conspiracy beliefs and risk perception. Via a cross-sectional design, the study was conducted with 210 participants surveyed using an online questionnaire to assess the Dark Triad, vaccine hesitancy, conspiracy beliefs, risk perception, and a set of demographic and socio-cultural control variables. Results showed that conspiracy beliefs and risk perception fully mediated the association between the Dark Triad and vaccine hesitancy. This finding suggested that albeit personality accounts for individual differences in human behaviour, vaccine hesitancy is also affected by irrational and false beliefs that, in turn, weaken the risk perception associated with COVID-19. Implications and future research directions were discussed.
... March and Springer (2019) found Machiavellianism was positively associated with government conspiracy beliefs (r = 0.67). Similarly, Kay (2021) showed how Machiavellians' distrust of others was associated with conspiracist ideation. Hughes and Machan (2021) also found Machiavellianism was positively associated with COVID conspiracy beliefs. ...
... For mediators, we expect narcissism to be associated with conspiracy beliefs. Kay (2021) found that narcissism is associated with conspiracist ideation. Recent research shows that narcissism accounts for 4% (Bowes, Costello, Ma, & Lilienfeld, 2021) and 4.9% (Ahadzadeh, Ong, & Wu, 2021) in the variance in conspiracy beliefs. ...
... We predict that psychopaths would be willing to buy crypto. For mediation, psychopathy has been associated with COVID conspiracy beliefs (Hughes & Machan, 2021;Kay, 2021). The impulsivity of psychopaths (Paulhus, 2014) may lead them to experience crypto FoMO. ...
Article
Markets for cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin have experienced tremendous growth. Yet little research has examined why people want to buy cryptocurrencies that are risky investments. The present research studies a subset of people interested in cryptocurrencies. Specifically, we examine the effect of Dark Tetrad traits (Machiavellianism, subclinical narcissism, subclinical psychopathy, and subclinical sadism) on a person's crypto attitude and buying intention. The following mediators were examined as reasons for people buying crypto: (1) conspiracy beliefs (e.g., distrust of government), (2) positivity and (3) fear of missing out (FoMO). Importantly, we are not suggesting all crypto buyers exhibit Dark Tetrad traits. Based on a pre-registered survey of the main research question rather than hypotheses (N = 566), it was found that narcissism was positively associated with crypto attitude which was mediated by positivity. Machiavellianism was associated with buying intention which was mediated by conspiracy beliefs. Machiavellians were more distrustful of government which was associated with a greater desire to buy crypto. Psychopathy affected crypto judgments through FoMO and a negative effect on positivity. Sadism is associated with FoMO and a lack of positivity which affects crypto judgments.
... Most of the prior research on the association between narcissism and conspiracist ideation has focused on this grandiose variant. Researchers have, for example, demonstrated that grandiose narcissism is associated with both general conspiracy theories (Cichocka, Marchlewska, & Golec de Zavala, 2016;Kay, 2021) and conspiracy theories about COVID-19 specifically (Kay, 2020;Malesza, 2020). To our knowledge, only two studies (i.e., Jolley & Paterson, 2020;March & Springer, 2019) have investigated the association between vulnerable narcissism and conspiracist ideation, and the researchers found that-at least when considered at the zero-order level-vulnerable narcissism was associated with believing in conspiracy theories. ...
... It seems plausible that people scoring high on grandiose and vulnerable narcissism could believe unusual things about, for example, the government because they are more likely to believe in unusual things more generally. Kay (2021) has, in fact, shown that delusional thinking accounts for the association between grandiose narcissism and conspiracist ideation. Likewise, March and Springer (2019) demonstrated that the association of both grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism with conspiracist ideation disappears when controlling for the presence of odd beliefs, potentially because partialling out delusional ideation removes the portion of both forms of narcissism that is relevant to conspiracist ideation. ...
... In line with this notion, grandiose narcissism has been theoretically and empirically linked to wanting to be unique (Back et al., 2013;de Bellis, Sprott, Herrmann, Bierhoff, and Rohmann, 2016;Emmons, 1984;Lee, Gregg, & Park, 2013;Lee & Seidle, 2012;Ohmann & Burgmer, 2016), and wanting to be unique has been linked to believing in conspiracy theories (Lantian, Muller, Nurra, & Douglas, 2017). Nonetheless, it is important to note that Kay (2021) found relatively limited evidence that a desire for uniqueness mediates the association between grandiose narcissism and conspiracist ideation, owing to a small association between uniqueness and conspiracist ideation (i.e., β = 0.02). ...
Article
The present cross-sectional study (NParticipants = 397; NInformants = 460) examined the association of both grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism with conspiracy beliefs in the context of four theoretically-relevant mediators. Participants who were higher in grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism were more likely to believe in conspiracy theories, seemingly because they were more likely to hold unusual beliefs. There was, likewise, some evidence to suggest that vulnerable narcissists believe in conspiracy theories because they suffer from paranoia, whereas grandiose narcissists believe in conspiracy theories because of a desire to be unique. Together, these results suggest that the conspiracist ideation seen among grandiose and vulnerable narcissists is a consequence of features that are shared between and unique to each of the traits.
... It, therefore, seems plausible that people scoring high on grandiose and vulnerable narcissism could believe unusual things about, for example, the government because they are more likely to believe in unusual things more generally. Kay (2021) has, in fact, shown that delusional thinking mediates the association between grandiose narcissism and conspiracist ideation. Likewise, March and Springer (2019) demonstrated that the association of both grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism with conspiracist ideation disappears when controlling for the presence of odd beliefs, potentially because partialling out delusional ideation removes the portion of both types of narcissism that is relevant to conspiracist ideation. ...
... Thus, if those scoring high in grandiose narcissism feel a greater need for control-as is suggested by (a) the central position of authority in many conceptualizations of grandiose narcissism (e.g., Glover, Miller, Lynam, Crego, & Widiger, 2012;Raskin & Terry, 1988) and (b) the consistent associations between grandiose narcissism and assertiveness (Miller et al., 2010(Miller et al., , 2011)-they may gravitate towards conspiracy theories as a way to satisfy that desire. Indeed, Kay (2021) has found some evidence that a desire for control mediates the association between the more leadership-oriented aspects of grandiose narcissism and conspiracist ideation. ...
... As expected-and consistent with previous research on grandiose narcissism (Kay, 2021)-delusional ideation explained some of the association between both forms of narcissism and conspiracist ideation. This was the case both when the mediator was tested alone and when accounting for the other mediators. ...
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A number of recent studies have examined whether those high in grandiose narcissism are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories. Few studies have, however, considered whether those high in vulnerable narcissism are also apt to believe in conspiracy theories, and none have attempted to identify the mechanisms that link these two forms of narcissism to conspiracy beliefs. The present study (N Participants = 397; N Informants = 460) investigated the relation of both grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism with conspiracist ideation in the context of four theoretically-relevant mediators: (a) delusional ideation, (b) paranoia, (c) the need for uniqueness, and (d) the desire for control. Participants who were higher in grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism were more likely to believe in conspiracy theories, seemingly because they were more likely to hold odd and unusual beliefs. There was, likewise, some evidence to suggest that those high in vulnerable narcissism believe in conspiracy theories because they suffer from paranoia, whereas those high in grandiose narcissism believe in conspiracy theories because of a desire to be unique. Together, these results suggest that the conspiracist ideation seen among those high in grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism is a consequence of features that are shared between and unique to each of the two traits.
... Kay (2020) on the other hand found that Machiavellian views were negatively associated with conspiratorial thinking, arguing that the general distrust found in those with higher levels of Machiavellianism also translates to distrust in authority figures. Kay (2021) further found that sadism, and aspects of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism are positively related to conspiratorial ideation. Hughes and Machan (2021) found that primary psychopathy is positively associated with conspiracy beliefs and conspiracy dissemination (see also March & Springer, 2019). ...
... Those with higher levels of grandiose narcissism also have a need to be unique (e.g., Emmons, 1987), and a need for uniqueness is related to believing in conspiracies (Lantian et al., 2017). Further, Kay (2021) found that a desire for control also mediates the relationship between narcissism and belief in conspiracies. ...
Chapter
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The checkered history of false knowledge, deliberate (disinformation) or otherwise (misinformation), has been long and varied, ranging from propaganda to memes. In recent times, the crisis of misinformation has been amplified owing to multiple agents on social media, usually comprising user-driven platforms where unchecked “facts” can be posted. This chapter explores the intersection of dark creativity and misinformation, particularly conspiratorial misinformation. Dark creativity refers to the use of ideational processes to meet less desirable (and even harmful) goals. Recent research has also reconceptualized conspiracies as creative narratives, and therefore, we propose features common to creative and conspiratorial thinking. We also discuss features associated with individuals who may be more susceptible to believing and spreading misinformation, as well as their creative characteristics. The chapter also proposes ways to emerge from the crisis, harnessing critical thinking skills that can assist in debunking or pre-bunking misinformation.
... We found that GCB and LCB were correlated with the Dark Triad traits. We replicated previous findings that conspiracy beliefs-general and local-are correlated the Dark Triad traits (Kay, 2021), and men had faster life history strategies overall and in terms of Machiavellianism and psychopathy. Additionally, the correlation between LCB and problematic coping strategies differed in men and women, but neither correlation was significant on its own. ...
... This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. and conspiracy beliefs can be explained by a sense of lack of control and the accompanying desire to reestablish that control, as well as a general tendency to distrust others (Kay, 2021). From an evolutionary perspective, organisms need to detect and deal with threats to fulfill fundamental tasks such as survival and reproduction. ...
Article
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Conspiracy beliefs may be a way to cope with a difficult and threatening world. In this exploratory study (N = 360; 51.4% men; Mage = 32.39, SD = 10.62), we tried to understand (a) general and (b) popular conspiracy beliefs in Poland using a life history perspective by examining their correlations with retrospective reports of one’s childhood conditions and three self-reported indicators of life history strategies: the Dark Triad traits, coping strategies, and life history strategy. We found that both kinds of conspiracy beliefs were associated with the Dark Triad traits and self-reports of a difficult childhood, but only general conspiracy beliefs were related to problematic coping strategies. Although conspiracy beliefs were not associated with life history strategy, we showed that perceptions of growing up in stressful environments may lead people to hold conspiracy beliefs, and we propose that this may be an adaptive response based on early life experiences.
... Our examination of psychological correlates is primarily confined to personality traits, such as Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism-each of which are related to conspiracy theory beliefs [35][36][37] . We also consider potential downstream products of these antisocial personality traits that have also been found to correlate with conspiracy theory beliefs, such as the tendency to knowingly share false information online, support the use of violence, and distrust government and other people 35,[38][39][40] . ...
... Our examination of psychological correlates is primarily confined to personality traits, such as Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism-each of which are related to conspiracy theory beliefs [35][36][37] . We also consider potential downstream products of these antisocial personality traits that have also been found to correlate with conspiracy theory beliefs, such as the tendency to knowingly share false information online, support the use of violence, and distrust government and other people 35,[38][39][40] . We focus on personality traits because they-perhaps unlike other psychological factors such as cognitive biases (e.g., conjunction fallacy, intentionality bias) or existential motives (e.g., feelings of powerlessness)-appear to actually structure conspiratorial belief systems 38 . ...
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Understanding the individual-level characteristics associated with conspiracy theory beliefs is vital to addressing and combatting those beliefs. While researchers have identified numerous psychological and political characteristics associated with conspiracy theory beliefs, the generalizability of those findings is uncertain because they are typically drawn from studies of only a few conspiracy theories. Here, we employ a national survey of 2021 U.S. adults that asks about 15 psychological and political characteristics as well as beliefs in 39 different conspiracy theories. Across 585 relationships examined within both bivariate (correlations) and multivariate (regression) frameworks, we find that psychological traits (e.g., dark triad) and non-partisan/ideological political worldviews (e.g., populism, support for violence) are most strongly related to individual conspiracy theory beliefs, regardless of the belief under consideration, while other previously identified correlates (e.g., partisanship, ideological extremity) are inconsistently related. We also find that the correlates of specific conspiracy theory beliefs mirror those of conspiracy thinking (the predisposition), indicating that this predisposition operates like an ‘average’ of individual conspiracy theory beliefs. Overall, our findings detail the psychological and political traits of the individuals most drawn to conspiracy theories and have important implications for scholars and practitioners seeking to prevent or reduce the impact of conspiracy theories.
... They will believe that others may have other motives (e.g., they want to use me to achieve their goals; Bereczkei et al., 2010). This feeling of being used by others will lead to a sense of loss of control for Machians (Kay, 2021a) and their inability to satisfy their sense of dominance. ...
... This, to some extent, triggers their sense of losing control (Douglas et al., 2017). This sense of loss of control will further stimulate Machians' desire for dominance (Kay, 2021a), and an individual's sense of dominance and desire for control can be satisfied to a certain extent by possessing ownership of knowledge (Brown et al., 2014). Some studies have found that affective relationships can strengthen the relationship between Mach and abusive supervision; that is, affective relationships strengthen the negative impact of Mach (Lyons et al., 2019). ...
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This research examines the relationship between employees’ Machiavellianism and knowledge hoarding. Socioanalytic theory is used to explore the mediating role of knowledge-based psychological ownership, and trait activation theory is used to explore the moderating role of employee relationships. A questionnaire survey was administered to 335 full-time employees in China to collect data for the analysis, which was performed using hierarchical regression and bootstrapping. The results show that Machiavellianism positively predicts knowledge hoarding. Moreover, knowledge-based psychological ownership plays a partial mediating role between Machiavellianism and knowledge hoarding. Both affective relationships and instrumental relationships can moderate the relationship between Machiavellianism and knowledge-based psychological ownership and the mediation of Machiavellianism on knowledge hoarding via knowledge-based psychological ownership. This research enriches the theoretical framework of knowledge hoarding activities and provides theoretical guidance and empirical evidence for organisations seeking to effectively manage negative knowledge activities.
... However, beyond further establishing its reliability and criterion validity, Study 2 was intended to assess the construct validity of the GCB-5. To do so, we examined its associations with three variables that it should, theoretically, be associated with-delusional ideation Darwin et al., 2011;Dagnall et al., 2015;Furnham & Grover, 2021;Swami et al., 2011Swami et al., , 2016van der Tempel & Alcock, 2015); interpersonal trust (Lantian et al., 2016;Wagner-Egger & Bangerter, 2007); and anomie (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Goertzel, 1994)-and with one variable that it should, theoretically, not be associated with-trustworthiness (but see Douglas & Sutton, 2011;Kay, 2021a). ...
... 2 This dataset was previously reported in Kay (2021a). Data concerning the self-report-based measures of the BCTI-21 and the Big Five personality traits, as well as the informant-report-based measures of the Big Five personality traits and conspiracist ideation, were not reported in the previous study. ...
Article
The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCB-15) is a reliable and valid measure of conspiracist ideation, but it is also inefficient. At 15 items, the GCB-15 can take upwards of four minutes to complete. Here we introduce the GCB-5—a 5-item, short form of the GCB-15. Across five studies, we use self- and informant-report methods to demonstrate that the GCB-5 is a reliable, criterion-valid, and construct-valid measure of conspiracist ideation. In the final study, we further provide evidence that the GCB-5 has promise for addressing novel research questions. Specifically, we show that people high in conspiracist ideation—as assessed by the GCB-5—are more accepting of the use of nuclear weapons and other forms of so-called “virtuous violence” (e.g., anti-abortion legislation).
... The effect of narcissism on conspiracy beliefs has been replicated in various contexts by multiple labs [9,10, 11,12,13,14]. For example, Siem and colleagues [15] directly replicated Study 3 of Cichocka and colleagues [5] in a German sample. ...
... For example, Hart and colleagues [31] found that those scoring high in narcissistic rivalry/antagonism (but not admiration/agentic extraversion) were more gullible, that is insensitive to cues of untrustworthiness and vulnerable to being manipulated. Furthermore, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f studies consistently show that both grandiose (especially its antagonistic, but less consistently agentic extravertive, component [12]) and vulnerable (its antagonistic and neurotic components [12]) narcissism are associated with a predisposition towards odd and unusual beliefs [32,13,14]. Conspiracy theories can be one example of such beliefs. ...
Article
Narcissism—a conviction about one’s superiority and entitlement to special treatment—is a robust predictor of belief in conspiracy theories. Recent developments in the study of narcissism suggest that it has three components: antagonism, agentic extraversion, and neuroticism. We argue that each of these components of narcissism might predispose people to endorse conspiracy theories due to different psychological processes. Specifically, we discuss the role of paranoia, gullibility, and the needs for dominance, control, and uniqueness. We also review parallel findings for narcissistic beliefs about one’s social groups. We consider the wider implications this research might have, especially for political leadership. We conclude by discussing outstanding questions about sharing conspiracy theories and other forms of misinformation.
... Moreover, some approaches suggested that the potential explanation for the connection with conspiracy theories may differ for each of the Dark Tetrad traits, and some indicated that they have a similar background. For instance, Kay (2021) suggested that conspiracist ideation may result from the common core of Dark Tetrad traits rather than features unique to each trait. In his study, most of the relationships between facets of Dark Tetrad traits and conspiracist ideation were explained by the propensity to entertain odd beliefs, be fatalistic, and distrust others. ...
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There is no easy explanation for why some people believe in conspiracy theories. Susceptibility to conspiracy theories can be associated with a range of various factors in which both psychological and situational components play a significant role. In this article, I aim to provide a review of potential psychological and situational factors that fuel conspiracy theorising, focusing primarily on examples relating to politics. Moreover, I aim to analyse the effects of conspiracy theories on society and politics. At the beginning, I will define the key terms used in psychology research. Then, I will discuss psychological factors. I will review current research on predispositions that drive people to believe conspiracy theories. These may comprise psychological motives (epistemic, existential, and social), cognitive factors (e.g. intuitive thinking style), personality traits (e.g. maladaptive traits), or worldviews (e.g. authoritarian worldviews). In the next section, I aim to illuminate situational factors. Large-scale and threatening events may drive people to seek explanations in the wrong places, specifically, in conspiracies. A notable example is the COVID-19 pandemic when the popularity of conspiracy theories greatly increased. Overall, a combination of specific predispositions and situations may significantly contribute to higher levels of conspiracy beliefs, which, consequently, severely impact society.
... Not long ago, we would have agreed with Andrews and colleagues (2023). In fact, as recently as 2021, the first author of this response was using the term "dark" in his own work (e.g., Kay, 2021). However, several years ago, we discovered a body of research that made us rethink our position. ...
Article
Andrews and colleagues (2023) assert that there are a number of issues with our recent article, “Taking an elemental approach to the conceptualization and measurement of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy” (Kay & Arrow, 2022). Many of these issues seem to stem from common misconceptions about the elemental approach and aversive personality trait research generally. We address eight of those misconceptions here.
... For conspiracy mentality, several studies indeed revealed associations with personality traits; however, findings remain mixed and scattered overall. Most consistent evidence is available for socially aversive traits, such as the Dark Triad (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy; e.g., Bowes et al., 2021;Kay, 2021;Stasielowicz, 2022), and for dispositional distrust (e.g., Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Brotherton et al., 2013), all of which are positively linked to conspiracy mentality. However, Big Five Agreeableness-which ought to capture both low levels of socially aversive tendencies and high levels of trust-was unrelated to conspiracy mentality in a recent meta-analysis across 13 studies (Goreis & Voracek, 2019; for similar results, see Stasielowicz, 2022). ...
Article
Populism and beliefs in conspiracy theories fuel societal division as both rely on a Manichean us-versus-them, good-versus-evil narrative. However, whether both constructs have the same dispositional roots is essentially unknown. Across three studies conducted in two different countries and using diverse samples (total N = 1,888), we show that populism and conspiracy mentality have a strong common core as evidenced using bifactor modeling. This common core was uniquely linked to (aversive) personality, namely the Dark Factor of Personality (D), beyond basic personality traits from the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure. The association between D and the common core was, in turn, fully accounted for by distrust-related beliefs as captured in cynicism, dangerous and competitive social worldviews, sensitivity to befallen injustice, and (low) trust propensity. Taken together, the results show that populism and conspiracy mentality have a shared psychological basis that is well described as a socio-politically flavored manifestation of generalized dispositional distrust. The findings thus underscore the value of generalized trust for societal functioning and suggest that increasing trust may simultaneously combat both populism and beliefs in conspiracy theories.
... In the same line Authoritarianism also proved to be a precursor of CT beliefs (Prichard and Christman, 2020). So the literature presents us with wide support to the idea that those with aversive personalities (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism) are more prone to entertain odd beliefs/magic thinking, be fatalistic, and distrust others and, in that way, believe in CTs (March and Springer, 2019;Walter and Drochon, 2020;Kay, 2021). ...
Article
In a world where brands find increasing difficulties to communicate their message, in part due to the splitting consumer’s attention and in part due to the difficulty in having consumers believe their messages, we also notice everyday growth of conspiracy theories in many fields (politics, health, social relations, …) who seem to thrive and find it easier than ever to enter people’s lives and gather believers. Can marketing learn something from the success of major conspiracy theories and their facility in reaching people’s attention and earning their trust? Should it? Should marketing fear the success of conspiracy theories as they seem to result from decentralized and uncontrolled forms of communication and tribe creation? This paper sets out to acquire lessons from the success of Conspiracy Theories (CTs) that can be applied by SMEs and startups. For that purpose, a survey was used to collect primary data, using constructs that measure people’s conspiracy tendencies (generic conspiracy beliefs scale), their attitude toward advertising and their personality profile (Big Five Inventory – BFI). The data gathered was used to look for correlations. Are people with the more positive view of advertising more prone to believe in CTs? Is there some relation between BFI’s personality profiles and CT belief or negativistic views of advertising? Is there some relation between the information sources people prefer and their tendency to adopt conspiracy beliefs and/or more positive attitudes towards advertising? The results show a clear positive correlation between peoples’ conspiracy belief tendencies and their attitude towards ads. Conspiracy beliefs were modelled as a result of attitude towards ads, age, social class and belief in popular myths. These results provided hints for startups/SMEs marketing strategies, by suggesting that larger advertising budgets can be fought with strategies based on different communication channels (surely social networks) and messages centered on the most common script for conspiracy theories, “big corporations / big brother doesn’t want you to know this”.
... Second, we examine personality disorder (PDs) correlates of CT beliefs which has hitherto been ignored. There have been a number of studies examining the DarkTriad and CTs [12][13][14][15][16] but these examined only two of the many PDs recognised by recent editions of American and European psychiatric manuals [17]. Indeed, there are good theoretical reasons to believe that the other disorders (i.e. ...
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This study explored how the Big Five personality traits, as well as measures of personality disorders, are related to two different measures of conspiracy theories (CTs)The two measures correlated r = .58 and were applied to examine generalisability of findings. We also measured participants (N = 397) general knowledge levels and ideology in the form of religious and political beliefs. Results show that the Big Five and ideology are related to CTs but these relationships are generally wiped out by the stronger effects of the personality disorder scales. Two personality disorder clusters (A and B) were significant correlates of both CT measures, in both cases accounting for similar amounts of variance (20%). The personality disorders most predictive of conspiracy theories were related to the A cluster, characterized by schizotypal symptoms such as oddities of thinking and loose associations. These findings were corroborated by an additional analysis using Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA). LSA demonstrated that the items measuring schizotypal and related symptoms are cognitively related to both our measures of CTs. The implications for the studying of CTs is discussed, and limitations are acknowledged.
... In the same line Authoritarianism also proved to be a precursor of CT beliefs (Prichard and Christman, 2020). So the literature presents us with wide support to the idea that those with aversive personalities (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism) are more prone to entertain odd beliefs/magic thinking, be fatalistic, and distrust others and, in that way, believe in CTs (March and Springer, 2019;Walter and Drochon, 2020;Kay, 2021). ...
... Indeed, D was positively associated with post-truth epistemic beliefs (Rudloff et al., 2022). D as well as individual dark traits such as Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy were further related to the endorsement of conspiracy theories (Ahadzadeh et al., 2021;Douglas & Sutton, 2011;Kay, 2021;Rudloff et al., 2022). Some (but not all) studies show that scores on dark traits increase with a more conservative, right-wing political orientation (e.g., Arvan, 2013;Jonason, 2015;Vize et al., 2018). ...
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General Audience Summary The development of effective countermeasures against the distribution of mis- and disinformation, relies on knowledge as to which individuals are more likely to fall for fake news. People have different worldviews regarding facts and knowledge (epistemic beliefs). People differ in how much emphasis they put on evidence when evaluating the accuracy of information and how much they prioritize their intuition. Moreover, people have different views as to whether there are independent facts or whether “facts” are created by politicians. We assumed that individuals who prefer to trust their intuition, who put little emphasis on evidence and who think that facts are formed by those in power (post-truth epistemic beliefs) are particularly susceptible to fake news. Prior research has shown that these beliefs are connected to dark personality traits, more specifically the Dark Factor of Personality. People with a pronounced Dark Factor of Personality only act for their own benefit without caring for others and hold beliefs that justify their behavior. In an online experiment, we presented factually accurate and inaccurate news posts and asked participants to rate the accuracy of the news posts. Our results show that people with post-truth epistemic beliefs and a pronounced Dark Factor of Personality distinguished less between accurate and fake news. Based on our results, we recommend educating children and adolescents to develop sophisticated epistemic beliefs, which would help them differentiate between accurate and inaccurate news and more broadly, improve their ability to form opinions and to make decisions based on evidence.
... However, beyond further establishing its reliability and criterion validity, Study 2 was intended to assess the construct validity of the GCB-5. To do so, we examined its associations with three variables that it should, theoretically, be associated with-delusional ideation (Barron et al., 2018;Darwin et al., 2011;Dagnall et al., 2015;Furnham & Gover, 2021;Swami et al., 2013Swami et al., , 2016van der Tempel & Alcock, 2015); interpersonal trust (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Goertzel, 1994; THE GENERIC CONSPIRACIST BELIEFS SCALE -5 14 Lantian et al., 2016;Wagner-Egger & Bangerter, 2007); and anomie (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Goertzel, 1994)-and with one variable that it should, theoretically, not be associated with-trustworthiness (but see Douglas & Sutton, 2011;Kay, 2021a). ...
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The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCB-15) is a reliable and valid measure of conspiracist ideation, but it is also inefficient. At 15 items, the GCB-15 can take upwards of four minutes to complete, limiting its usefulness in situations where administration time and participant attention are limited. Here we introduce the GCB-5—a 5-item, short form of the GCB-15. Across five studies, we demonstrate that the GCB-5 is both a reliable and valid measure of conspiracist ideation. With respect to its reliability, we find consistent evidence that a single latent factor underlies the GCB-5 and accounts for a sizeable proportion of the variation in its items. With respect to its validity, we show that the GCB-5 is associated with both self- and informant-report measures of conspiracist beliefs, as well as with a multitude of theoretically relevant constructs, including anomie, fatalism, and delusional ideation. In the final study, we provide evidence that the GCB-5 is not only a reliable and valid measure but also one that has promise for addressing novel research questions. Specifically, we show that people high in conspiracist ideation—as assessed by the GCB-5—are more accepting of the use of nuclear weapons and other forms of so-called “virtuous violence” (e.g., the death penalty; anti-abortion legislation).
... They might, for instance, view social and romantic relationships as instrumental means of achieving social status (Balakrishnan et al., 2017;Jonason & Zeigler-Hill, 2018;Kay, 2022). Dark traits correlate with self-direction thoughts (i.e., a reduced openness to change), as well as a right-wing political ideology, conservativeness, conspiracist ideation and a competitive view of the world (Balakrishnan et al., 2017;Bardeen & Michel, 2019;Duspara & Greitemeyer, 2017;Furnham & Horne, 2022;Hart et al., 2020;Kay, 2021;Ziegler-Hill et al., 2020), selective extremism behavior (Tetreault & Sarma, 2021). Moreover, all traits were associated with study addiction, psychopathy negatively predicting this behavior and Machiavellianism and sadism positively predicting it (Kircaburun, Jonason, et al., 2021), and procrastination . ...
Article
With this meta-analytic review, we aimed to estimate the relationship that sadistic personality has with the Dark Triad traits and, secondarily, describe the research on the Dark Tetrad traits. We searched for articles in the following databases, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, PubMed, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS, and Web of Science, where we found 128 articles to qualitatively evaluate and 103 articles to quantitatively analyze. Sadism correlated with narcissism (r = 0.26), Machiavellianism (r = 0.43), and psychopathy (r = 0.58). The most common themes across the studies were: (a) structural aspects of the Dark Tetrad; (b) online behavior; (c) aggressiveness; (d) moral beliefs and behavior; (e) video games; (f) sexual behavior, and (g) emotional functioning. The Dark Tetrad traits correlated with several dysfunctional behaviors and socially maladaptive outcomes. Finally, sadism is potentially more similar to psychopathy and Machiavellianism, than narcissism.
... Accordingly, Machiavellianism has been linked to a tendency to believe in conspiracy theories and increased willingness to conspire (Douglas & Sutton, 2011). More recently, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy were found to be associated with the endorsement of generic (Kay, 2021) and COVID-19 specific conspiracy theories (Ahadzadeh et al., 2021). Following our line of argument, individuals high in D should trust their intuition when confronted with conspiratorial ideas and refrain from relying on evidence. ...
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Objective: Global challenges such as climate change or the COVID-19 pandemic have drawn public attention to conspiracy theories and citizens' non-compliance to science-based behavioral guidelines. We focus on individuals' worldviews about how one can and should construct reality (epistemic beliefs) to explain the endorsement of conspiracy theories and behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic and propose the Dark Factor of Personality (D) as an antecedent of post-truth epistemic beliefs. Method and results: This model is tested in four pre-registered studies. In Study 1 (N = 321), we found first evidence for a positive association between D and post-truth epistemic beliefs (Faith in Intuition for Facts, Need for Evidence, Truth is Political). In Study 2 (N = 453), we tested the model proper by further showing that post-truth epistemic beliefs predict the endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracies and disregarding COVID-19 behavioral guidelines. Study 3 (N = 923) largely replicated these results at a later stage of the pandemic. Finally, in Study 4 (N = 513), we replicated the results in a German sample, corroborating their cross-cultural validity. Interactions with political orientation were observed. Conclusion: Our research highlights that epistemic beliefs need to be taken into account when addressing major challenges to humankind.
... Beliefs in conspiracy theories are related to a number of individual differences, which appear stable in healthy subjects and characterize conspiracist ideation (Swami et al., 2010(Swami et al., , 2011(Swami et al., , 2013Swami and Furnham, 2012;Swami, 2012;Kay, 2021). From a psychological perspective, these individual differences are characterized by the presence of anxiety, stress, cognitive biases, and a tendency to experience new emotions (openness to experience) (Brotherton and French, 2014;Swami et al., 2016;Cichocka et al., 2015). ...
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Conspiratorial belief is a type of argument that accepts implausible explanations in situations of great uncertainty or mystery. Claiming that the coronavirus is an artificial fabrication of laboratories is an example of conspiracist belief. The aim of this research was to analyze the impact of conspiracist ideation and psychotic-like experiences in patients with schizophrenia, patients with other mental disorders, and participants with no psychiatric history with a 132-day follow-up during the COVID-19 crisis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied and Bayesian inferences were carried out. The results conclude that conspiracist ideation and psychotic-like experiences increased significantly after 132 days of social-health restrictions in the general population. However, psychotic-like experiences did not increase in patients with schizophrenia. Conspiracist ideation has a quantitative degradation similar to the continuum model of psychosis; it is present both in patients with schizophrenia and in those participants with no clinical history. The psychopathological value of conspiracist ideation within the spectrum of psychosis is discussed.
... On evaluation of the evidence, it is apparent that for many of the measures, the scales do not semantically or conceptually correspond at an intersex level. Although the Dark Tetrad has been and continues to be a prominent focus of empirical attention (Kay, 2021;Pineda et al., 2021), criticisms referring to the disparity between sexes are wellfounded. Although previous research has attempted to refine existing measures, such as the Mach IV, to attain invariance , they concluded that revision of the scale was unfruitful and newer measures of Machiavellianism should be used. ...
Article
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There has been an absence of consideration regarding measurement invariance across males and females in the widely available Dark Tetrad (DT) scales which measure psychopathy, Machiavellianism, narcissism and everyday sadism. This has resulted in criticisms of the measures, suggesting that the assessed constructs are not wholly relatable between the groups. This article documents the construction and validation of the Dark Side of Humanity Scale (DSHS), which measures dark personalities from an alternative viewpoint, determined by the constructs as they emerged from the male and female data, whilst aligning with theory and attaining invariance between sex. Across four samples (n = 2409), using a diverse range of statistical methods, including exploratory graph analysis, item response theory and confirmatory factor analysis, a divergence from the widely available DT measures emerged, whereby primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism were unified. This corroborated past research which had discussed the two constructs as being parallel. It further supported the DSHS with a shift away from the traditional DT conceptualisation. The resulting scale encompasses four factors which are sex invariant across samples and time. The first factor represents the successful psychopath, factor two addresses the grandiose form of entitlement, factor three taps into everyday sadism whilst the fourth factor pertains to narcissistic entitlement rage. Construct and external validity of the DSHS across two samples (n = 1338), as well as test-retest reliability (n = 413), was achieved. The DSHS provides an alternative approach to investigating the dark side of human nature, whilst also being sex invariant, thus making it highly suitable for use with mixed sex samples.
... Finally, sadism is associated with conspiratorial beliefs about COVID-19, and sadists tend to distrust others (Kay, 2020(Kay, , 2021, which leads them not to believe in the pandemic and not take it seriously, disregarding its effects, and acting in ways that put their own health and the health of others at risk. Moreover, sadists tend to respond to a pandemic with positive affections (Hardin et al., 2021), which goes towards the main characteristic of this trait: to feel pleasure from the suffering of others (Monteiro et al., 2020). ...
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Brazil is one of the epicenters of the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., 563,470 deaths until August 9th, 2021). Since the Brazilian government is partly struggling and partly unwilling to control the pandemic, staying healthy falls almost exclusively to the population. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the predictive role of personality traits to explain the willingness to combat the COVID-19 virus. In the present study (N = 496), we investigated the Dark Pentad traits: Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, sadism, and spitefulness. Our findings revealed that the first four traits were consistently negatively associated with various measures that indicate whether the pandemic is taken seriously, such as the perceived severity of COVID-19 and intentions to act against COVID-19. Structural equation modeling further showed that general COVID-19 worry mediated the link between the Dark Pentad and adaptive and maladaptive responses. Our results indicate that all dark traits are associated with unsocial behaviors, but their relative importance varies depending on the outcome variable.
... People scoring high on the Dark Tetrad traits (e.g., Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism; Chabrol et al., 2009) are more likely to endorse COVID-19 conspiracy theories (Gligorić et al., 2021;Hughes & Machan, 2021;Kay, 2020Kay, , 2021bMalesza, 2021). This may be the result of a tendency of high-scorers to distrust others and entertain odd beliefs and delusions (e.g., believing that other people are able to read one's mind) (Kay, 2021a(Kay, , 2021bMeuer & Imhoff, 2021;Stead & Fekken, 2014). Indeed, lower interpersonal trust was associated with the artificial creation conspiracy belief among participants from New Zealand and Portugal (van Mulukom, 2020), and Serbia, but not participants from 15 Latin American countries (Jovančević & Milićević, 2020). ...
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Belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories can have severe consequences; it is therefore crucial to understand this phenomenon. We present a narrative synthesis of COVID-19 conspiracy belief research from 85 international articles, identified and appraised through a systematic review. We identify a number of significant antecedents of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs (individual differences, personality traits, demographic variables, attitudes, thinking styles and biases, group identity, trust in authorities, and social media use) and their consequences (protective behaviours, self-centred and misguided behaviours such as hoarding and pseudoscientific health practices, vaccination intentions, mental health, and other negative social consequences such as discrimination and violence). We conclude that understanding both the antecedents and consequences of conspiracy beliefs is highly important to tackle them, whether in the COVID-19 pandemic or future threats, such as that of climate change.
... When conceived and executed we could find no other studies that had looked at the factor structure of the SD4. Though we have become aware of some more recently (Hughes & Samuels, 2020;Kay, 2021;Pajevic, Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, Stevanovic, and Neumann (2018)) Recently Neumann, Jones, and Paulhus (2021) found good evidence for the factor structure of the SD4. They used various factor analyses and found evidence of the original structure particularly in the parcels that maximized item information. ...
Article
In this two-study paper we examined three dark-side measures: the short Dark Tetrad measuring four dark-side traits; the SCATI measuring 14 personality disorders (PDs) and the SAPAS a single item measure for each disorder. The first study (N = 502) looked specifically at the new Dark Tetrad. Over 500 British Adults completed it and a confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the Tetrad factor structure. There were large sex differences in half of the items. We also examined demographic, ideological and self-rated correlates which showed ratings of political beliefs and self-rated attractiveness associated with different traits. The second study (N = 273) looked at the correlations between the three measures and the overlap between self-report tests of the same trait. All four of the Tetrad traits correlated with over half of the PDs. We found the highest correlation between the two scores of Narcissism, but that the single measure most associated with Borderline, Depressive and Dependent PD. The discussion considers the use of different clinical and sub-clinical instruments which measure the same variables.
... theories. This may be the result of a tendency of high-scorers to distrust others and entertain odd beliefs and delusions (e.g., believing that other people are able to read one's mind) (Kay, 2020a;Stead & Fekken, 2014). Indeed, lower interpersonal trust was associated with the artificial creation conspiracy belief among participants from New Zealand and Portugal (van Mulukom, 2020), and 15 ...
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COVID-19 conspiracy theories emerged almost immediately after the beginning of the pandemic, and the number of believers does not appear to decline. Believing in these theories can negatively affect adherence to safety guidelines and vaccination intentions, potentially endangering the lives of many. Thus, one part in successfully fighting the pandemic is to understand the antecedents and consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, which are here presented in a rapid review summarizing research from more than 28 countries. We evaluate the contribution of individual difference variables (demographic variables, personality traits, coping with threat and uncertainty), beliefs, biases, and attitudes (epistemically suspect beliefs, thinking styles and cognitive biases, attitudes towards science), and social factors (group identities, trust in authorities, social media) to COVID-19 conspiracy theories. We discuss the consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs in regard to safeguarding behaviours (hygiene, distancing, and mask-wearing), self-centred (hoarding) and misguided behaviours (pseudoscientific practices), vaccination intentions, mental health and negative social consequences (e.g., discrimination and violence). Differences between countries as well as various conspiracy theories are considered. Summarising, we suggest that belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories is boosted by low levels of trust in a context of threat and low levels of comprehensive, accessible information in a context of uncertainty and unknowns. We conclude that research is urgently needed to address potential interventions to (re-)establish trust and provide accessible information about COVID-19.
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The “White Replacement” conspiracy theory, that governments and corporations are “replacing” white people, is linked to several mass shootings. Given its recent ubiquity in elite rhetoric, concerns have arisen about the popularity of this conspiracy theory among the United States mass public. Further, political scientists have noted a need to understand why people believe or act upon this conspiracy theory. Using a 2022 US national survey (n = 2001), we find that a third of Americans agree that leaders are replacing white people with people of color. These beliefs are related to anti-social personality traits, various forms of nationalist and authoritarian sentiments, and negative sentiments toward immigrants, minorities, women, and the political establishment. Regression analysis however fails to find significant effects of partisanship and ideology on these beliefs. Further, we observed that these beliefs are related to a desire to engage in both normative (e.g., run for political office) and nonnormative political participation (e.g., commit violence). Given the popularity of White Replacement conspiracy theories in the US and elsewhere, our findings suggest new avenues for research into potentially dangerous beliefs, as well as xenophobia, antisemitism, racism, sexism, extremism, and political violence.
Article
Investing in cryptocurrency has become more popular among Americans. Despite this, politicians and social scientists know almost nothing about the politics of cryptocurrency in the American public. By analyzing an original, nationally representative survey of 2500 American respondents, we create the first robust profile of the personalities, demographics, and political attitudes of cryptocurrency owners. We show that Americans who report hardship from inflation are more likely to own cryptocurrency, suggesting that when inflation is high, Americans may be more likely to use cryptocurrency as a medium of exchange and store of value. Americans who favor lower government spending and are more inclined toward conspiratorial thinking are also more likely to own cryptocurrency. Finally, there is a personality to cryptocurrency owners, with those open to new experiences more likely to own it and the conscientious less likely to own it. Our results have implications for how the American public may use cryptocurrency going forward.
Article
Belief in conspiracy theories—such as belief that the earth is flat or that 5G networks cause cancer—is relatively prominent in the United States. While emerging research has tied self-control to some patterns of deviant beliefs, such as belief in the paranormal, the extent to which self-control theory explains belief in conspiracy theories remains elusive. Given the breadth of belief in conspiracy theories, as well as the explanatory power of self-control theory for deviant behaviors more generally, this limitation is surprising. Using a sample of 1,231 college students, we examine the link between self-control and conspiracy beliefs. Results show that self-control is a significant indicator of belief in conspiracy theories, even after controlling for key correlates of belief. Overall, findings suggest that characteristics of low self-control promote higher endorsement of conspiracy beliefs.
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Conspiracy theories are alternate viewpoints of provided explanations; sensational stories revolving around small groups exerting control for nefarious reasons. Several negative social and personal outcomes have been established for those who endorse them. Prior research suggests several psychosocial predictors of susceptibility to conspiracy theories, including narcissistic personality traits (grandiosity, need for uniqueness), cognitive processes (critical thinking, confirmation bias) and lack of education. Study one utilised an international survey (N = 323) to investigate the role of education as a protective tool in the relationship between narcissistic traits and conspiratorial beliefs. Support was found for the hypothesis that higher levels of narcissistic traits would predict conspiracy theory endorsement. Higher education and STEM education were associated with lower levels of conspiracy endorsement, however all significant moderations indicated that for narcissistic individuals, education increased their likelihood of adopting conspiracy beliefs, contrary to expectation. To investigate this further, study two analysed a large-scale publicly available dataset (N = 51,404) to assess the relationship between narcissism, critical thinking and conspiracy beliefs pertaining to the COVID-19 pandemic. As expected, analysis found narcissism and poor critical thinking as predictors of conspiracy beliefs. Stronger critical thinking skills were found to moderate the relationship, reducing the impact of narcissism on endorsement of conspiracy theories. The relationship between collective narcissism and conspiracy belief was also moderated by critical thinking, however the effect was more modest. Findings are discussed in the context of education as a protective factor in conspiratorial belief acquisition, with regard to cognitively and socially motivated beliefs. The findings improve understanding of both the role and limitations of education/critical thinking skills as protective factors against conspiracy theory endorsement.
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Background The number of psychological studies on conspiracy beliefs has been systematically growing for about a dozen years, but in recent years, the trend has intensified. We provided a review covering the psychological literature on conspiracy beliefs from 2018 to 2021. Halfway through this period, the COVID-19 pandemic broke out, accompanied by an explosion of movements based on conspiracy theories, intensifying researchers’ interest in this issue. Methods Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, the review systematically searched for relevant journal articles published between 2018 and 2021. A search was done on Scopus and Web of Science (only peer-reviewed journals). A study was included if it contained primary empirical data, if specific or general conspiracy belief(s) were measured and if its correlation with at least one other psychological variable was reported. All the studies were grouped for the descriptive analysis according to the methodology used, the participants’ characteristics, the continent of origin, the sample size, and the conspiracy beliefs measurement tools. Due to substantial methodological heterogeneity of the studies, narrative synthesis was performed. The five researchers were assigned specific roles at each stage of the analysis to ensure the highest quality of the research. Results Following the proposed methodology, 308 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility and 274 articles (417 studies) meeting the inclusion criteria were identified and included in the review. Almost half of the studies (49.6%) were conducted in European countries. The vast majority of the studies (85.7%) were carried out on samples of adult respondents. The research presents antecedents as well as (potential) consequences of conspiracy beliefs. We grouped the antecedents of conspiracy beliefs into six categories: cognitive (e.g., thinking style) motivational (e.g., uncertainty avoidance), personality (e.g., collective narcissism), psychopathology (e.g., Dark Triad traits), political (e.g., ideological orientation), and sociocultural factors (e.g., collectivism). Conclusion and limitations The research presents evidence on the links between conspiracy beliefs and a range of attitudes and behaviors considered unfavorable from the point of view of individuals and of the society at large. It turned out that different constructs of conspiracy thinking interact with each other. The limitations of the study are discussed in the last part of the article.
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There are many examples of people believing in conspiracy theories showing non-normative behaviors. But why is this the case? The current contribution proposes that the non-normative behavior of people believing in conspiracy theories is a natural consequence of a different social reality that is associated with the belief in conspiracy theories. This social reality is characterized by a tendency for distinction and distrust in social relationships, a different perception of descriptive norms, a questioning of the injunctive norms regarding specific behaviors, lower trust in institutions and traditional authorities, as well as alternative norms among people believing in conspiracy theories.
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Background: The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic was followed by the widespread proliferation of conspiracy beliefs (CBs) regarding the origin and harmfulness of the virus and a high level of hesitancy and resistance to vaccination. We aimed to test a series of hypotheses on the correlates of CBs and vaccination. Methods: The sample (N=1203), was based on a multistage probabilistic household sampling designed to represent the general population of Serbia. We investigated correlates of CBs and vaccination, including socio-demographic factors, personality (HEXACO + Disintegration trait), somatic health, stressful experiences during pandemics (i.e. Covid-19 related and other threatening events), and psychological distress. The subjects were randomly split into two approximately equal subgroups, enabling cross-validation of the findings. Based on the significant regression predictors found in the exploratory, the SEM model was tested in the confirmatory subsample. Results: The SEM model based on the finding in the first subgroup had excellent Goodness-of-Fit indices. The most important correlates of CBs were Disintegration (proneness to psychotic-like experiences), low Openness, lower education, Extraversion, living in a smaller settlement, and being employed. The correlates of vaccination were older age, CBs, and larger places of living. Evidence on the role of both stressful experiences and psychological distress in CBs and vaccination was not found.Conclusions: The findings of moderately strong and robust (cross-validated) paths, leading from Disintegration to CBs and from CBs to vaccination were the most important ones. Our findings seem to emphasize the role of cognitive/perceptual processes in CBs and vaccination.
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Rationale Belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories can have severe consequences; it is therefore crucial to understand this phenomenon, in its similarities with general conspiracy belief, but also in how it is context-dependent. Objective The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the available research on COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and to synthesise this research to make it widely accessible. Methods We present a synthesis of COVID-19 conspiracy belief research from 85 international articles, identified and appraised through a systematic review, in line with contemporary protocols and guidelines for systematic reviews. Results We identify a number of potential antecedents of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs (individual differences, personality traits, demographic variables, attitudes, thinking styles and biases, group identity, trust in authorities, and social media use), their consequences (protective behaviours, self-centred and misguided behaviours such as hoarding and pseudoscientific health practices, vaccination intentions, psychological wellbeing, and other negative social consequences such as discrimination and violence), and the effect sizes of their relations with the conspiracy beliefs. Conclusions We conclude that understanding both the potential antecedents and consequences of conspiracy beliefs and how they are context-dependent is highly important to tackle them, whether in the COVID-19 pandemic or future threats, such as that of climate change.
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The present study examined antisocial dispositions in 487 university students. Primary and secondary psychopathy scales were developed to assess a protopsychopathic interpersonal philosophy. An antisocial action scale also was developed for purposes of validation. The primary, secondary, and antisocial action scales were correlated with each other and with boredom susceptibility and disinhibition but not with experience seeking and thrill and adventure seeking. Secondary psychopathy was associated with trait anxiety. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the strongest predictors of antisocial action were disinhibition, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, and sex, whereas thrill and adventure seeking was a negative predictor. This argues against a singular behavioral inhibition system mediating both antisocial and risk-taking behavior. These findings are also consistent with the view that psychopathy is a continuous dimension.
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As research on the dark triad (DT; the interrelated constructs of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) has accumulated, a subset of this research has focused on explicating what traits may account for the overlap among the DT members. Various candidate traits have been investigated, with evidence supporting several of them, including antagonism (vs. agreeableness), honesty-humility, and callousness and interpersonal manipulation (the latter 2 as a set). The present study sought to test the leading candidates against one another in their ability to account for the shared variance among the DT members. Using a preregistered analytical plan, we found that agreeableness (as measured by the International Personality Item Pool-NEO-120), honesty-humility (H/H) from the HEXACO-Personality Inventory, and the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale subscales of Callous Affect and Interpersonal Manipulation accounted for all or nearly all of the shared variance among the DT members. Big Five Inventory (BFI)-based measures of Agreeableness (BFI and BFI-2) accounted for notably less variance in most cases. The results were consistent across 2 large samples (Ns of 627 and 628) and across various DT measurement approaches. We argue that the most parsimonious explanation for findings on the core of the DT is that such traits all fall under the umbrella of antagonism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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A conspiracy theory refers to an alternative explanation of an event involving a conspirator plot organised by powerful people or organisations. Belief in conspiracy theories is related to negative societal outcomes such as poor medical decisions and a decrease in prosocial behaviour. Given these negative outcomes, researchers have explored predictors of belief in conspiracy theories in an attempt to understand and possibly manage these beliefs. In the current study, we explored the utility of personality in predicting belief in conspiracy theories. The aim of the current study was to explore the utility of the odd beliefs/magical thinking subtype of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, grandiose narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, primary psychopathy, and secondary psychopathy in predicting belief in conspiracy theories. Participants (N = 230; 44.7% male, 55.3% female) completed an anonymous, confidential online questionnaire which comprised demographics and measures of personality traits and belief in conspiracy theories. The total regression model indicated odd beliefs/magical thinking, trait Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy were significant, positive predictors of belief in conspiracy theories. No other predictors reached significance. Results of the current study highlight individuals who might be more susceptible to believing conspiracy theories. Specifically, these results indicate that the individual more likely to believe in conspiracy theories may have unusual patterns of thinking and cognitions, be strategic and manipulative, and display interpersonal and affective deficits.
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This research experimentally examined the effects of exposure to intergroup conspiracy theories on prejudice and discrimination. Study 1 (N = 166) demonstrated that exposure to conspiracy theories concerning immigrants to Britain from the European Union (vs. anti-conspiracy material or a control) exacerbated prejudice towards this group. Study 2 (N = 173) found the same effect in a different intergroup context—exposure to conspiracy theories about Jewish people (vs. anti-conspiracy material or a control) increased prejudice towards this group and reduced participants’ willingness to vote for a Jewish political candidate. Finally, Study 3 (N = 114) demonstrated that exposure to conspiracy theories about Jewish people not only increased prejudice towards this group but was indirectly associated with increased prejudice towards a number of secondary outgroups (e.g., Asians, Arabs, Americans, Irish, Australians). The current research suggests that conspiracy theories may have potentially damaging and widespread consequences for intergroup relations.
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In the last decade, the number of investigations of the beliefs in conspiracy theories has begun to increase in the fields of social, differential, and experimental psychology. A considerable number of variables have been suggested as predictors of conspiracy beliefs, amongst them personality factors such as low agreeableness (as disagreeableness is associated with suspicion and antagonism) and high openness to experience (due to its positive association to seek out unusual and novel ideas). The association between agreeableness, openness to experience and conspiracy beliefs remains unclear in the literature. The present study reviews the literature of psychological studies investigating conspiracy beliefs. Additionally, the association between Big Five personality factors and conspiracy beliefs is analyzed meta-analytically using random-effects models. Ninety-six studies were identified for the systematic review. A comprehensive account of predictors, consequences, operationalization, questionnaires, and most prominent conspiracy theories is presented. For meta-analysis, 74 effect sizes from 13 studies were extracted. The psychological literature on predictors of conspiracy beliefs can be divided in approaches either with a pathological (e.g., paranoia) or socio-political focus (e.g., perceived powerlessness). Generally, there is a lack of theoretical frameworks in this young area of research. Meta-analysis revealed that agreeableness, openness to experience, and the remaining Big Five personality factors were not significantly associated with conspiracy beliefs if effect sizes are aggregated. Considerable heterogeneity in designs and operationalization characterizes the field. This article provides an overview of instrumentation, study designs, and current state of knowledge in an effort toward advancement and consensus in the study of conspiracy beliefs.
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Public discourse and scholarly literature often make a strong connection between paranoid thought and belief in conspiracy theories. We report one meta‐analysis and two correlational studies across two distinct cultural contexts (total N = 578) to provide an estimate for their association but also evidence for their distinctiveness via a multi‐trait‐multi‐method approach. Whereas the meta‐analysis (k = 11 studies) provided support for a reliable association between paranoia and conspiracy beliefs, the two additional studies provide direct evidence for their distinctiveness and divergent associations with other constructs. Although both assume sinister intentions of others, beliefs in conspiracy theories are more specific in who these others are (powerful groups) than paranoia (everyone). In contrast, paranoia was more restricted in terms of who the target of the negative intentions is (the self) than conspiracy theorizing (society as a whole). In light of this and distinct associations of conspiracy beliefs with political control and trust but not (inter‐)personal control and trust (like paranoia), we propose to treat the two as distinct (albeit correlated) constructs with conspiracy beliefs reflecting a political attitude compared to paranoia as a self‐relevant belief. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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What psychological factors drive the popularity of conspiracy theories that explain important events as secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups? What are the psychological consequences of adopting these theories? We review the current research, and find that it answers the first of these questions more thoroughly than the second. Belief in conspiracy theories appears to be driven by motives that can be characterized as epistemic (understanding one’s environment), existential (being safe and in control of one’s environment) and social (maintaining a positive image of the self and the social group). However, little research has investigated the consequences of conspiracy belief, and to date, this research does not indicate that conspiracy belief fulfills people’s motivations. Instead, for many people conspiracy belief may be more appealing than satisfying. Further research is needed to determine for whom, and under what conditions, conspiracy theories may satisfy key psychological motives.
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In the current research, we investigated whether belief in conspiracy theories satisfies people’s need for uniqueness. We found that the tendency to believe in conspiracy theories was associated with the feeling of possessing scarce information about the situations explained by the conspiracy theories (Study 1) and higher need for uniqueness (Study 2). A further two studies using two different manipulations of need for uniqueness (Studies 3 and 4), showed that people in a high need for uniqueness condition displayed higher conspiracy belief than people in a low need for uniqueness condition. This conclusion is strengthened by a small-scale meta-analysis. These studies suggest that conspiracy theories may serve people’s desire to be unique, highlighting a motivational underpinning of conspiracy belief.
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Conspiracy theories can be treated as both rational narratives of the world as well as outcomes of underlying maladaptive traits. Here, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and individual differences in personality disorders. An Internet-based sample (N = 259) completed measures of belief in conspiracy theories and the 25 facets of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Preliminary analyses showed no significant differences in belief in conspiracy theories across participant sex, ethnicity, and education. Regression analyses showed that the PID-5 facets of Unusual Beliefs and Experiences and, to a lesser extent, Suspiciousness, significantly predicted belief in conspiracy theories. These findings highlight a role for maladaptive personality traits in understanding belief in conspiracy theories, but require further investigation.
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Across three studies, we examined the role of self-evaluation in predicting conspiracy beliefs. Previous research linked the endorsement of conspiracy theories to low self-esteem. We propose that conspiracy theories should rather be appealing to individuals with exaggerated feelings of self-love, such as narcissists, due to their paranoid tendencies. In Study 1 general conspiracist beliefs were predicted by high individual narcissism but low self-esteem. Study 2 demonstrated that these effects were differentially mediated by paranoid thoughts, and independent of the effects of collective narcissism. Individual narcissism predicted generalized conspiracist beliefs, regardless of the conspiracy theories implicating in-group or out-group members, while collective narcissism predicted belief in out-group but not in-group conspiracies. Study 3 replicated the effects of individual narcissism and self-esteem on the endorsement of various specific conspiracy theories and demonstrated that the negative effect of self-esteem was largely accounted for by the general negativity towards humans associated with low self-esteem.
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Although public endorsement of conspiracy theories is growing, the potentially negative societal consequences of widespread conspiracy ideation remain unclear. While past studies have mainly examined the personality correlates of conspiracy ideation, this study examines the conspiracy-effect; the extent to which exposure to an actual conspiracy theory influences pro-social and environmental decision-making. Participants (N = 316) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions; (a) a brief conspiracy video about global warming, (b) an inspirational pro-climate video or (c) a control group. Results indicate that those participants who were exposed to the conspiracy video were significantly less likely to think that there is widespread scientific agreement on human-caused climate change, less likely to sign a petition to help reduce global warming and less likely to donate or volunteer for a charity in the next six months. These results strongly point to the socio-cognitive potency of conspiracies and highlight that exposure to popular conspiracy theories can have negative and undesirable societal consequences.
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ABSTRACT Previous studies have suggested that conspiracist ideation forms part of a monological belief system in which one conspiracist idea acts as evidence for new conspiracist ideas. Here, we examined this possibility in relation to an event lacking reliable or conclusive evidence, namely the disappearance of Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan. A total of 914 members of the British general public completed scales measuring their beliefs about the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan, belief in conspiracy theories, the Big Five personality factors, support for democratic principles, political cynicism, self-esteem, and self-assessed intelligence. Results showed that belief in conspiracy theories was associated with the endorsement of less plausible explanations for the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. In addition, belief in less plausible explanations was also significantly associated with lower self-assessed intelligence, greater political cynicism, lower self-esteem, and higher Agreeableness scores. These results are discussed in relation to monological belief systems.
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The Levenson, Kiehl, and Fitzpatrick (1995) Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) was introduced in the mid-1990s as a brief measure of psychopathy and has since gained considerable popularity. Despite its attractiveness as a brief psychopathy tool, the LSRP has received limited research regarding its factor structure and convergent and discriminant validity. The present study examined the construct validity of the LSRP, testing both its factor structure and the convergent and discriminant validity. Using a community sample of 1,257 undergraduates (869 females; 378 males), we tested whether a 1-, 2-, or 3-factor model best fit the data and examined the links between the resultant factor structures and external correlates. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) findings revealed a 3-factor model best matched the data, followed by an adequate-fitting original 2-factor model. Next, comparisons were made regarding the convergent and discriminant validity of the competing 2- and 3-factor models. Findings showed the LSRP traditional primary and secondary factors had meaningful relations with extratest variables such as neuroticism, stress tolerance, and lack of empathy. The 3-factor model showed particular problems with the Callousness scale. These findings underscore the importance of examining not only CFA fit statistics but also convergent and discriminant validity when testing factor structure models. The current findings suggest that the 2-factor model might still be the best way to interpret the LSRP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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The current studies investigated the potential impact of anti-vaccine conspiracy beliefs, and exposure to anti-vaccine conspiracy theories, on vaccination intentions. In Study 1, British parents completed a questionnaire measuring beliefs in anti-vaccine conspiracy theories and the likelihood that they would have a fictitious child vaccinated. Results revealed a significant negative relationship between anti-vaccine conspiracy beliefs and vaccination intentions. This effect was mediated by the perceived dangers of vaccines, and feelings of powerlessness, disillusionment and mistrust in authorities. In Study 2, participants were exposed to information that either supported or refuted anti-vaccine conspiracy theories, or a control condition. Results revealed that participants who had been exposed to material supporting anti-vaccine conspiracy theories showed less intention to vaccinate than those in the anti-conspiracy condition or controls. This effect was mediated by the same variables as in Study 1. These findings point to the potentially detrimental consequences of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories, and highlight their potential role in shaping health-related behaviors.
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Past research on socially aversive personalities has focused on subclinical psychopathy, subclinical narcissism, and Machiavellianism-the "Dark Triad" of personality. In the research reported here, we evaluated whether an everyday form of sadism should be added to that list. Acts of apparent cruelty were captured using two laboratory procedures, and we showed that such behavior could be predicted with two measures of sadistic personality. Study 1 featured a bug-killing paradigm. As expected, sadists volunteered to kill bugs at greater rates than did nonsadists. Study 2 examined willingness to harm an innocent victim. When aggression was easy, sadism and Dark Triad measures predicted unprovoked aggression. However, only sadists were willing to work for the opportunity to hurt an innocent person. In both studies, sadism emerged as an independent predictor of behavior reflecting an appetite for cruelty. Together, these findings support the construct validity of everyday sadism and its incorporation into a new "Dark Tetrad" of personality.
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The most widely used measure of trait narcissism is the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), which can provide both total and subscale scores. However, with a length of 40 items, this measure may not be ideal in settings in which time or participant attention may limit the types of measures that can be administered. In response, Ames, Rose, and Anderson (2006) created the NPI-16, which provides a shorter, unidimensional measure of the construct. In the present research, we examine the reliability and validity of the NPI-16 in conjunction with a new short measure of narcissism, the NPI-13, which provides both a total score and 3 subscale scores (Leadership/Authority; Grandiose Exhibitionism; Entitlement/Exploitativeness). Across 2 studies, we demonstrate that both short measures manifest good convergent and discriminant validity and adequate overall reliability. The NPI-13 may be favored over the NPI-16 because it allows for the extraction of 3 subscales, consistent with the use of its parent measure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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The psychology of conspiracy theory beliefs is not yet well understood, although research indicates that there are stable individual differences in conspiracist ideation - individuals' general tendency to engage with conspiracy theories. Researchers have created several short self-report measures of conspiracist ideation. These measures largely consist of items referring to an assortment of prominent conspiracy theories regarding specific real-world events. However, these instruments have not been psychometrically validated, and this assessment approach suffers from practical and theoretical limitations. Therefore, we present the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs (GCB) scale: a novel measure of individual differences in generic conspiracist ideation. The scale was developed and validated across four studies. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis of a novel 75-item measure of non-event-based conspiracist beliefs identified five conspiracist facets. The 15-item GCB scale was developed to sample from each of these themes. Studies 2, 3, and 4 examined the structure and validity of the GCB, demonstrating internal reliability, content, criterion-related, convergent and discriminant validity, and good test-retest reliability. In sum, this research indicates that the GCB is a psychometrically sound and practically useful measure of conspiracist ideation, and the findings add to our theoretical understanding of conspiracist ideation as a monological belief system unpinned by a relatively small number of generic assumptions about the typicality of conspiratorial activity in the world.
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Conspiracy theories are ubiquitous when it comes to explaining political events and societal phenomena. Individuals differ not only in the degree to which they believe in specific conspiracy theories, but also in their general susceptibility to explanations based on such theories, that is, their conspiracy mentality. We present the Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ), an instrument designed to efficiently assess differences in the generic tendency to engage in conspiracist ideation within and across cultures. The CMQ is available in English, German, and Turkish. In four studies, we examined the CMQ’s factorial structure, reliability, measurement equivalence across cultures, and its convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Analyses based on a cross-cultural sample (Study 1a; N = 7,766) supported the conceptualization of conspiracy mentality as a one-dimensional construct across the three language versions of the CMQ that is stable across time (Study 1b; N = 141). Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the CMQ items. The instrument could therefore be used to examine differences in conspiracy mentality between European, North American, and Middle Eastern cultures. In Studies 2-4 (total N = 476), we report (re-)analyses of 3 datasets demonstrating the validity of the CMQ in student and working population samples in the UK and Germany. First, attesting to its convergent validity, the CMQ was highly correlated with another measure of generic conspiracy belief. Second, the CMQ showed patterns of meaningful associations with personality measures (e.g., Big Five dimensions, schizotypy), other generalized political attitudes (e.g., social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism), and further individual differences (e.g., paranormal belief, lack of socio-political control). Finally, the CMQ predicted beliefs in specific conspiracy theories over and above other individual difference measures.
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The current research applied a mid-level evolutionary theory that has been successfully employed across numerous animal species—life history theory—in an attempt to understand the Dark Triad personality trait cluster (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism). In Study 1 (N = 246), a measure of life history strategy was correlated with psychopathy, but unexpectedly with neither Machiavellianism nor narcissism. Study 2 (N = 321) replicated this overall pattern of results using longer, traditional measures of the Dark Triad traits and alternative, future-discounting indicators of life history strategy (a smaller-sooner, larger-later monetary dilemma and self-reported risk-taking behaviors). Additional findings suggested two sources of shared variance across the Dark Triad traits: confidence in predicting future outcomes and openness to short-term mating.
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Time perspective (TP), a fundamental dimension in the construction of psychological time, emerges from cognitive processes partitioning human experience into past, present, and future temporal frames. The authors' research program proposes that TP is a pervasive and powerful yet largely unrecognized influence on much human behavior. Although TP variations are learned and modified by a variety of personal, social, and institutional influences, TP also functions as an individual-differences variable. Reported is a new measure assessing personal variations in TP profiles and specific TP "biases." The 5 factors of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory were established through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrate acceptable internal and test-retest reliability. Convergent, divergent, discriminant, and predictive validity are shown by correlational and experimental research supplemented by case studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Given the widespread appeal of conspiratorial beliefs, it is surprising that very little empirical research has examined the psychological variables associated with such beliefs. In the present study, we examined individual and demographic predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories concerning the September 11, 2001 (9/11) attacks on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon among a representative British sample of 254 women and men. Results of structural equation modelling showed that 9/11 conspiracist beliefs were positively associated with belief in other conspiracy theories, exposure to 9/11 conspiracist ideas, political cynicism, defiance of authority and the Big Five personality factor of Agreeableness. In total, a model including demographics, personality and individual difference variables explained over 50% of the variance in 9/11 conspiracist ideas. The implications of these findings for the literature on conspiracy theories are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Although many studies treat trust as a situational construct, individual differences can be used to study and predict trusting behavior. We report two studies, the first showing the psychometric properties of a new trust inventory (the Propensity to Trust Survey or PTS), the second study validating this inventory using the standard economic task, the Investment Game. The first study utilized online survey data (N > 8000) to show that the PTS scales were reliable and measured broad constructs related to Big Five personality domains. Trust was related to extraversion and negative neuroticism, and trustworthiness was related to agreeableness and conscientiousness. The second study (N = 90) validated the PTS trust scale as a predictor of behavior in the Investment Game. These findings are evidence that trust and trustworthiness are compound personality traits, and that PTS scales are preferable to general Big Five measures for predicting trusting behavior.
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Of the offensive yet non-pathological personalities in the literature, three are especially prominent: Machiavellianism, subclinical narcissism, and subclinical psychopathy. We evaluated the recent contention that, in normal samples, this ‘Dark Triad’ of constructs are one and the same. In a sample of 245 students, we measured the three constructs with standard measures and examined a variety of laboratory and self-report correlates. The measures were moderately inter-correlated, but certainly were not equivalent. Their only common Big Five correlate was disagreeableness. Subclinical psychopaths were distinguished by low neuroticism; Machiavellians, and psychopaths were low in conscientiousness; narcissism showed small positive associations with cognitive ability. Narcissists and, to a lesser extent, psychopaths exhibited self-enhancement on two objectively scored indexes. We conclude that the Dark Triad of personalities, as currently measured, are overlapping but distinct constructs.
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Despite the recent flurry of research on the Dark Triad, this work has been atheoretical. In two studies, totaling 358 participants, we attempt to situate the Dark Triad within the larger framework of Life History Theory by correlating them with three measures of self-control. Both psychopathy (Study 1 and Study 2) and Machiavellianism (Study 2 only) were correlated with low self-control, a tendency to discount future consequences, and high rates of attention deficit disorder. Narcissism was not correlated with measures of self-control in either study. Results are consistent with Life History Theory in that these two sets of psychological traits are expected to be part of a fast life strategy.
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Despite evidence of widespread belief in conspiracy theories, there remains a dearth of research on the individual difference correlates of conspiracist ideation. In two studies, we sought to overcome this limitation by examining correlations between conspiracist ideation and a range of individual psychological factors. In Study 1, 817 Britons indicated their agreement with conspiracist ideation concerning the July 7, 2005 (7/7), London bombings, and completed a battery of individual difference scales. Results showed that stronger belief in 7/7 conspiracy theories was predicted by stronger belief in other real-world conspiracy theories, greater exposure to conspiracist ideation, higher political cynicism, greater support for democratic principles, more negative attitudes to authority, lower self-esteem, and lower Agreeableness. In Study 2, 281 Austrians indicated their agreement with an entirely fictitious conspiracy theory and completed a battery of individual difference measures not examined in Study 1. Results showed that belief in the entirely fictitious conspiracy theory was significantly associated with stronger belief in other real-world conspiracy theories, stronger paranormal beliefs, and lower crystallized intelligence. These results are discussed in terms of the potential of identifying individual difference constellations among conspiracy theorists.
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We advance a new account of why people endorse conspiracy theories, arguing that individuals use the social-cognitive tool of projection when making social judgements about others. In two studies, we found that individuals were more likely to endorse conspiracy theories if they thought they would be willing, personally, to participate in the alleged conspiracies. Study 1 established an association between conspiracy beliefs and personal willingness to conspire, which fully mediated a relationship between Machiavellianism and conspiracy beliefs. In Study 2, participants primed with their own morality were less inclined than controls to endorse conspiracy theories - a finding fully mediated by personal willingness to conspire. These results suggest that some people think 'they conspired' because they think 'I would conspire'.
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The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) is a promising, efficient measure of the psychopathic personality. Previous examinations of its latent structure have yielded inconsistent results; therefore, the goal of the current study was to evaluate previously reported two- and three-factor models in three separate groups of male correctional inmates (n = 573), male college students (n = 202), and female college students (n = 200). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the best-fitting model across all the three groups was the three-factor model proposed by Brinkley et al. (Assessment 15:464-482, 2008). The convergent and discriminant validity of this three-factor structure as well as a revised 19-item total score were elaborated on in terms of predicting scores on conceptually relevant external criteria. The LSRP total and factor scales evidenced good convergent and discriminant validity with a few notable exceptions. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.
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The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is a widely used measure of narcissism. However, debates persist about its exact factor structure with researchers proposing solutions ranging from two to seven factors. The present research aimed to clarify the factor structure of the NPI and further illuminate its nomological network. Four studies provided support for a three-factor model consisting of the dimensions of Leadership/Authority, Grandiose Exhibitionism, and Entitlement/Exploitativeness. The Leadership/Authority dimension was generally linked to adaptive outcomes whereas the other two dimensions, particularly Entitlement/Exploitativeness, were generally linked to maladaptive outcomes. These results suggest that researchers interested in the psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with the NPI should examine correlates at the facet level. In light of the findings, we propose a hierarchical model for the structure of the NPI and provide researchers with a scoring scheme for this commonly used instrument.
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Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers - often implicitly - assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these "standard subjects" are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species - frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior - hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.