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Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicon): Antioxidants in Vegetables and Nuts - Properties and Health Benefits
Abstract
Tomato is the major fruit and vegetable crop produced worldwide. India is the second-largest producer of tomato after China. According to FAOSTAT 2018, India produced18.74 million tons with productivity rate 21.24 ton/Ha. Consumption of tomato fruits is considered as healthy diets that have potential to reduce the risk of cancer, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. People who used to eat tomatoes regularly have a reduced risk of increasing cholesterol level, heart disease, blood pressure, cell damage, and blood sugar. Tomato fruit is the rich source of lycopene. Lycopene is a carotenoid that is present in tomatoes, processed tomato products and other fruits. It is one of the most potent antioxidant molecules among dietary carotenoids. Dietary intake of tomatoes and tomato products containing lycopene has been shown to be associated with a decreased risk of chronic diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Regular intake of tomato also has many benefits in other many diseases and disorders like counteract acidosis, reduce migraines, boost immunity, natural sunscreen, strengthen bones, treatment of vasodilation, lead toxicity, eye disorder and wound repair.
... The increase in lycopene content in fruits depends on the ripening of fruits as well as species [14]. Maturity on the vine tomatoes consisted with more lycopene content than those matured after picking [15,16]. In terms of classification of lycopene, it is distributed under the category of carotenoid compounds in addition to carotenoids including terpenoids. ...
... The average Canadian daily dietary intake of lycopene is about 25.2 mg [34]. It was also anticipated that 50% of the lycopene content was derived from fresh tomatoes and the remaining 50% was derived from processed tomato products [16]. Lycopene content present in processed foods is much higher as compared to fresh fruits as the process of processing involves concentration through water loss. ...
... Lycopene content present in processed foods is much higher as compared to fresh fruits as the process of processing involves concentration through water loss. Processed tomato products including ketchup contain 9.9 to 13.44 % mg lycopene/100 gm whereas fresh tomatoes include 0.88 to 7.74mg lycopene/100 g wet weight [16]. Depending on the nature of variety, geographic location, techniques of cultivation, climatic conditions, and degree of maturity of tomato fruits, the lycopene content of tomatoes typically varies from 70 to 130 mg/kg [1]. ...
Tomato which is scientifically known as Lycopersicon esculentum and basically belonging to the Solanaceae family is categorized as one of the most essential horticultural crops. The red colour in tomatoes and other fruits is primarily due to the presence of a carotenoid pigment particularly lycopene which acts as a phytochemical. Higher concentrations of lycopene pigment are particularly found in fruits like tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, red bell pepper, sea buckhorn, wolfberry, and rosehip. Lycopene plays a fundamental role in the process of biosynthesis of several carotenoid pigments specifically available in two forms; Hydrocarbon carotenoids and Xanthophylls thereby responsible for imparting red, yellow, and orange color in addition to photosynthesis and photo-protection in terms of plants, algae and other photosynthetic organisms. It acts as a potential antioxidant among the entire carotenoid pigments because of its characteristics involving strong color and anti-toxicity properties. Vitamins enriched beta carotene provitamin A, and Ascorbic acid in the form of edible compounds have been abundantly found in tomatoes. Daily intake of lycopene through consumption of tomato and processed tomato products helps in reducing the risk of chronic diseases particularly cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Epidemiological studies have indicated the importance of lycopene in eliminating the risk of human Review Article Sharma et al.; IJPSS, 33(17): 165-172, 2021; Article no.IJPSS.71682 166 diseases thereby preventing it from deterioration of health. Based on the chemical structure of lycopene, it exists in a thermodynamically stable form thereby exhibiting trans-configuration. In this manuscript, major emphasis highlighted in involving an intake of carotenoid enriched fruits and vegetables for further controlling and reducing the risk of occurrence of human diseases has been reviewed. In addition, significance of manufacturing of value added products and its consumption in the form of tomato oil, non-alcoholic flavored drink etc. has also been reviewed. Authentic information in terms of the addition of lycopene in a daily balanced diet either fresh or processed tomato products along with its functions involving the singlet oxygen quenching ability, as well as benefits of consuming lycopene derived fruits has been reviewed in this manuscript.
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most widely consumed vegetables globally [1]. Iran, with a tomato production of 6.5 million tonnes, ranks sixth globally [1]. ...
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most widely consumed vegetables globally [1]. Iran, with a tomato production of 6.5 million tonnes, ranks sixth globally [1]. According to the latest report from 2018, the total area used for tomato cultivation in Iran was 158,991 hectares, with an average yield of 41.36 tonnes per hectare. ...
This study investigated the effects of fungal (Penicillium chrysogenum, Thielavia basicola, Curvularia hawaiiensis) and bacterial (Sphingomonas aquatilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Exiguobacterium aurantiacum, Micromonospora echinaurantiaca, Kocuria rhizophila) endophytes on the growth and physiological traits of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.) under greenhouse conditions. Both individual and combined endophyte treatments significantly enhanced key growth parameters, including stem weight, height, and dry weight, with notable synergies observed in fungal-bacterial combinations such as P. chrysogenum + E. aurantiacum and S. aquatilis + M. echinaurantiaca. These combinations also optimised photosynthetic activity, increasing chlorophyll content, carotenoids, and photosystem II efficiency, improving plant vitality. Additionally, these endophytes stimulated a marked increase in carotenoid levels, with fungal-bacterial combinations leading to substantial improvements in antioxidant activity. Furthermore, inoculation with these endophytes promoted higher phenolic and proline content, with distinct combinations showing remarkable effects on carbohydrate accumulation. The findings underscore the synergistic potential of fungal-bacterial endophyte interactions in enhancing plant resilience, offering promising strategies for improving crop productivity and sustainability in agriculture.
... This self-pollinated crop (Depra et al., 2014;Campos et al., 2021;Rasheed et al., 2023) [8,6,27] is an annual member of the Solanaceae family, with a somatic chromosome count of 2n = 24 (Jenkins, 1948) [14] . Rich in essential phytonutrients such as vitamins A and C (ascorbic acid), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids and polyphenols, as well as important minerals like calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) (Saleem et al., 2013;Kumar et al., 2020;Rusu et al., 2023) [29,17,28] , tomatoes are consumed both fresh and in various processed forms (Mazurenko et al., 2023;Rasheed et al., 2023;Wu and Nelson, 2023) [24,27,36] . A major source of antioxidants, particularly lycopene, tomatoes are recognized for their health benefits. ...
... This self-pollinated crop (Depra et al., 2014;Campos et al., 2021;Rasheed et al., 2023) [8,6,27] is an annual member of the Solanaceae family, with a somatic chromosome count of 2n = 24 (Jenkins, 1948) [14] . Rich in essential phytonutrients such as vitamins A and C (ascorbic acid), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids and polyphenols, as well as important minerals like calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) (Saleem et al., 2013;Kumar et al., 2020;Rusu et al., 2023) [29,17,28] , tomatoes are consumed both fresh and in various processed forms (Mazurenko et al., 2023;Rasheed et al., 2023;Wu and Nelson, 2023) [24,27,36] . A major source of antioxidants, particularly lycopene, tomatoes are recognized for their health benefits. ...
The field experiment was conducted at the Vegetable Research Farm, Department of Horticulture, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh during rabi season 2020-21. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Fifteen genotypes were evaluated for various quantitative traits. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among genotypes for all the traits studied. On the basis of mean performances of superior genotypes like Himsona (113.79 cm) was better suited for maximum plant height. Pant T-3 (8.27) recorded maximum number of primary branches per plant. VRT-30 (53.60 days) recorded to show early flowering and fruiting. The maximum fruits per plant were exhibited by Arka Rakshak (40.27). Among the genotypes, Kashi Amrit emerged as a standout performer with the highest fruit length (6.02 cm), fruit diameter (5.65 cm) and average fruit weight (96.03 g). It also had a high number of locules per fruit and substantial total soluble solids (TSS) content (6.93 o Brix). Arka Rakshak exhibited the greatest pericarp thickness (7.06 mm) and also recorded the highest fruit yield per plant (3.14 kg), followed by Himsona and VRT-16. The study noted that Himsona had the highest lycopene content (5.71 mg/100 g), indicating superior quality in terms of nutritional value, while Azad T-5 led in ascorbic acid content (21.33 mg/100 g) and pH levels. Firmness was highest in BT-12 (2.50 kg/cm²), suggesting its suitability for transport and storage.
... Carrot (Daucus carota) stands as a pivotal agricultural commodity, exhibiting a global distribution and an annual production exceeding 37 million tons. This versatile crop finds predominant utilization in both its fresh state and various processed forms, encompassing the production of juice, beverages, confectionery, canned goods, and dehydrated products [48]. It emerges as a notable reservoir of natural bioactive compounds, encompassing phenolics, polyacetylenes, and carotenoids, alongside essential constituents such as ascorbic acid and tocopherols. ...
... It emerges as a notable reservoir of natural bioactive compounds, encompassing phenolics, polyacetylenes, and carotenoids, alongside essential constituents such as ascorbic acid and tocopherols. It is categorized as a vitaminized food, reflecting its rich content of these biologically active substances [48]. After industrial processing, about 50% of residues are found that can be used as animal feed, rather than being disposed in landfills. ...
Huge quantities of municipal solid waste and food chain supply waste are unfavourable outcomes of rapid population growth and urbanization. Organic municipal waste majorly consists of decomposable, recyclable, and inert waste and contributes to 57% of municipal waste generated globally. Fruits and vegetables wastes are major component of organic municipal waste, and contains significant amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and fibres that can be valorised through various innovative and sustainable strategies. One of the most important approaches is leveraging the catalytic capabilities of microbial enzymes to convert complex organic compounds to varied valuable products like, essential oils, bio-oil, ethanol, biogas, phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanin, dietary products etc. Development of environment friendly sustainable processes also handles the challenges associated with waste disposal and boost nation’s financial status through circular bioeconomy. The present review focusses on details of major organic municipal waste, with specific emphasis on fruit and vegetable remains, their composition, management and value-added products obtained from these resources. It also gives a detailed account on green technology approach of waste valorisation through microbial enzymes, recent technological interventions involved in the process and discusses the future market potential and growth prospects in the studied area.
... Liu et al. (2016) indicated that exogenous La +3 induces a response from the antioxidant system in rice roots, affecting hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, and malondialdehyde levels. Throughout the world, the tomato is widely cultivated as an economically important crop (Kumar et al. 2020). Agricultural research focuses on improving tomato plant quality and resilience. ...
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is an economically important vegetable crop worldwide and is famous for its nutritional value and versatility in food production [1]. China is acknowledged as the foremost producer of tomatoes worldwide, producing 68.2 million metric tons of tomatoes annually and accounting for more than 36% of global production [2]. ...
Endophytic Pseudomonas species from agricultural crops have been extensively studied for their plant-growth-promoting (PGP) potential, but little is known about their PGP potential when isolated from perennial trees. This study investigated the plant-growth-promoting (PGP) potential of an endophyte, Pseudomonas oryzihabitans GDW1, isolated from a healthy pine tree by taking tomato as a host plant. We employed multiomics approaches (transcriptome and bacteriome analyses) to elucidate the underlying PGP mechanisms of GDW1. The results of greenhouse experiments revealed that the application of GDW1 significantly improved tomato plant growth, increasing shoot length, root length, fresh weight, and biomass accumulation by up to 44%, 38%, 54%, and 59%, respectively, compared with control. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 1158 differentially expressed genes significantly enriched in the plant hormone signaling (auxin, gibberellin, and cytokinin) and stress response (plant–pathogen interaction, MAPK signaling pathway-plant, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis) pathways. Protein–protein interaction network analysis revealed nine hub genes (MAPK10, ARF19-1, SlCKX1, GA2ox2, PAL5, SlWRKY37, GH3.6, XTH3, and NML1) related to stress tolerance, hormone control, and plant defense. Analysis of the tomato root bacteriome through 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing revealed that GDW1 inoculation dramatically altered the root bacterial community structure, enhancing the diversity and abundance of beneficial taxa (Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota). Co-occurrence network analysis showed a complex bacterial network in treated plants, suggesting increasingly intricate microbial relationships and improved nutrient absorption. Additionally, FAPROTAX and PICRUSt2 functional prediction analyses suggested the role of GDW1 in nitrogen cycling, organic matter degradation, plant growth promotion, and stress resistance. In conclusion, this study provides novel insights into the symbiotic relationship between P. oryzihabitans GDW1 and tomato plants, highlighting its potential as a biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture and a means of reducing the reliance on agrochemicals.
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the world's most widely cultivated and economically important vegetable crops, valued for its nutritional and culinary uses (Kumar et al., 2020). Rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, tomatoes contribute significantly to global food Tefera, 2019). ...
The two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is a significant pest affecting tomato production in Ethiopia, leading to substantial yield losses and economic challenges for farmers. This study evaluated the efficacy of seven widely used chemical pesticides compared to an untreated control for controlling T. urticae infestations and their impacts on tomatoes. Field experiments were conducted during the 2021 and 2022 cropping seasons at Melkassa Agricultural Research Center using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Pesticides were applied at recommended rates, and reductions in mite populations (egg, nymph, adult) on eight treatments were evaluated using the percentage reduction over control (PROC), and mean separations with ANOVA on yield were done. Results revealed that Cyenopyrafen and Abamectin were the most effective treatments, achieving PROC values of 63.2% and 60.1%, respectively, in 2021, with corresponding marketable yield outputs of 16.5 and 15.45 tons/ha. However, efficacy declined across all treatments in the 2022 tomato production season, although Cyenopyrafen and Abamectin maintained their superior performance compared to other treatments. Other treatments, such as Abamectin-emamectin benzoate, exhibited limited effectiveness, with PROC values below 20%. The partial economic analysis highlighted Cyenopyrafen and Abamectin as the most cost-effective options, generating net profits of USD 10,068/ha and USD 9,395/ha, respectively, with high benefit-cost ratios (BCR) of 3.75 and 3.45. These findings underscore the importance of selecting effective pesticides to maximize tomato yields and economic returns. For sustainable production, integrating these chemical controls into an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy is essential. Future studies should focus on resistance monitoring, optimizing application schedules, and assessing environmental impacts on non-target organisms to ensure sustainability in tomato production in Ethiopia.
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of most plants produced and consumed vegetables in the world with the greatest diversity found in the tropical regions of Americas, Australia, Africa and Indo-Pacific [6,7 ,8]. Its fruits contain a large amount of nutrients and rich in vitamins A, C, they also contain carotenoids such as lycopene, which gives vegetables their red color [9,10]. It has the ability to grow in both tropical and subtropical locations, it is susceptible in both biotic and abiotic stressors [10,11]. ...
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of most plants produced and consumed vegetables in the world with the greatest diversity found in the tropical regions of Americas, Australia, Africa and Indo-Pacific [6,7 ,8]. Its fruits contain a large amount of nutrients and rich in vitamins A, C, they also contain carotenoids such as lycopene, which gives vegetables their red color [9,10]. It has the ability to grow in both tropical and subtropical locations, it is susceptible in both biotic and abiotic stressors [10,11]. ...
... Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) belongs to the Solanaceae family and has been successfully cultivated worldwide. The area allocated for cultivation is expanding annually because of its economic significance and nutritive value (Kumar et al. 2020). In 2022, 186 million tons of tomatoes were produced from 4.9 million ha of production worldwide. ...
Root rot caused by Rhizoctonia spp. is a serious threat to tomato production worldwide. This study was carried out to determine the anastomosis groups (AGs) and pathogenicity of Rhizoctonia spp. that cause root rot on the tomato plants in Iğdır province, Türkiye. Isolations were performed obtained from 305 diseased tomato plants from 26 different locations, and 93 Rhizoctonia isolates were obtained from tomato plants. The isolates were characterized according to their morphological properties and anastomosis groups (AGs). As a result on the comparison with the tester isolates, 95.7% were classified as multinucleate (MN) Rhizoctonia solani, while 4.3% were identified as binucleate (BN) Rhizoctonia (Ceratobasidium sp.). Based on ITS1‑5.8S-ITS2 rDNA sequencing, 18 Rhizoctonia isolates were confirmed by molecular analysis and were determined to belong to MN Rhizoctonia AG 3 (2), AG 4 HG-I (7), AG 4 HG-III (5), and AG 5 (2). BN Rhizoctonia isolates were also confirmed as AG-A (1) and supported further putative classification to subgroup AG-Fb (1). In the pathogenicity test, we determined the differences in the virulence of these isolates on tomato plants (cv. Hazera 5656 F1) (p < 0.05). The AG 4 isolates (HB-15, HB-66, and HB-81) had the highest disease severity in this study. BN Rhizoctonia isolates (AG‑A HB-18, HB-40, and AG-Fb HB-100) were found to have the lowest disease severity. Growth parameters such as plant height, root length, fresh weight, and dry weight were measured for all plants and it was determined that there was significant difference between isolates (p < 0.05). To our knowledge, this is the first report of MN AG 4 HG III and BN Rhizoctonia AG-Fb on tomato plants in Türkiye. Understanding the genetic diversity of Rhizoctonia may help to understand and will also facilitate the control of black root rot disease. Therefore, the results of the study are crucial for tomato growers and researchers.
... Tomato is known as the poor man's orange due to its good appearance and nutritional benefits (Singh et al. 2004). It can be consumed in many forms, like fresh salad paste, puree, ketchup, sauce, etc. and can be cooked as well (Kumar et al. 2020). Even though ripe tomatoes contain 94% water, they are a strong source of vitamins A and B, as well as an excellent source of vitamin C (Barringer 2004). ...
The study was carried out at the College of Agriculture Engineering and Technology (COAE&T), SKUAST-Kashmir, Shali-mar, during the Kharif-2022 season with the objective of investigating the optimal conditions for cultivating tomatoes in a hydroponic system. The research was conducted in a controlled environment using a Gothic-type polyhouse orientated in the north-south direction. Fifteen different treatments were applied, each involving variations in growing media, irrigation levels, and fertigation levels. The experimental design consisted of three replications arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The treatment combinations comprised three primary factors of fertigation levels: F 1 (50% fresh; 50% lea-chate), F 2 (75% fresh; 25% leachate), and F 3 (100% fresh). Additionally, five growing media were used: M 1 (vermiculite), M 2 (cocopeat), M 3 (vermicompost), M 4 (vermiculite + cocopeat + vermicompost), and M 5 (soil). The results revealed significant effects of these treatments on the growth, yield, and quality characteristics of tomatoes. The maximum heights of 70.17 cm, 126.50 cm, and 185.33 cm at 30, 60, and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively, were observed in treatment T 6 , which consisted of growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh). Furthermore, treatment T 6 , utilizing growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh), demonstrated the shortest duration to first flowering (20.00 days), days to first fruit set (24.37 days), and days to first fruit harvest (49.67 days). The maximum equatorial diameter (5.34 cm), leaf area (208.98 cm 2), leaf area index (0.105), average fruit weight (90.20 g), average number of fruits per plant (55.00), yield per plant (3.63 kg), fruit yield per square meter (18.17 kg/m 2), and fruit yield per hectare (1816.67 q) were observed in treatment T 6 , utilizing growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh). Treatment T 6 , incorporating the use of M 2 (cocopeat) as the growing medium and F 3 (100% fresh fertigation), yielded notable and remarkable outcomes.
... Tomato is known as the poor man's orange due to its good appearance and nutritional benefits (Singh et al. 2004). It can be consumed in many forms, like fresh salad paste, puree, ketchup, sauce, etc. and can be cooked as well (Kumar et al. 2020). Even though ripe tomatoes contain 94% water, they are a strong source of vitamins A and B, as well as an excellent source of vitamin C (Barringer 2004). ...
The study was carried out at the College of Agriculture Engineering and Technology (COAE&T), SKUAST-Kashmir, Shali-mar, during the Kharif-2022 season with the objective of investigating the optimal conditions for cultivating tomatoes in a hydroponic system. The research was conducted in a controlled environment using a Gothic-type polyhouse orientated in the north-south direction. Fifteen different treatments were applied, each involving variations in growing media, irrigation levels, and fertigation levels. The experimental design consisted of three replications arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The treatment combinations comprised three primary factors of fertigation levels: F 1 (50% fresh; 50% lea-chate), F 2 (75% fresh; 25% leachate), and F 3 (100% fresh). Additionally, five growing media were used: M 1 (vermiculite), M 2 (cocopeat), M 3 (vermicompost), M 4 (vermiculite + cocopeat + vermicompost), and M 5 (soil). The results revealed significant effects of these treatments on the growth, yield, and quality characteristics of tomatoes. The maximum heights of 70.17 cm, 126.50 cm, and 185.33 cm at 30, 60, and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively, were observed in treatment T 6 , which consisted of growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh). Furthermore, treatment T 6 , utilizing growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh), demonstrated the shortest duration to first flowering (20.00 days), days to first fruit set (24.37 days), and days to first fruit harvest (49.67 days). The maximum equatorial diameter (5.34 cm), leaf area (208.98 cm 2), leaf area index (0.105), average fruit weight (90.20 g), average number of fruits per plant (55.00), yield per plant (3.63 kg), fruit yield per square meter (18.17 kg/m 2), and fruit yield per hectare (1816.67 q) were observed in treatment T 6 , utilizing growing medium M 2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F 3 (100% fresh). Treatment T 6 , incorporating the use of M 2 (cocopeat) as the growing medium and F 3 (100% fresh fertigation), yielded notable and remarkable outcomes.
... Tomato is known as the poor man's orange due to its good appearance and nutritional benefits (Singh et al. 2004). It can be consumed in many forms, like fresh salad paste, puree, ketchup, sauce, etc. and can be cooked as well (Kumar et al. 2020). Even though ripe tomatoes contain 94% water, they are a strong source of vitamins A and B, as well as an excellent source of vitamin C (Barringer 2004). ...
The study was carried out at the College of Agriculture Engineering and Technology (COAE&T), SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar, during the Kharif-2022 season with the objective of investigating the optimal conditions for cultivating tomatoes in a hydroponic system. The research was conducted in a controlled environment using a Gothic-type polyhouse orientated in the north–south direction. Fifteen different treatments were applied, each involving variations in growing media, irrigation levels, and fertigation levels. The experimental design consisted of three replications arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The treatment combinations comprised three primary factors of fertigation levels: F1 (50% fresh; 50% leachate), F2 (75% fresh; 25% leachate), and F3 (100% fresh). Additionally, five growing media were used: M1 (vermiculite), M2 (cocopeat), M3 (vermicompost), M4 (vermiculite + cocopeat + vermicompost), and M5 (soil). The results revealed significant effects of these treatments on the growth, yield, and quality characteristics of tomatoes. The maximum heights of 70.17 cm, 126.50 cm, and 185.33 cm at 30, 60, and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively, were observed in treatment T6, which consisted of growing medium M2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F3 (100% fresh). Furthermore, treatment T6, utilizing growing medium M2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F3 (100% fresh), demonstrated the shortest duration to first flowering (20.00 days), days to first fruit set (24.37 days), and days to first fruit harvest (49.67 days). The maximum equatorial diameter (5.34 cm), leaf area (208.98 cm2), leaf area index (0.105), average fruit weight (90.20 g), average number of fruits per plant (55.00), yield per plant (3.63 kg), fruit yield per square meter (18.17 kg/m2), and fruit yield per hectare (1816.67 q) were observed in treatment T6, utilizing growing medium M2 (cocopeat) and fertigation level F3 (100% fresh). Treatment T6, incorporating the use of M2 (cocopeat) as the growing medium and F3 (100% fresh fertigation), yielded notable and remarkable outcomes.
... For instance, the availability of choice, modern technology, farmers' socio-economic characteristics, and attitudes affect the choice of management methods [1]. Farmers also consider the cost of management methods, the effect on the farmers, customers, and the environmental effect, among others [20,39]. ...
The study assessed the effect of socio-economic characteristics on the management methods of T. absoluta in Mwea, Kirinyaga County. The target population was 2300 open fields and 20 green-house tomato farmers in Mwea. A descriptive research design was used in the study, and a multistage sampling procedure was used to get a sample of 303 respondents. Through a survey, 283 open-field tomato small-scale farmers were randomly interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. Socio-economic and crop protection data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and econometric modeling. The multivariate probit model estimates showed that gender, education, age, land size, household income, and extension significantly affected farmers' choice of pest control methods to manage T. absoluta . The negative coefficients showed that an increase in either one of the socio-economic factors would help increase tomato yields reduced by T. absoluta . The study results encourage small-scale tomato farmers to use other pest management methods, such as crop rotation and weeding, so as not to rely on chemical pesticides alone to control T. absoluta . To learn more about tomato pest management practices, Tomato small-scale farmers should join farmers' groups and organizations. National and County policymakers should adopt policies to encourage integrated pest management methods to avoid excess chemical pesticides in tomato production.
... S. lycopersicum is also involved in the traditional Ruwatan Bumi ceremony. In addition to being used as a seasoning, this species can be consumed raw, with a fresh and sweet-sour taste [52]. ...
Abstract
The Sundanese people of West Java, Indonesia are well known for consuming raw plants as part of their food culture called lalapan. West Java consists of several traditional villages, one of them is Banceuy Traditional Village which is located in Subang Regency. Usually, discourse about food is inseparable from culture since every places has unique dishes and cultures. This study aimed to conduct quantitative analysis of the inventory of food plant data using quantitative ethnobotanical indices. Method of research used semi-structured interviews with 32 informants that consisted of 2 key informants and field-guided observation accompanied by one of the key informant around the village to identify and collect the food plant specimens. A quantitative data analysis was carried out using ethnobotany indices namely, Index of Cultural Significance (ICS), Use Values Index (UV), and Relative Frequency Citation (RFC). Banceuy indigenous people utilized 160 local food plant species belonging to 55 families. Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, and Zingiberaceae were the dominant food plant families. These plant species were utilized as sources of carbohydrates, fruits, vegetables, spices, seeds, and beverages. The most applied food consumption manner by Banceuy indigenous people consisted of fresh consumed, sauté, and boiled . Arenga pinnata had the highest ICS value (116) due to its utilization as seasoning and involved in traditional ritual. Manihot esculenta and Carica papaya had the highest value in UV (1.81 & 1.69) and RFC (both 0.97) as they were used for daily consumption.
... Bacterial wilt disease, caused by a soil-borne plant pathogen, Ralstonia solanacearum, is a severe disease, especially on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in tropical and subtropical areas. The pathogen obstructs plant tissues, arteries or ducts (Bradbury, 1986); yet tomato is one of the world's most popular fruit vegetables (Kumar et al., 2020). Muhammad (2017) concluded that in endemic tropical and subtropical areas across the world, the disease causes up to 90.6% yield losses. ...
Bacterial wilt is a disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, which affects over 450 plant species
and causes significant reduction in crop yields including of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) worldwide.
Developing and identifying tomato genotypes with Ralstonia solanacearum tolerance and high yield
potential, presents an opportunity for improvement of crop productivity. The objective of this study
was to explore the heritability of tomato resistance against bacterial wilt and the genetic variation
within the population for breeding purposes. A breeding population was created by crossing two
bacterial wilt-resistant (MT56 and BL333) and three commercially desirable susceptible (Assila, Rambo
and Heinz) tomato varieties, using North Carolina Design II, in a screen house at the Makerere University
Agricultural Research Institute, Kabanyolo (MUARIK). Results showed that the Area Under Disease
Progress Curve was significant (P<0.001), indicating that cumulative disease progress was less in
resistant genotypes of segregating generations. Disease severity increased with days after inoculation
(DAI), with Heinz showing the highest level of susceptibility. The General Combining Ability for male
parent (GCAm) was significant (P< 0.01), and Specific Combining Ability (SCAf×m) and GCAf were
significant (P<0.01) for the F2 generation. Broad-sense heritability was higher than the narrow-sense
heritability in both F1 and F2 generations, suggesting that non-additive gene action predominately
controlled tomato resistance to bacterial wilt infestation. The genetic diversity ranged from 0.5 to
0.6759, with a mean value of 0.5787. Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) varied from 0.375 to
0.6357, with a mean of 0.4888, indicating a high degree of variation. SLM 12-2 was the most polymorphic
marker, with a PIC of 0.6357. The Unweighted Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic Average (UPGMA)
classified all tomato genotypes into six clusters, namely Clusters 1 and 2 (Susceptible parents), Cluster
3 (Resistant parents), Clusters 4 and 5 (New source of resistance), and Cluster 6 (F1P1×P5).
... This model also has average accuracy measure while comparing other model this accuracy is lower. Then DL model is suggested by Kumar et al. [17] and this model were validate with other frameworks. From the validation VGG and ResNet has finest performance. ...
Better disease detection and classification for tomato leaves at early sage provide finest productivity results. It is a natural occurrence for tomato plants to get sick, and if the appropriate attention and corrective action are not given in a timely manner. Moreover, it negatively impacts the productivity, quality, and quantity of the corresponding product. It is crucial to check the health and look for disease in tomato crop leaves since, if handled, these issues can affect the plant, leading to significant losses at marketing fields. Thus this article proposed an advanced Self-developed Convolution Neural Network (CNN) with fewer layers than the other standard model and its accuracy was tested by varying different parameters. Consequently, results shows the highest accuracy obtained at the learning rate of 0.0003, 20 epochs, and on using the three different optimizer. All the experiments are performed on 4 classes such as yellow curl diseases, early blight, bacterial spot and healthy leaf of the plant village public dataset the highest accuracy of 99.67% achieved on 12 layers CNN model.
... The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most produced and consumed vegetables worldwide [1,2]. Its fruit has high nutritional value and is a source of vitamins A and C and carotenoids such as lycopene, which is responsible for the red color of the vegetable [3,4]. Although it can be grown in tropical and subtropical regions [5], the tomato crop is vulnerable to biotic and abiotic stresses [5,6]. ...
The tomato crop is very sensitive to stress conditions. A water deficit is defined as when precipitation is less than the evapotranspiration (ETc) of the crop in a given period, and in this scenario of climate change, it is identified as responsible for global productivity losses. The use of potential technologies for better irrigation management, such as electromagnetically treated water, remains controversial. Thus, the objective of the present work was to investigate the effects of very low-frequency electromagnetic resonance field treatment on water for tomato crops submitted to different irrigation rates. For this, an experiment was carried out under controlled conditions with different types of water: electromagnetically treated water (WTVLF) and untreated water (UNW), as well as four water replacement rates: 40, 60, 80, and 100% ETc. The electromagnetic treatment of the water was carried out using the commercial equipment AQUA4D®. The experiment was carried out in pots with five replications per treatment. Lower activity of SOD, POD, CAT, and APX enzymes was observed in plants irrigated with water treated with very low-frequency electromagnetic resonance fields (WTVLF), indicating less oxidative stress caused by water deficit. Water deficit reduced chlorophyll content, but the effects were less harmful with WTVLF water. The water deficit resulted in less accumulation of dry matter and less productivity in a linear relationship. However, plants irrigated with WTVLF showed increments of about 20% in dry matter accumulation and 20% in fruit production concerning plants irrigated with untreated water, independent of the irrigation rates. We can conclude that irrigation with WTVLF can be a solution to reduce the damage caused by water deficits and increase the productivity of tomato crops.
... Tomato alternative tomato hybrid (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.), belongs to Solanaceae (nightshade) family. It is one of the main vegetables in world cuisine (Kumar et al., 2020). It is one of the most important foods and it also essential for the human health, because it contains many important nutrients to the body (Abd Kadhum et al., 2019). ...
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371131743_EFFECT_OF_SEED_SOAKING_IN_GA3_AND_FOLIAR_SPRAYING_OF_BORIC_ACID_AND_a-TOCOPHEROL_ON_GROWTH_FRUIT_QUANTITY_AND_QUALITY_AND_SEED_YIELD_OF_TOMATO?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InByb2ZpbGUiLCJwYWdlIjoiX2RpcmVjdCJ9fQ
... for fresh consumption and for processing [6]. The tomato has a strong therapeutic value as a blood cleanser, and it stimulates gastrointestinal secretion. ...
Tomato plants are among the most widely cultivated and economically important crops worldwide. Farmers’ major challenge when growing tomatoes is early blight disease caused by Alternaria solani, which results in significant yield losses. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained popularity recently due to their potential antifungal activity. The present study investigated the potential of green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) for enhancing the growth and yield of tomato plants and their resistance against early blight disease. AgNPs were synthesized using leaf extract of the neem tree. Tomato plants treated with AgNPs showed a significant increase in plant height (30%), number of leaves, fresh weight (45%), and dry weight (40%) compared to the control plants. Moreover, the AgNP–treated plants exhibited a significant reduction in disease severity index (DSI) (73%) and disease incidence (DI) (69%) compared to the control plants. Tomato plants treated with 5 and 10 ppm AgNPs reached their maximum levels of photosynthetic pigments and increased the accumulation of certain secondary metabolites compared to the control group. AgNP treatment improved stress tolerance in tomato plants as indicated by higher activities of antioxidant enzymes such as PO (60%), PPO (65%), PAL (65.5%), SOD (65.3%), CAT (53.8%), and APX (73%). These results suggest that using green synthesized AgNPs is a promising approach for enhancing the growth and yield of tomato plants and protecting them against early blight disease. Overall, the findings demonstrate the potential of nanotechnology-based solutions for sustainable agriculture and food security.
... Besides being eaten raw and fresh as salad, the processed paste of tomato fruits is used in the cooking of various stews and soups, and also for producing fruit drinks, ketchup, or juice [5,6]. It has nutritional properties such as calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C which are all beneficial to human health [7,8]. It also contains several bioactive compounds such as tocopherol, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds 1 3 [9]. ...
Objectives
Due to the constant increase in food demand and pest infestation, the use of insecticides has continued. However, the presence of pesticide residues in food products is of global concern. Hence, this study assessed the levels of insecticide residues in two tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars in Akure, Nigeria and also investigated the impact of household processing on these residues.Methods
Samples of fresh tomatoes (Roma and Roma VF cultivars) from the wholesale vegetable market in Akure were subjected to three household processes, viz. peeling, boiling and blanching. Insecticides residues in the processed and unprocessed tomato samples were extracted and cleaned using the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Efficient, and Safe (QuEChERS) EN 15,662 method. The cleaned samples were analyzed using gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer detector (GC–MS).ResultsPyrethroid residues detected in the unprocessed tomatoes were all above the EU Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) (cyfluthrin: Roma VF-5.637 ppm, Roma-6.209 ppm; β-cypermethrin: Roma VF-6.610 ppm, Roma-12.494 ppm). In Roma cultivar, peeling reduced β-cypermethrin residue by 48.60%, blanching reduced α-cypermethrin by 100% and boiling reduced cyfluthrin residue by 100%. In Roma VF cultivar, all the processes completely removed α-cypermethrin; boiling and blanching reduced β-cypermethrin residue by 100%, while peeling removed cyfluthrin residue completely (100%). Blanching (85–87 °C for 4 min) and boiling (100 °C for 10 min) were effective in reducing pyrethroid residues in the studied cultivars. Malathion and parathion residues in unprocessed tomatoes were below detectable levels until after boiling for 10 min. Parathion residues of 1.55 and 1.28 ppm were detected in Roma VF and Roma tomato cultivars, respectively. However, malathion residue (1.89 ppm) was only detected in Roma tomato cultivar.Conclusion
This study shows that household processes are effective means of reducing and removing pyrethroid residues in Roma and Roma VF tomato cultivars.
... Recent research found that tomatoes are the primary source of nutritional lycopene, a powerful antioxidant unlike nutrients in most fresh fruits. Tomatoes also contain other protective mechanisms, such as antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory functions (Kumar et al., 2020). ...
Minerals are the fundamental source of nutrients for plant functions such as photosynthesis, ATP currency, cellular respiration, metabolic activities, defense mechanisms, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stressors. Minerals are the most significant component of plant nutrition and applying these minerals supplements can increase fruit output. The study’s main aim was to make agricultural farming easier by foliar applying newly created nutrients like Lebosol-calcium and Magnesium. The four treatments: To (Control), T1 (Lebosol-Mg-Plus, 3 ml/L), T2 (Lebosol-Ca-Forte, 3 ml/L), and T3 (Lebosol-Mg-Plus and Lebosol-Ca-Forte, 3 ml/L) was applied as foliar spray to the seedlings of tomato. It was found that T3 substantially enhanced tomato’s morphological features and yield. The treatment T3 significantly increased total soluble protein, chlorophyll content, and antioxidant enzyme activity. Furthermore, the foliar application of T3 considerably improved phenolic and ascorbic acid contents. The general anatomical features of the leaf, stem, and roots of tomato were qualitatively affected by the treatments. Application of Lebosol-Ca provided the highest total thickness of lamina, number of vessel elements, total phloem area, chlorenchyma layer, total area of vessel elements, xylem ratio, and increased palisade layer thickness, vessel diameter. Furthermore, T3 treatment showed a diverse impact on the internal structure of tomato organs, with palisade and spongy parenchyma growing to maximum values and vessel diameters expanding. T3 had also posed remarkable alterations in morpho-physiological, biochemical, and anatomical aspects in tested plants.
... Tomatoes are eaten in a number of ways, like as a vegetable, salad, fruit, ketchup, and chatni, among others. 19 Despite the widespread use of pesticides, various fungal infections continue to cause major output losses in tomatoes across the world. 20 Among them, Alternaria solani (causing early blight disease), Fusarium oxysporum (fusarial wilt disease) and Phytophthora infestans (causing late blight disease) are major phytopathogens causing huge losses in tomato yield. ...
Pesticide overuse can have a negative effect on the development processes of non-target plants.
... They are consumed fresh in salads or cooked in sauces, soups, and processed into purees, juices, and tomato sauce (ketchup). Canned and dry products are also economically important processed products, serving many markets (Kumar et al., 2020). Lycopene is a carotenoid characterized by being one of the most abundant antioxidant compounds in tomato and gives the characteristic red color to most tomato cultivars on the market. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of irrigation with saline water on fruit quality, yield, and plant nutrition of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cultivars. Tomato cultivation was carried out under protected environment conditions in a double row system with drip irrigation performed according to the demand of the plants. Commercial fruit weight, commercial fruit number, fruit yield, absorption of Ca, N, P, S, K, and Mg were all affected by saline irrigation. The leaf Na concentration and the concentration of total phenolic compounds, total titratable acids, total soluble solids, vitamin C, carotenoids, and flavonoids in the fruits were favored from the increase in irrigation salinity. The Na⁺ causes a deficiency of Ca, which impairs seed formation in tomato fruits, as Ca is a structural element in the formation of the pollen grain. The Onix genotype had the highest yield, weight, and number of commercial fruits under control and moderate salt stress conditions. Saline water impaired nutrient absorption and improved tomato fruit quality. Under salt stress, tomato plants were able to absorb and translocate large amounts of Na+ to the shoot and even improved the organoleptic quality of fruits, increasing the content of carotenoids, flavonoids, vitamin C, total phenolic compounds, total soluble solids, and total titratable acids of tomato fruits. The clustering analysis was able to show the highest genetic dissimilarity between the group composed of Shanty, Maestrina, and Ipa 6 and the group with Sheena, Totalle, and Pizzadoro under salt stress conditions; also, it evidenced the greater stability of these genotypes.
... Globally, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most widely consumed fresh vegetables and has been ranked as the second-largest grown vegetable (Kumar et al. 2020). It is also considered among the most important vegetable crops in Palestine, with an estimated annual cultivated area of ∼891.8 ha, producing ∼82 739 tons yearly (MOA 2018). ...
The current work investigates the impact of postharvest applications of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in combination with either 10% gum arabic or 50% cactus mucilage on the quality parameters and storability of tomato fruit (Izmir variety), at ambient storage conditions [21 ± 1 °C, relative humidity (RH) 45% ± 2%]. The tomato fruits were dipped in 6% CaCl2 for 10 min and then coated with either 10% gum arabic or 50% cactus mucilage for 3 min. During the time-course of storage, the fruit attributes, such as fresh fruit weight loss, fruit decay, firmness, titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), and color development were assessed. The results revealed a significant (P ≤ 0.05) effect of fruit postharvest treatment with 6% CaCl2 for 10 min combined with postharvest coating treatments with either 10% gum arabic or 50% cactus mucilage for 3 min on reducing fruit fresh weight loss, and decay percent of fruits. Fruit firmness, TA, and TSS were preserved compared with untreated fruit. In addition, treated fruits took more time to develop from pink to full red compared with untreated fruit. Hence, coating with natural substances combined with CaCl2 preserved the overall quality parameters and enhanced the shelf life of tomato fruit even after three weeks of storage at ambient temperature.
A study was carried out to investigate the disease responses of Alphaspin nanoparticles-treated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) to Southern blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii in Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Two grams each of seeds belonging to the Syria, Roma Savana, and UC82B tomato varieties were exposed to Alphaspin nanoparticles for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 min respectively, and challenged with sclerotia obtained from isolates of S. rolfsii. Growth and disease responses of Alphaspin nanoparticles treated tomato plants to S. rolfsii were assessed 4 weeks after inoculation. UC82B tomato exposed to Alphaspin nanoparticles for 40 min proved to be the most susceptible variety to S. rolfsii, with the mean total leaf yellowing 87.50%, leaf necrosis 81.25%, flower wilt 82.50%, stem necrosis 40.00%, stem rot 35.00%, stem wilt 42.50%, plant wilt 45.00%, plant height 37.40 cm, number of leaves 88.00, stem girth 2.25 cm, number of branches 0.75, and number of flowers 7.75. The differences in growth and disease responses were significant among the different tomato varieties (P<0.05). The study revealed that plants exposed to Alphaspin nanoparticles were more vulnerable to southern blight than the untreated control, hence, studies involving the use of other nano materials such as green synthesized nanoparticles are required to further our understanding of the effect of nanoparticles on tomato resistance to southern blight caused by S. rolfsii.
Worldwide agriculture productivity and the economy are negatively impacted by plant diseases carried on by several microorganisms that are either present in the soil, seeds, or propagative planting materials, or that are conveyed by the air or water. This review provides a wealth of information about the importance and frequency of different types of seed-borne mycoflora such as Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp., Rhizopus spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Colletotrichum spp. which is specifically linked to tomato seeds. These mycoflora cause devastating tomato diseases such as grey mold, fruit and root rots, Fusarium wilt, early blight, and foot rots, and evaluate a variety of contemporary and traditional methods that are used to identify seed-borne fungi and to implement various control measures, such as chemical and biological approaches that scientists have chosen. Many variables, such as the presence of vulnerable plants, ideal environmental circumstances, and overhead watering, pose significant barriers to the spread of plant diseases. In these circumstances, an efficient disease management strategy consists of monitoring plant health and detecting diseases, especially by screening infested seed lots before planting with the use of seed detection assays.
One of the most well-known vegetables used by the majority of the population worldwide, known as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), is affected by wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (FOL), mainly in the tropics. In the current scenario, a residue-free management approach using a biological control agent is being explored to address the invasion of phytopathogens. This investigation assessed the ability of Trichoderma asperellum (Tv1) to reduce pathogen growth and promote plant growth. A dual culture assay demonstrated that Trichoderma asperellum Tv1 inhibited the growth of the pathogen mycelia by up to 79.63%, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by the antagonist inhibited FOL to a maximum of 61.48% of the MGI. An oil-based (OB) formulation was developed using a spore suspension of Tv1 with improved shelf life (3.22 × 108 cfu/ml on the 120th day). Compared with those in the control treatment, significant improvements in vegetative parameters such as germination percentage (100%), root length (8.12 cm) and shoot length (5.58 cm) were observed by the roll towel method upon seed treatment (5 ml/kg) with the OB formulation. There was a minimum wilt disease incidence in tomatoes, up to 19.34% (T8), which was recorded in comparison with that in the inoculated control (T12) (64.75%). Overall, Trichoderma asperellum Tv1 was proven to be an effective biocontrol agent against Fusarium wilt disease in tomato. This study revealed a reduction in mycelial growth of the pathogen caused by mycoparasitism and VOCs under laboratory conditions and wilt disease incidence in a glasshouse study in response to treatment with the biocontrol agent Tv1. With this viewpoint, this approach could be considered a promising environmentally safe approach for managing wilt disease in tomatoes.
(1) Background: Previous research has demonstrated that the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil and the balance of exchangeable cations Ca, Mg, and K are key factors affecting plant growth and development. We hypothesized that balancing exchangeable cations based on increased CEC would improve plant growth and development. (2) Methods: This study conducted a two-phase experiment to evaluate methods for increasing soil CEC and the effects of increasing CEC and balancing Ca, Mg, and K on plant growth. Therefore, we first conducted a soil culture experiment using organic fertilizer, montmorillonite, and humic acid to investigate fertilizers that can effectively increase CEC in the short term. Then, a tomato seedling pot experiment was conducted using the control (CK) and OMHA fertilizer-treated soils collected from soil culture experiments. The CK and OMHA treatment soils were constructed with balanced exchangeable cations and an unbalanced control, respectively. (3) Results: The soil culture experiments revealed that the combination of organic fertilizer, montmorillonite, and humic acid (OMHA treatment) had the most significant effect on increasing CEC. The CEC of the OMHA treatment increased by 41.07%, reaching 27.10 cmol·kg⁻¹. The tomato pot experiments demonstrated that balancing the exchangeable cations in OMHA soil improved the Mg and K nutrition of tomato seedlings and significantly increased SPAD, leaf nitrogen content, and dry weight, while balancing the exchangeable cations in CK soil improved only the K nutrition of tomato seedlings. (4) Conclusions: Overall, balancing exchangeable cations based on increasing CEC can improve soil nutrient availability and alleviate the competition effects of Ca, Mg, and K cations. Low CEC and imbalanced exchangeable cations can be detrimental to tomato seedling growth.
Plant growth‐promoting rhizobacteria enhances nutritional availability during root colonization. Pseudomonas is the most popular bioinoculant due to its synergistic effects on plant development. This study evaluated the impact of four Pseudomonas strain substrate inoculations on tomato phenology, yield, and selected phytochemical components relevant to human health. The bacterial isolates have been characterized morphologically, biochemically, physiologically, and phylogenetically. Tomato plants on cocopeat substrate were inoculated individually with a bacterial suspension (optical density [OD]600 2.0). Controls included nitrogen–phosphate–potassium (NPK) fertilizer and tap water. The greenhouse experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design with five replications. Data were taken 30, 60, 90, and 120 days after inoculation. All four bacterial isolates could fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphate, and potassium and synthesize indole acetic acid in vitro. The 16S rRNA of the strains BF1P2‐6, BF2P1‐2, BF2P5‐1, and BF4P2‐5 were identified as Pseudomonas putida Y22, Pseudomonas taiwanensis GDLB‐32, Pseudomonas monteilii Bil‐NOR3_15, and Pseudomonas fluorescens Y5, respectively. The strains grew best at pH 7, NaCl 0.0%, and 35°C. Inoculated tomato plants tested over a period of 4 months in a greenhouse showed a significant increase in growth, leaf variables, and yield attributes. Pseudomonas‐inoculated plants were the highest in tannins (46.96 mg/100 g), followed by lycopene (45.57 mg/100 g) and Carotenoids (31.87 mg/100 g). The antioxidant activity of tomato fruit extracts showed the potential for free radicals scavenging activity against 2, 2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl. Conditions such as pH and electrical conductivity for the cocopeat substrate were within acceptable limits. Bacterial strains and NPK increased cocopeat nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium bioavailability. This study reveals that Pseudomonas strains improve plant growth, yield, and health‐related phytochemical substances in tomato fruits, which could broaden their application in fruit and vegetable crops.
Use of fungal entomopathogens can be an alternative to insecticides and could help in bio-intensive pest management. Entomopathogenic fungi may be used for chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood and tomato thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman control. Field experiments were conducted with an oil formulation of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin fungal isolate @ 108 spores·mL−1 against chilli and tomato thrips. Several delivery systems were tested. Two field experiments conducted on chilli indicated that the Bb 112 oil-based formulation applied with a Controlled Droplet Applicator (CDA) sprayer produced the highest reduction of 54.12% and 48.82% thrips, respectively. For tomato thrips, the field trials indicated that Bb 112 oil formulation applied with CDA sprayer was significantly higher than the other treatments with 55.07% and 52.36% reduction, respectively. Therefore, one can notice that the synergism of the association between fungus and oil indicate its potential against the target pest in the field.
Lycopene, the predominant carotenoid in tomatoes, exhibits the highest antioxidant activity and singlet oxygen quenching ability of all dietary carotenoids. Processing of tomatoes increases the biovailability of lycopene. This study evaluates the lycopene contents of fresh tomatoes and various commonly consumed tomato products (tomato paste, tomato sauce, tomato ketchup, spaghetti sauce) from the romanian market. For analysis of lycopene we used a fast and simple spectrophotometric method, at 472 and 502 nm, in hexane:acetone:ethanol extract. The lycopene concentration was expressed as mg/100g product. The results show that lycopene content of samples of fresh tomatoes was aproximatly 12 mg/100g. In tomato products the lycopene content had the folowing values: in tomato paste aproximatly 16 mg/100g, in tomato boild sauce aproximatly 4 mg/100g, tomato Ketchup 17 mg/100g and spaghetti sauce 16 mg/100g. Analizing the results obtained, we concluded that the lycopene content of tomatoes remained raised during the multistep processing operations for the production of juice or paste.
Tomatoes and tomato products are one of the most familiar vegetables in the American diet. Quantitatively, they are the most consumed nonstarchy vegetable and are the most significant source of dietary lycopene; a powerful antioxidant that has greater bioavailability after cooking and processing (eg, canning). A large body of research supports an inverse relationship between consuming tomatoes and tomato products and risk of certain cancers, while emerging research is exploring the protective relationship between tomato intake and a host of conditions, including cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, ultraviolet light—induced skin damage, and cognitive dysfunction. Initial studies of tomato consumption and disease risk reduction focused on lycopene and antioxidant activity. More recent hypotheses recognize the advantages of the whole tomato; and hence, research on the role of tomato products in health and disease risk reduction extends beyond antioxidant function to include other protective mechanisms such as antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory functions. Increasing daily vegetable intake in the American diet offers the potential to yield significant health benefits. In addition to the specific benefits of tomato consumption, encouraging greater tomato and tomato product consumption may help increase overall vegetable intake because of their wide availability, well-established acceptability, cost-effectiveness, and convenience of multiple forms. Leveraging emerging science about tomatoes and tomato products may be one simple and effective strategy to help individuals increase vegetable intake, leading to improved overall eating patterns, and ultimately, better health.
Lycopene is an effective antioxidant in vivo. Although lycopene is present in its all-trans isomeric form in fruits and vegetables, serum and tissue samples show a predominance of various cis-isomers of lycopene. The present study was undertaken to investigate the molecular structure of several cis-isomers of lycopene using an ab initio molecular modeling procedure. The relative stability of selected cis-isomers of lycopene with respect to the all-trans isomer, was studied. The following sequence of stability was observed.The first four of these isomers had relative energies within +1 kcal mol−1, but the fifth isomer (i.e. 15-cis) was within 3 kcal mol−1. However, the last two isomers were less stable than the all-trans-isomer with more than 5 kcal mol−1, difference in energy. The optimized molecular conformational study structures indicated that the central conjugated part of every lycopene isomer is planar. However, the two tail ends of the molecules, each containing three single C–C bonds, avoid coplanarity.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are known mediators of intracellular signaling cascades. Excessive production of ROS may, however, lead to oxidative stress, loss of cell function, and ultimately apoptosis or necrosis. A balance between oxidant and antioxidant intracellular systems is hence vital for cell function, regulation, and adaptation to diverse growth conditions. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) in conjunction with thioredoxin (Trx) is a ubiquitous oxidoreductase system with antioxidant and redox regulatory roles. In mammals, extracellular forms of Trx also have cytokine-like effects. Mammalian TrxR has a highly reactive active site selenocysteine residue resulting in a profound reductive capacity, reducing several substrates in addition to Trx. Due to the reactivity of TrxR, the enzyme is inhibited by many clinically used electrophilic compounds including nitrosoureas, aurothioglucose, platinum compounds, and retinoic acid derivatives. The properties of TrxR in combination with the functions of Trx position this system at the core of cellular thiol redox control and antioxidant defense. In this review, we focus on the reactions of the Trx system with ROS molecules and different cellular antioxidant enzymes. We summarize the TrxR-catalyzed regeneration of several antioxidant compounds, including ascorbic acid (vitamin C), selenium-containing substances, lipoic acid, and ubiquinone (Q10). We also discuss the general cellular effects of TrxR inhibition. Dinitrohalobenzenes constitute a unique class of immunostimulatory TrxR inhibitors and we consider the immunomodulatory effects of dinitrohalobenzene compounds in view of their reactions with the Trx system.
Lycopene is a non-provitamin A carotenoid that is responsible for the red to pink colors seen in tomatoes, pink grapefruit, and other foods. Processed tomato products are the primary dietary lycopene source in the United States. Unlike many other natural compounds, lycopene is generally stable to processing when present in the plant tissue matrix. Recently, lycopene has also been studied in relation to its potential health effects. Although promising data from epidemiological, as well as cell culture and animal, studies suggest that lycopene and the consumption of lycopene containing foods may affect cancer or cardiovascular disease risk, more clinical trial data is needed to support this hypothesis. In addition, future studies are required to understand the mechanism(s) whereby lycopene or its metabolites are proven to possess biological activity in humans.
Cholesterol membrane transporters scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) and (cluster determinant 36) are involved in intestinal uptake of lutein and beta-carotene, 2 of the 3 main carotenoids of the human diet. The aim of this work was therefore to determine whether SR-BI and NPC1L1 (Niemann-Pick C1-like 1), another cholesterol transporter, are implicated in absorption of lycopene, the 3rd main carotenoid of the human diet. Anti-human SR-BI antibody and block lipid transport 1 (BLT1) (a chemical inhibitor of lipid transport by SR-BI) impaired up to 60% (all-E) and (5Z)-lycopene uptake (P < 0.05) by Caco-2 cell monolayers, which were used as a model of human intestinal epithelium. The involvement of SR-BI in lycopene absorption in vivo was then verified by comparing plasma lycopene concentrations in wild-type and SR-BI transgenic mice that were fed a diet enriched with 0.25 g/kg (all-E)-lycopene for 1 mo. Plasma lycopene concentrations were approximately 10-fold higher (P < 0.001) in mice overexpressing SR-BI in the intestine than in wild-type mice, confirming the involvement of SR-BI in lycopene absorption. Further experiments showed that (all-E)-lycopene did not affect SR-BI mRNA levels in Caco-2 cells or mouse intestine. In contrast to SR-BI, neither anti-human NPC1L1 antibody nor ezetimibe, used as inhibitors of lycopene uptake via NPC1L1, significantly impaired (all-E) or (5Z)-lycopene uptake by Caco-2 monolayers. Thus, the present data show that lycopene absorption is, at least in part, mediated by SR-BI but not by NPC1L1.
Tomatoes are a rich source of lycopene, β-carotene, potassium, vitamin C, flavonoids, folate and vitamin E that may provide protection against the development of type 2 diabetic patients, so the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of tomato intake on serum glucose, homocysteine, apolipoprotein (apo) B, apoA-I and blood pressure in type 2 diabetic patients. In a quasi-experimental study, 32 type 2 diabetes patients received 200 g raw tomato daily for 8 weeks. Serum glucose enzymatically, apoB and apoA-I immunoturbidometrically and homocysteine by high-performance liquid chromatography were measured at the beginning and end of 8 weeks. There were significant decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and also a significant increase in apoA-I at the end of study compared with initial values (P = 0.0001, P = 0.0001 and P = 0.013, respectively). In conclusion, 200 g raw tomato per day had a favored effect on blood pressure and apoA-I so it might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk associated with type 2 diabetes.
Evidence derived from a vast array of laboratory studies and epidemiological investigations have implicated diets rich in fruits and vegetables with a reduced risk of certain cancers. However, these approaches cannot demonstrate causal relationships and there is a paucity of randomized, controlled trials due to the difficulties involved with executing studies of food and behavioral change. Rather than pursuing the definitive intervention trials that are necessary, the thrust of research in recent decades has been driven by a reductionist approach focusing upon the identification of bioactive components in fruits and vegetables with the subsequent development of single agents using a pharmacologic approach. At this point in time, there are no chemopreventive strategies that are standard of care in medical practice that have resulted from this approach. This review describes an alternative approach focusing upon development of tomato-based food products for human clinical trials targeting cancer prevention and as an adjunct to therapy. Tomatoes are a source of bioactive phytochemicals and are widely consumed. The phytochemical pattern of tomato products can be manipulated to optimize anticancer activity through genetics, horticultural techniques, and food processing. The opportunity to develop a highly consistent tomato-based food product rich in anticancer phytochemicals for clinical trials targeting specific cancers, particularly the prostate, necessitates the interactive transdisciplinary research efforts of horticulturalists, food technologists, cancer biologists, and clinical translational investigators.
High-dose beta-carotene supplementation in high-risk persons has been linked to increased lung cancer risk in clinical trials; whether effects are similar in the general population is unclear. The authors examined associations of supplemental beta-carotene, retinol, vitamin A, lutein, and lycopene with lung cancer risk among participants, aged 50-76 years, in the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL) cohort Study in Washington State. In 2000-2002, eligible persons (n = 77,126) completed a 24-page baseline questionnaire, including detailed questions about supplement use (duration, frequency, dose) during the previous 10 years from multivitamins and individual supplements/mixtures. Incident lung cancers (n = 521) through December 2005 were identified by linkage to the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results cancer registry. Longer duration of use of individual beta-carotene, retinol, and lutein supplements (but not total 10-year average dose) was associated with statistically significantly elevated risk of total lung cancer and histologic cell types; for example, hazard ratio = 2.02, 95% confidence interval: 1.28, 3.17 for individual supplemental lutein with total lung cancer and hazard ratio = 3.22, 95% confidence interval: 1.29, 8.07 for individual beta-carotene with small-cell lung cancer for >4 years versus no use. There was little evidence for effect modification by gender or smoking status. Long-term use of individual beta-carotene, retinol, and lutein supplements should not be recommended for lung cancer prevention, particularly among smokers.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) represents the primary cause of death in Western Countries with an high incidence on human health and community social costs. Oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in the aetiology of this disease. In particular, the LDL-oxidization has a key role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular heart diseases through the initiation of plaque formation process. Dietary phytochemical products such antioxidant vitamins (A,C,E) and bioactive food components (alpha- and beta-carotene) have shown an antioxidant effect in reducing both oxidative markers stress and LDL-oxidization process. Scientifical evidences support the beneficial roles of phytochemicals in the prevention of some chronic diseases. Lycopene, an oxygenated carotenoid with great antioxidant properties, has shown both in epidemiological studies and supplementation human trials a reduction of cardiovascular risk. However, controlled clinical trials and dietary intervention studies using well-defined subjects population haven't been provided a clear evidence of lycopene in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. The present short review aims to evaluate the beneficial effect of lycopene in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.
Carotenoids are thought to have anti-cancer properties, but findings from population-based research have been inconsistent.
We aimed to conduct a systematic review of the associations between carotenoids and lung cancer.
We searched electronic databases for articles published through September 2007. Six randomized clinical trials examining the efficacy of beta-carotene supplements and 25 prospective observational studies assessing the associations between carotenoids and lung cancer were analyzed by using random-effects meta-analysis.
The pooled relative risk (RR) for the studies comparing beta-carotene supplements with placebo was 1.10 (95% confidence limits: 0.89, 1.36; P = 0.39). Among the observational studies that adjusted for smoking, the pooled RRs comparing highest and lowest categories of total carotenoid intake and of total carotenoid serum concentrations were 0.79 (0.71, 0.87; P < 0.001) and 0.70 (0.44, 1.11; P = 0.14), respectively. For beta-carotene, highest compared with lowest pooled RRs were 0.92 (0.83, 1.01; P = 0.09) for dietary intake and 0.84 (0.66, 1.07; P = 0.15) for serum concentrations. For other carotenoids, the RRs comparing highest and lowest categories of intake ranged from 0.80 for beta-cryptoxanthin to 0.89 for alpha-carotene and lutein-zeaxanthin; for serum concentrations, the RRs ranged from 0.71 for lycopene to 0.95 for lutein-zeaxanthin.
beta-Carotene supplementation is not associated with a decrease in the risk of developing lung cancer. Findings from prospective cohort studies suggest inverse associations between carotenoids and lung cancer; however, the decreases in risk are generally small and not statistically significant. These inverse associations may be the result of carotenoid measurements' function as a marker of a healthier lifestyle (higher fruit and vegetable consumption) or of residual confounding by smoking.
Evidence has accumulated from observational studies that people eating more fruits and vegetables, which are rich in beta-carotene (a violet to yellow plant pigment that acts as an antioxidant and can be converted to vitamin A by enzymes in the intestinal wall and liver) and retinol (an alcohol chemical form of vitamin A), and people having higher serum beta-carotene concentrations had lower rates of lung cancer. The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET) tested the combination of 30 mg beta-carotene and 25,000 IU retinyl palmitate (vitamin A) taken daily against placebo in 18314 men and women at high risk of developing lung cancer. The CARET intervention was stopped 21 months early because of clear evidence of no benefit and substantial evidence of possible harm; there were 28% more lung cancers and 17% more deaths in the active intervention group (active = the daily combination of 30 mg beta-carotene and 25,000 IU retinyl palmitate). Promptly after the January 18, 1996, announcement that the CARET active intervention had been stopped, we published preliminary findings from CARET regarding cancer, heart disease, and total mortality.
We present for the first time results based on the pre-specified analytic method, details about risk factors for lung cancer, and analyses of subgroups and of factors that possibly influence response to the intervention.
CARET was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled chemoprevention trial, initiated with a pilot phase and then expanded 10-fold at six study centers. Cigarette smoking history and status and alcohol intake were assessed through participant self-report. Serum was collected from the participants at base line and periodically after randomization and was analyzed for beta-carotene concentration. An Endpoints Review Committee evaluated endpoint reports, including pathologic review of tissue specimens. The primary analysis is a stratified logrank test for intervention arm differences in lung cancer incidence, with weighting linearly to hypothesized full effect at 24 months after randomization. Relative risks (RRs) were estimated by use of Cox regression models; tests were performed for quantitative and qualitative interactions between the intervention and smoking status or alcohol intake. O'Brien-Fleming boundaries were used for stopping criteria at interim analyses. Statistical significance was set at the .05 alpha value, and all P values were derived from two-sided statistical tests.
According to CARET's pre-specified analysis, there was an RR of 1.36 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.07-1.73; P = .01) for weighted lung cancer incidence for the active intervention group compared with the placebo group, and RR = 1.59 (95% CI = 1.13-2.23; P = .01) for weighted lung cancer mortality. All subgroups, except former smokers, had a point estimate of RR of 1.10 or greater for lung cancer. There are suggestions of associations of the excess lung cancer incidence with the highest quartile of alcohol intake (RR = 1.99; 95% CI = 1.28-3.09; test for heterogeneity of RR among quartiles of alcohol intake has P = .01, unadjusted for multiple comparisons) and with large-cell histology (RR = 1.89; 95% CI = 1.09-3.26; test for heterogeneity among histologic categories has P = .35), but not with base-line serum beta-carotene concentrations.
CARET participants receiving the combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A had no chemopreventive benefit and had excess lung cancer incidence and mortality. The results are highly consistent with those found for beta-carotene in the Alpha-Tocopherol Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study in 29133 male smokers in Finland.
Lycopene bioavailability from a single dose of fresh tomatoes or tomato paste (23 mg lycopene) ingested together with 15 g corn oil was compared by analyzing carotenoid concentrations in the chylomicron fraction. The lycopene isomer pattern was the same in both fresh tomatoes and tomato paste. The triacylglycerol response in chylomicrons was not significantly different after both treatments. Ingestion of tomato paste was found to yield 2.5-fold higher total and all-trans-lycopene peak concentrations (P < 0.05 and P < 0.005, respectively) and 3.8-fold higher area under the curve (AUC) responses (P < 0.001) than ingestion of fresh tomatoes. The same was calculated for lycopene cis-isomers, but only the AUC response for the cis-isomers was significantly higher after ingestion of tomato paste (P < 0.005). No difference was observed in the alpha- and beta-carotene response. Thus, in humans, the bioavailability of lycopene is greater from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes.
We studied the plasma chain-breaking antioxidants alpha carotene, beta carotene, lycopene, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and a measure of total antioxidant capacity, TAC, in 79 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), 37 patients with vascular dementia (VaD), 18 patients with Parkinson's disease and dementia (PDem), and 58 matching controls, together with 41 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and 41 matching controls. Significant reductions in individual antioxidants were observed in all dementia groups. When compared to controls, the following were reduced: Vitamin A in AD (p < 0.01) and VaD (p < 0.001); Vitamin C in AD (p < 0.001), VaD (p < 0.001) and PDem (p < 0.01); Vitamin E in AD (p < 0.01) and VaD (p < 0.001); beta carotene in VaD (p = 0.01); lycopene in PDem (p < 0.001). Lycopene was also reduced in PDem compared to AD (p < 0.001) and VaD (p < 0.001). Antioxidant levels in PD were not depleted. No significant change in TAC was seen in any group. The reduction in plasma chain-breaking antioxidants in patients with dementia may reflect an increased free-radical activity, and a common role in cognitive impairment in these conditions. Increased free-radical activity in VaD and PDem could be associated with concomitant AD pathology. Individual antioxidant changes are not reflected in TAC.
Considerable evidence suggests that lycopene, a carotenoid without provitamin A activity found in high concentrations in a small set of plant foods, has significant antioxidant potential in vitro and may play a role in preventing prostate cancer and cardiovascular disease in humans. Tomato products, including ketchup, tomato juice, and pizza sauce, are the richest sources of lycopene in the US diet, accounting for >80% of the total lycopene intake of Americans. Unlike other carotenoids, lycopene is not consistently lower among smokers than among nonsmokers, suggesting that any possible preventive activity is not as an antioxidant. Instead, lycopene may have a cholesterol synthesis-inhibiting effect and may enhance LDL degradation. Available evidence suggests that intimal wall thickness and risk of myocardial infarction are reduced in persons with higher adipose tissue concentrations of lycopene. The question of whether lycopene helps to prevent cardiovascular disease can only be answered by a trial specifically evaluating its effectiveness in this area.
Although dietary intake of tomatoes and tomato products containing lycopene has been reported to reduce the risk of prostate cancer, few studies have been done on the relationship between plasma lycopene and other carotenoids and prostate cancer. This case-control study was conducted to investigate the effects of plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol, as well as alpha- and gamma-tocopherols on the risk of prostate cancer. The study included 65 patients with prostate cancer and 132 cancer-free controls; all of them were interviewed using a standard epidemiological questionnaire at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center from 1993 to 1997. Plasma levels of carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. An unconditional logistic regression model was used in bivariate and multivariate analyses using Statistical Analysis System (SAS). After adjusting for age, race, years of education, daily caloric intake, pack-years of smoking, alcohol consumption, and family history of prostate cancer, significantly inverse associations with prostate cancer were observed with plasma concentrations of the following carotenoids: lycopene [odds ratio (OR), 0.17; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.04-0.78; P for trend, 0.0052] and zeaxanthin (OR, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.06-0.83; P for trend, 0.0028) when comparing highest with lowest quartiles. Borderline associations were found for lutein (OR, 0.30; 95% CI, 0.09-1.03; P for trend, 0.0064) and beta-cryptoxanthin (OR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.08-1.24; P for trend, 0.0666). No obvious associations were found for alpha- and beta-carotenes, retinol, and alpha- and gamma-tocopherols. Our study confirmed the inverse associations between lycopene, other carotenoids such as zeaxanthin, lutein, and beta-cryptoxanthin, and prostate cancer. This study provides justification for further research on the associations between lycopene and other antioxidants and the risk of prostate cancer.
Human prostate tissues are vulnerable to oxidative DNA damage. The risk of prostate cancer is lower in men reporting higher consumption of tomato products, which contain high levels of the antioxidant lycopene. We examined the effects of consumption of tomato sauce-based pasta dishes on lycopene uptake, oxidative DNA damage, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels in patients already diagnosed with prostate cancer.
Thirty-two patients with localized prostate adenocarcinoma consumed tomato sauce-based pasta dishes for the 3 weeks (30 mg of lycopene per day) preceding their scheduled radical prostatectomy. Serum and prostate lycopene concentrations, serum PSA levels, and leukocyte DNA oxidative damage (ratio of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine [8-OHdG] to 2'-deoxyguanosine [dG]) were assessed before and after the dietary intervention. DNA oxidative damage was assessed in resected prostate tissue from study participants and from seven randomly selected prostate cancer patients. All statistical tests were two-sided.
After the dietary intervention, serum and prostate lycopene concentrations were statistically significantly increased, from 638 nM (95% confidence interval [CI] = 512 to 764 nM) to 1258 nM (95% CI = 1061 to 1455 nM) (P<.001) and from 0.28 nmol/g (95% CI = 0.18 to 0.37 nmol/g) to 0.82 nmol/g (95% CI = 0.57 to 1.11 nmol/g) (P <.001), respectively. Compared with preintervention levels, leukocyte oxidative DNA damage was statistically significantly reduced after the intervention, from 0.61 8-OHdG/10(5) dG (95% CI = 0.45 to 0.77 8-OHdG/10(5) dG) to 0.48 8-OHdG/ 10(5) dG (95% CI = 0.41 to 0.56 8-OHdG/10(5) dG) (P =.005). Furthermore, prostate tissue oxidative DNA damage was also statistically significantly lower in men who had the intervention (0.76 8-OHdG/10(5) dG [95% CI = 0.55 to 0.96 8-OHdG/10(5) dG]) than in the randomly selected patients (1.06 8-OHdG/10(5) dG [95% CI = 0.62 to 1.51 8-OHdG/10(5) dG]; P =.03). Serum PSA levels decreased after the intervention, from 10.9 ng/mL (95% CI = 8.7 to 13.2 ng/mL) to 8.7 ng/mL (95% CI = 6.8 to 10.6 ng/mL) (P<.001).
These data indicate a possible role for a tomato sauce constituent, possibly lycopene, in the treatment of prostate cancer and warrant further testing with a larger sample of patients, including a control group.
Lycopene, the predominant carotenoid in tomatoes, is among the major carotenoids in serum and tissues of Americans. Although about 90% of the lycopene in dietary sources is found in the linear, all-trans conformation, human tissues contain mainly cis-isomers. Several research groups have suggested that cis-isomers of lycopene are better absorbed than the all-trans form because of the shorter length of the cis-isomer, the greater solubility of cis-isomers in mixed micelles, and/or as a result of the lower tendency of cis-isomers to aggregate. Work with ferrets, a species that absorbs carotenoids intact, has demonstrated that whereas a lycopene dose, stomach, and intestinal contents contained 6-18% cis-lycopene, the mesenteric lymph secretions contained 77%-cis isomers. The ferret studies support the hypotheses that cis-isomers are substantially more bioavailable then all-trans lycopene. In vitro studies suggest that cis-isomers are more soluble in bile acid micelles and may be preferentially incorporated into chylomicrons. The implications of these findings are not yet clear. Rats appear to accumulate lycopene in tissues within the ranges reported for humans, suggesting that they can be used to study effects of lycopene isomers on disease processes. Investigations are underway to determine whether there are biological differences between all-trans and various cis-isomers of lycopene regarding its antioxidant properties or other biological functions.
To compare plasma and milk lycopene concentrations and the changes in lycopene isomer patterns in lactating women before and after a 3-day dietary intervention with fresh or processed tomato products.
Randomized prospective trial.
24 lactating women, 4 to 12 weeks postpartum, aged 22 to 39 years.
Subjects initially consumed a low-lycopene diet for 7 days (washout period) and then were randomly assigned to one of 3 dietary groups (n=8 per group) without any other sources of lycopene: control (low-lycopene), fresh tomatoes, or processed tomato sauce. Subjects in each of the tomato groups consumed approximately 50 mg total lycopene over 3 days.
Before and after dietary intervention, plasma and breast milk samples were obtained for high-performance liquid chromotography analysis of lycopene and its geometric isomers (all-trans, 5-cis, all other cis, and total lycopene).
Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance to test for differences among intervention groups, and Spearman's correlation coefficients to test for blood-milk relationships.
Plasma total lycopene and lycopene isomer concentrations increased in the fresh and processed tomato group but not in the low-lycopene control group during the study. Milk total and cis- and trans-lycopene concentrations (unadjusted for fat) increased in the processed tomato group but did not change in the fresh tomato group. In the control group, milk total and trans-lycopene decreased. Milk total lycopene concentrations were not significantly different from baseline in any group when adjusted for fat content of milk.
The results of this study indicate that consumption of a "standard size portion" of tomato products increases plasma and milk lycopene concentrations in lactating women and, therefore, could increase the lycopene status of nursing infants. For dietary recommendations during lactation, the results suggest that consumption of tomato sauce increases milk lycopene concentrations more effectively than consumption of fresh tomatoes.
The amount of dietary fat required for optimal bioavailability of carotenoids in plant matrices is not clearly defined.
The objective was to quantify the appearance of carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons after subjects ingested fresh vegetable salads with fat-free, reduced-fat, or full-fat salad dressings.
The subjects (n = 7) each consumed 3 salads consisting of equivalent amounts of spinach, romaine lettuce, cherry tomatoes, and carrots with salad dressings containing 0, 6, or 28 g canola oil. The salads were consumed in random order separated by washout periods of > or =2 wk. Blood samples were collected hourly from 0 to 12 h. Chylomicrons were isolated by ultracentrifugation, and carotenoid absorption was analyzed by HPLC with coulometric array detection.
After ingestion of the salads with fat-free salad dressing, the appearance of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lycopene in chylomicrons was negligible. After ingestion of the salads with reduced-fat salad dressing, the appearance of the carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons increased relative to that after ingestion of the salads with fat-free salad dressing (P < 0.04). Similarly, the appearance of the carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons was higher after the ingestion of salads with full-fat than with reduced-fat salad dressing (P < 0.02).
High-sensitivity HPLC with coulometric array detection enabled us to quantify the intestinal absorption of carotenoids ingested from a single vegetable salad. Essentially no absorption of carotenoids was observed when salads with fat-free salad dressing were consumed. A substantially greater absorption of carotenoids was observed when salads were consumed with full-fat than with reduced-fat salad dressing.
The relation between 17 micronutrients and breast-cancer risk was analyzed in a case-control study conducted between 1993 and 1999 in the Swiss Canton of Vaud. Cases were 289 women with incident, histologically confirmed breast cancer, and controls were 442 women admitted to the same hospital for a wide spectrum of acute non-neoplastic conditions unrelated to long-term modifications of diet. Dietary habits were investigated using a validated food-frequency questionnaire. Odds ratios (ORs) were obtained after allowance for age, education, parity, menopausal status, body mass index, total energy intake and alcohol drinking. For several micronutrients, the ORs tended to decline with increasing tertile of intake, with significant inverse trends in risk for potassium (OR for the highest tertile = 0.21), total carotenoids (OR 0.42), lycopene (OR = 0.43), folic acid (OR = 0.45), vitamin C (OR = 0.19), vitamin E (OR = 0.37) and vitamin B-6 (OR 0.54). In a model including a continuous term for the 7 micronutrients significantly related to breast cancer, the only persisting significant inverse relations were for vitamin C (OR = 0.23) and lycopene (OR = 0.64). (C) 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Lycopene, the predominant carotenoid in tomatoes, is among the major carotenoids in serum and tissues of Americans. Although about 90% of the lycopene in dietary sources is found in the linear, all-trans conformation, human tissues contain mainly cis-isomers. Several research groups have suggested that cisisomers of lycopene are better absorbed than the all-trans form because of the shorter length of the cis-isomer, the greater solubility of cis-isomers in mixed micelles, and/or as a result of the lower tendency of cis-isomers to aggregate. Work with ferrets, a species that absorbs carotenoids intact, has demonstrated that whereas a lycopene dose, stomach, and intestinal contents contained 6-18% cis-lycopene, the mesenteric lymph secretions contained 77%-cis isomers. The ferret studies support the hypotheses that cis-isomers are substantially more bioavailable then all-trans lycopene. In vitro studies suggest that cis-isomers are more soluble in bile acid micelles and may be preferentially incorporated into chylomicrons. The implications of these findings are not yet clear. Rats appear to accumulate lycopene in tissues within the ranges reported for humans, suggesting that they can be used to study effects of lycopene isomers on disease processes. Investigations are underway to determine whether there are biological differences between all-trans and various cis-isomers of lycopene regarding its antioxidant properties or other biological functions.
Accumulating epidemiological evidence continues to show that lycopene, found in tomatoes, grapefruits and watermelons, is associated with a reduced risk of developing certain chronic diseases and cancers. With respect to lycopene in tomato products, the effect of thermal processing on its stability has not yet been rigorously addressed. This paper assesses the effect of several different heat treatments on lycopene's isomeric distribution in a variety of tomato products, as well as in organic solvent mixtures containing all-trans lycopene. Experimental results indicate that in contrast to beta-carotene, lycopene remained relatively resistant to heat-induced geometrical conversion during typical food processing of tomatoes and related products. The presence of fat, the change in percentage of solids, and the severity of heat treatment were not contributing factors in the formation of lycopene isomers in tomato products, except at extreme conditions not regularly employed in the food industry or during food preparation. However, lycopene in organic solvent isomerized readily as a function of time even in the absence of light and the presence of antioxidants. These findings suggest that while lycopene is stable in the tomato matrix, sample handling techniques should be carefully evaluated to minimize the formation of lycopene cis isomers in organic solutions.
With an increasing understanding of the health benefit of lycopene, how to preserve lycopene during food processing and storage has caused much attention. Lycopene belongs to the carotenoid family and mostly exists in nature as the all-trans form. Heat, light, oxygen, and different food matrices are factors that have an effect on lycopene isomerization and autooxidation. Lycopene may isomerize to mono- or poly-cis forms with the presence of heat or oil or during dehydration. Reisomerization takes place during storage. After oxidation, the lycopene molecule split, which causes loss of color and off-flavor. The effects of heat, oxygen, light, and the presence of oil oil the stability of lycopene are uniform in much of the literature; however. controversy still exists on some details, such as the conditions causing the occurrence of isomerization, the optimal moisture, and temperature for storage.
Background: Some data, including our findings from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS) from 1986 through January 31, 1992,
suggest that frequent intake of tomato products or lycopene, a carotenoid from tomatoes, is associated with reduced risk of
prostate cancer. Overall, however, the data are inconclusive. We evaluated additional data from the HPFS to determine if the
association would persist. Methods: We ascertained prostate cancer cases from 1986 through January 31, 1998, among 47 365 HPFS participants who completed dietary
questionnaires in 1986, 1990, and 1994. We used pooled logistic regression to compute multivariate relative risks (RR) and
95% confidence intervals (CIs). All statistical tests were two-sided. Results: From 1986 through January 31, 1998, 2481 men in the study developed prostate cancer. Results for the period from 1992 through
1998 confirmed our previous findings—that frequent tomato or lycopene intake was associated with a reduced risk of prostate
cancer. Similarly, for the entire period of 1986 through 1998, using the cumulative average of the three dietary questionnaires,
lycopene intake was associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (RR for high versus low quintiles = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.73
to 0.96; Ptrend = .003); intake of tomato sauce, the primary source of bioavailable lycopene, was associated with an even greater reduction
in prostate cancer risk (RR for 2+ servings/week versus <1 serving/month = 0.77; 95% CI = 0.66 to 0.90; Ptrend<.001), especially for extraprostatic cancers (RR = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.42 to 0.99). These associations persisted in analyses
controlling for fruit and vegetable consumption and for olive oil use (a marker for Mediterranean diet) and were observed
separately in men of Southern European or other Caucasian ancestry. Conclusion: Frequent consumption of tomato products is associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer. The magnitude of the association
was moderate enough that it could be missed in a small study or one with substantial errors in measurement or based on a single
dietary assessment.
A variety of epidemiological trials have suggested that higher intake of lycopene-containing foods (primarily tomato products) or blood lycopene concentrations are associated with decreased cardiovascular disease and prostate cancer risk. Of the carotenoids tested, lycopene has been demonstrated to be the most potent in vitro antioxidant leading many researchers to conclude that the antioxidant properties of lycopene are responsible for disease prevention. In our review of human and animal trials with lycopene, or lycopene-containing extracts, there is limited support for the in vivo antioxidant function for lycopene. Moreover, tissue levels of lycopene appear to be too low to play a meaningful antioxidant role. We conclude that there is an overall shortage of supportive evidence for the “antioxidant hypothesis” as lycopene’s major in vivo mechanism of action. Our laboratory has postulated that metabolic products of lycopene, the lycopenoids, may be responsible for some of lycopene’s reported bioactivity.
With the number of natural carotenoid structures reported rising above 700, there is a clear need for a single reference work containing data on all these compounds. A previous work, the Key to Carotenoids (1987, 2nd edition, Birkhäuser Publishing), listed complete literature references to 563 carotenoids obtained from natural sources up to 1982; this list was extended in an appendix to Carotenoids Vol. 1A. The forthcoming Handbook expands this coverage to include all natural carotenoids and common isolation artefacts for which structures have been assigned up to the end of 2001. For each compound, it provides selected key references and critically assessed information about natural occurrence and isolation, and spectroscopic data for identification.
Though the Handbook serves as a unique comprehensive reference book on the known carotenoids, it is designed to be used in conjunction with the Carotenoids series. The numbering of carotenoids in the Handbook is the same as that used throughout the Carotenoids volumes. The factual information and practical guidance given in this well received book series ideally complements the informations given in the Handbook. It is highly advisable to be familiar with the general methods and precautions for handling carotenoids, and with the isolation and purification strategies and methods as described and evaluated in Vol. 1A, and the principles, application and interpretation of the spectroscopic techniques as described in Vol. 1B, to ensure that the identifications and analyses on which carotenoid work is based are accurate and reliable.
The Handbook of Carotenoids is an important source of information for both specialists and non-specialists. It will be of great value not only to chemists and biochemists, but to all researchers whose work and interests bring them into the diverse field of carotenoids, especially those from areas of biology, food science, nutrition, medicine, horticulture, agriculture, aquaculture, ecology, and biotechnology.
ABSTRACT Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most essential herbaceous plants that have been probed against various life sight related disorders owing to array of phytochemicals. It is important source of vitamin C, potassium, folic acid and carotenoids such as lycopene. Carotenoids are the pigments synthesized during fruit ripening and responsible for the final red color of the tomato. Consumption of tomato and tomato based products contribute to the absorption of carotenoids and lycopenes in human serum. Lycopene is chemically acyclic carotene with 11 conjugated double bonds, normally in trans configuration while isomerization occur in blood plasma for its better absorption. It has ability for adenosine deaminase (ADA) inhibition that plays important role in the regression of tumor. Tomato also contain other active compounds namely, neoxanthin, lutein, a-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, cyclolycopene and β carotene 5, 6-epoxide. These components provide synergistic effect against various threats but still need further attention of the researchers. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have elucidated the potential of tomato against variety of metabolic syndromes. Latest research highlights the relationship between consuming tomato and its products with reduced risk of various maladies like obesity, hyperglycemic and hypercholesterolemic attributes, cardiovascular disorders and cancer insurgences. Moreover, tomato and its bioactive components hold potential to become effective modules in diet-based regimens, however, integrated research and meta-analysis are still required to enhance meticulousness.
Human metabolism of carotenoids is of interest not only because of the provitamin A function of certain carotenoids, but also because these compounds have been associated with reducing risks of certain cancers and chronic diseases. Full understanding of carotenoid metabolism is complicated by a number of factors: variations in physiochemical properties among carotenoids; altered carotenoid utilization as a result of the normal vicissitudes of lipid absorption and transport; divergence in metabolic fate within the intestinal enterocyte (especially carotenoid cleavage to retinoids); differences in packaging and transport in lipoproteins; dissimilarity in tissue uptake of specific carotenoids; and the possible isomerization of carotenoids within tissues. Hampering research progress is the lack of animal models that perfectly mimic human carotenoid metabolism and the limited number of carotenoids approved for human consumption in a pure form.
Lycopene, a tomato carotenoid, has been associated with the inhibition of certain chronic diseases including prostate cancer. Tomato oleoresin is a lipid-rich material resulting from successive solvent extraction of the tomato fruit. Thermal stability and isomerization of lycopene in oleoresins prepared from 3 different tomato varieties, Roma, High Lycopene, and Tangerine, and tomato peel waste, were studied at 25 °C, 50 °C, 75 °C, and 100 °C in the dark. Thermally degraded lycopene compounds and isomers of lycopene were analyzed by a combination of C30 reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatograph with a photodiode array detector, UV-visible spectrometer, or mass spectrometer. Effects of antioxidants on lycopene were also studied at 50 °C. As the storage temperature increased from 25 °C to 100 °C, the degradation of total lycopene in oleoresin from all samples increased significantly (P <0.05). Lycopene at 25 °C and 50 °C may degrade mainly through oxidation without isomerization. Isomerization of lycopene in tomato oleoresins increased at 75 °C and 100 °C. Tetra-cis lycopene in Tangerine tomato varieties followed different degradation and isomerization pathways compared with all-trans lycopene in other tomato varieties. Addition of α-tocopherol or butylated hydroxytoluene slowed the rate of degradation of lycopene in oleoresin.
This article looks back to the antioxidant/free radical field in 1994 and discusses how it has progressed in the past 18 years. In some areas, there has been little change: the role of oxygen radicals and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the origin or progression of most human diseases remains uncertain, with cancer and neurodegenerative disease being likely exceptions. Even in diseases in which ROS are involved there has been little progress in developing effective antioxidant treatments. Mega-doses of dietary antioxidants have also generally failed to prevent human disease, in part because they do not decrease oxidative damage in vivo (as revealed by robust biomarkers). However, some strategies that are known to delay disease onset may act, at least in part, by decreasing oxidative damage levels. Nevertheless, far more is known today about endogenous antioxidant defenses and how they are regulated, which has led to a deeper understanding of how some ROS can act as signaling molecules. Increasing endogenous antioxidant levels (e.g., by supplying "pro-oxidants") may be a better approach to therapeutics and disease prevention than consuming large doses of "dietary antioxidants."
Considerable evidence from several epidemiological studies suggests that lycopene has anti-carcinogenic and anti-atherogenic potential, the effects of which have been attributed primarily to its antioxidant properties (lycopene quenches singlet oxygen almost twice as well as β-carotene does). These epidemiological leads have stimulated a number of animal model and cell culture studies designed to test this hypothesis and to establish its beneficial effects. This review will focus on the anti-atherogenic and anti-carcinogenic effects of lycopene, and point out areas for future research to further elucidate mechanisms whereby this compound may reduce cancer and cardiovascular disease risk.
Eight wild tomato species are native to western South America and one to the Galapagos Islands. Different classifications of tomatoes have been based on morphological or biological criteria. Our primary goal was to examine the phylogenetic relationships of all nine wild tomato species and closely related outgroups, with a concentration on the most widespread and variable tomato species Solanum peruvianum, using DNA sequences of the structural gene granule-bound starch synthase (GBSSI, or waxy). Results show some concordance with previous morphology-based classifications and new relationships. The ingroup comprised a basal polytomy composed of the self-incompatible green-fruited species S. chilense and the central to southern Peruvian populations of S. peruvianum, S. habrochaites, and S. pennellii. A derived clade contains the northern Peruvian populations of S. peruvianum (also self-incompatible, green-fruited), S. chmielewskii, and S. neorickii (self-compatible, green-fruited), and the self-compatible and red- to orange- to yellow-fruited species S. cheesmaniae, S. lycopersicum, and S. pimpinellifolium. Outgroup relationships are largely concordant with prior chloroplast DNA restriction site phylogenies, support S. juglandifolium and S. ochranthum as the closest outgroup to tomatoes with S. lycopersicoides and S. sitiens as basal to these, and support allogamy, self-incompatibility, and green fruits as primitive in the tomato clade.
We investigated the relation between plasma carotenoids, retinol and tocopherol levels and ovarian cancer risk in Korean women.
Hospital-based case-control study.
Six tertiary medical institutes in Korea.
Forty-five epithelial ovarian cancers and 135 age-matched controls.
Preoperative plasma concentrations of beta-carotene, lycopene, zeaxanthin plus lutein, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and gamma-tocopherol were measured by reverse-phase, gradient high-pressure liquid chromatography.
Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated by tertiles to evaluate the effect of micronutrients on endometrial cancer risk after adjustment for body mass (BMI) index, menopause, parity, oral contraceptive use, smoking status, and alcohol consumption status.
Women in the highest tertile for beta-carotene had 0.12-times the risk of ovarian cancer of in the lowest tertile (OR 0.12; 95%CI 0.04-0.36). Women with the highest tertiles of lycopene (OR 0.09; 95%CI 0.03-0.32), zeaxanthin/lutein (OR 0.21; 95%CI 0.09-0.52), retinol (OR 0.45; 95%CI 0.21-0.98), alpha-tocopherol (OR 0.23; 95%CI 0.10-0.53) and gamma-tocopherol (OR 0.28; 95%CI 0.11-0.70) had lower risk of ovarian cancer than women in the lowest tertiles. Results were consistent across strata of socio-epidemiologic factors.
Micronutrients, specifically ss-carotene, lycopene, zeaxanthin, lutein, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and gamma-tocopherol, may play a role in reducing the risk of ovarian cancer.
Free radicals and other oxygen-derived species are constantly generated in vivo, both by "accidents of chemistry" and for specific metabolic purposes. The reactivity of different free radicals varies, but some can cause severe damage to biological molecules, especially to DNA, lipids, and proteins. Antioxidant defense systems scavenge and minimize the formation of oxygen-derived species, but they are not 100% effective. Hence, diet-derived antioxidants may be particularly important in diminishing cumulative oxidative damage and helping us to stay healthier for longer. Repair systems exist to deal with molecules that have been oxidatively damaged. Damage to DNA by hydroxyl radicals appears to occur in all aerobic cells, and might be a significant contributor to the age-dependent development of cancer. Lipid peroxidation probably contributes significantly to the development of atherosclerosis.
A growing body of literature exists regarding the effects of beta-carotene and other carotenoids on chronic diseases in humans. This article reviews and critically evaluates this literature and identifies areas for further research. This review is restricted to studies in humans, with a major emphasis on the most recent literature in the area of carotenoids and selected cancers. Effects of carotenoids on cardiovascular diseases, photosensitivity diseases, cataracts, and age-related macular degeneration are also discussed briefly. Numerous observational studies have found that people who ingest more carotenoids in their diets have a reduced risk of several chronic diseases. However, intervention trials of supplemental beta-carotene indicate that supplements are of little or no value in preventing cardiovascular disease and the major cancers occurring in well-nourished populations, and may actually increase, rather than reduce, lung cancer incidence in smokers. As a consequence of these findings, some of the ongoing trials of beta-carotene and disease prevention have been terminated or have dropped beta-carotene from their interventions. Researchers should now seek explanations for the apparently discordant findings of observational studies vs. intervention trials. The most pressing research issues include studies of interactions of carotenoids with themselves and with other phytochemicals and mechanistic studies of the actions of beta-carotene in lung carcinogenesis and cardiovascular disease. Paradoxically, the finding that lung carcinogenesis and cardiovascular disease can be enhanced by supplemental beta-carotene may ultimately lead to a clearer understanding of the role of diet in the etiology and prevention of these diseases. The conclusion that major public health benefits could be achieved by increasing consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables still appears to stand; however, the pharmacological use of supplemental beta-carotene for the prevention of cardiovascular disease and lung cancer, particularly in smokers, can no longer be recommended.
Accumulating epidemiological evidence continues to show that lycopene, found in tomatoes, grapefruits and watermelons, is associated with a reduced risk of developing certain chronic diseases and cancers. With respect to lycopene in tomato products, the effect of thermal processing on its stability has not yet been rigorously addressed. This paper assesses the effect of several different heat treatments on lycopene's isomeric distribution in a variety of tomato products, as well as in organic solvent mixtures containing all-trans lycopene. Experimental results indicate that in contrast to beta-carotene, lycopene remained relatively resistant to heat-induced geometrical conversion during typical food processing of tomatoes and related products. The presence of fat, the change in percentage of solids, and the severity of heat treatment were not contributing factors in the formation of lycopene isomers in tomato products, except at extreme conditions not regularly employed in the food industry or during food preparation. However, lycopene in organic solvent isomerized readily as a function of time even in the absence of light and the presence of antioxidants. These findings suggest that while lycopene is stable in the tomato matrix, sample handling techniques should be carefully evaluated to minimize the formation of lycopene cis isomers in organic solutions.
Increase in low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation is hypothesized to be causally associated with increasing risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. In recent epidemiological studies, tissue and serum levels of lycopene, a carotenoid available from tomatoes, have been found to be inversely related to risk of coronary heart disease. A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of lycopene on LDL oxidation in 19 healthy human subjects. Dietary lycopene was provided using tomato juice, spaghetti sauce, and tomato oleoresin for a period of 1 wk each. Blood samples were collected at the end of each treatment. Serum lycopene was extracted and measured by high-performance liquid chromatography using an absorbance detector. Serum LDL was isolated by precipitation with buffered heparin, and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and conjugated dienes (CD) were measured to estimate LDL oxidation. Both methods, to measure LDL oxidation LDL-TBARS and LDL-CD, were in good agreement with each other. Dietary supplementation of lycopene significantly increased serum lycopene levels by at least twofold. Although there was no change in serum cholesterol levels (total, LDL, or high-density lipoprotein), serum lipid peroxidation and LDL oxidation were significantly decreased. These results may have relevance for decreasing the risk for coronary heart disease.
The epidemiologic literature in the English language regarding intake of tomatoes and tomato-based products and blood lycopene (a compound derived predominantly from tomatoes) level in relation to the risk of various cancers was reviewed. Among 72 studies identified, 57 reported inverse associations between tomato intake or blood lycopene level and the risk of cancer at a defined anatomic site; 35 of these inverse associations were statistically significant. No study indicated that higher tomato consumption or blood lycopene level statistically significantly increased the risk of cancer at any of the investigated sites. About half of the relative risks for comparisons of high with low intakes or levels for tomatoes or lycopene were approximately 0.6 or lower. The evidence for a benefit was strongest for cancers of the prostate, lung, and stomach. Data were also suggestive of a benefit for cancers of the pancreas, colon and rectum, esophagus, oral cavity, breast, and cervix. Because the data are from observational studies, a cause-effect relationship cannot be established definitively. However, the consistency of the results across numerous studies in diverse populations, for case-control and prospective studies, and for dietary-based and blood-based investigations argues against bias or confounding as the explanation for these findings. Lycopene may account for or contribute to these benefits, but this possibility is not yet proven and requires further study. Numerous other potentially beneficial compounds are present in tomatoes, and, conceivably, complex interactions among multiple components may contribute to the anticancer properties of tomatoes. The consistently lower risk of cancer for a variety of anatomic sites that is associated with higher consumption of tomatoes and tomato-based products adds further support for current dietary recommendations to increase fruit and vegetable consumption.
Tomatoes are the main dietary source of lycopene, and the bioavailability of lycopene from tomato paste is higher than that from fresh tomatoes. We investigated systematically the effect of mechanical homogenization and heating on the bioavailability of carotenoids from canned tomatoes. Further, we compared the carotenoid response in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) after single consumption with the change in fasting plasma carotenoid concentrations after 4 d of daily consumption. In a split plot design, 17 men and women consumed tomatoes which had received minimal additional heating and 16 others consumed extensively additionally heated tomatoes (1 h at 100 degrees C). These tomatoes were not, mildly or severely homogenized. The tomato products were consumed daily (ca. 22 mg/d lycopene) for 4 d. Eleven participants provided postprandial blood samples on the d 1 and all gave fasting blood samples on d 1 and 4. Homogenization enhanced the lycopene response significantly (P<0.05) both in TRL [mean areas under the curves: 54.9, 72.0 and 88.7 nmol. h/L (SE 11.0) for not, mildly and severely homogenized tomatoes, respectively] and in plasma [mean changes: 0.19, 0.22 and 0.23 micromol/L (SE 0.009), respectively]. Additional heating also tended to enhance the lycopene responses in TRL (P = 0.14) and plasma (P = 0.17). Similar effects to those for lycopene were found for beta-carotene. We conclude that the intactness of the cellular matrix of tomatoes determines the bioavailability of carotenoids and that matrix disruption by mechanical homogenization and/or heat treatment enhances the bioavailability. The carotenoid response in plasma after 4 d intervention can be used to compare the bioavailability of carotenoids from different foods.
The ability of dietary carotenoids such as beta-carotene and lycopene to act as antioxidants in biological systems is dependent upon a number of factors. While the structure of carotenoids, especially the conjugated double bond system, gives rise to many of the fundamental properties of these molecules, it also affects how these molecules are incorporated into biological membranes. This, in turn, alters the way these molecules interact with reactive oxygen species, so that the in vivo behavior may be quite different from that seen in solution. The effectiveness of carotenoids as antioxidants is also dependent upon their interaction with other coantioxidants, especially vitamins E and C. Carotenoids may, however, lose their effectiveness as antioxidants at high concentrations or at high partial pressures of oxygen. It is unlikely that carotenoids actually act as prooxidants in biological systems; rather they exhibit a tendency to lose their effectiveness as antioxidants.
Methods of analysis for determining low quantities of lycopene cis-trans isomers in biological tissues are needed. Development of two liquid chromatography (LC) methods based on the polymeric C30 stationary phase equipped with coulometric electrochemical array detection (ED) is described. Separation of 13 lycopene isomers including prolycopene, (a novel tetra-cis-lycopene found in Tangerine tomatoes) was accomplished with both isocratic and gradient methods using different proportions of methanol, methyl tert.-butyl ether, water and 1 M ammonium acetate buffer. Carotenoids were detected at potential settings between 200 and 620 mV. Differences in generated current-voltage curves aided in tentative identification of trans carotenoid species and select cis isomers of lycopene. These methods were successfully applied in the analysis of small quantities of plasma, buccal mucosal cells, prostate and cervical tissues. Limits of detection for trans-lycopene by ED were found to be 50 fmol representing a 10- to 100-fold increase over conventional UV-Vis absorbance methods.
Some data, including our findings from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS) from 1986 through January 31, 1992, suggest that frequent intake of tomato products or lycopene, a carotenoid from tomatoes, is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer. Overall, however, the data are inconclusive. We evaluated additional data from the HPFS to determine if the association would persist.
We ascertained prostate cancer cases from 1986 through January 31, 1998, among 47 365 HPFS participants who completed dietary questionnaires in 1986, 1990, and 1994. We used pooled logistic regression to compute multivariate relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). All statistical tests were two-sided.
From 1986 through January 31, 1998, 2481 men in the study developed prostate cancer. Results for the period from 1992 through 1998 confirmed our previous findings---that frequent tomato or lycopene intake was associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer. Similarly, for the entire period of 1986 through 1998, using the cumulative average of the three dietary questionnaires, lycopene intake was associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (RR for high versus low quintiles = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.73 to 0.96; P(trend) =.003); intake of tomato sauce, the primary source of bioavailable lycopene, was associated with an even greater reduction in prostate cancer risk (RR for 2+ servings/week versus <1 serving/month = 0.77; 95% CI = 0.66 to 0.90; P(trend)<.001), especially for extraprostatic cancers (RR = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.42 to 0.99). These associations persisted in analyses controlling for fruit and vegetable consumption and for olive oil use (a marker for Mediterranean diet) and were observed separately in men of Southern European or other Caucasian ancestry.
Frequent consumption of tomato products is associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer. The magnitude of the association was moderate enough that it could be missed in a small study or one with substantial errors in measurement or based on a single dietary assessment.
In addition to the inverse association of dietary lycopene with various cancers, studies suggest a role for lycopene in cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention. We determined whether the intake of lycopene or tomato-based foods is associated with the risk of CVD in a prospective cohort of 39,876 middle-aged and older women initially free of CVD and cancer. Participants completed a food-frequency questionnaire and provided self-reports of coronary risk factors. Dietary lycopene levels were divided into quintiles, and primary lycopene food sources (total tomato-based products, including tomatoes, tomato juice, tomato sauce and pizza) were categorized. During 7.2 y of follow-up, 719 CVD cases (including myocardial infarction, stroke, revascularization and CVD death) occurred. Compared with women in the 1st quintile of lycopene, those in increasing quintiles had multivariate relative risks (RR) of CVD of 1.11, 1.14, 1.15 and 0.90 (P for trend = 0.34). For the consumption of tomato-based products, women consuming 1.5 to <4, 4 to <7, 7 to <10 and >or=10 servings/wk had RR (95% CI) of CVD of 1.02 (0.82-1.26), 1.04 (0.82-1.31), 0.68 (0.49-0.96) and 0.71 (0.42-1.17) (P for trend = 0.029) compared with women consuming <1.5 servings/wk. Among lycopene food sources, those in the highest levels of tomato sauce (>or=2 servings/wk) and pizza intake (>or=2 servings/wk), with multivariate RR of 0.76 (0.55-1.05) and 0.66 (0.37-1.18), respectively, had potential reductions in CVD risk. Dietary lycopene was not strongly associated with the risk of CVD. However, the possible inverse associations noted for higher levels of tomato-based products, particularly tomato sauce and pizza, with CVD suggest that dietary lycopene or other phytochemicals consumed as oil-based tomato products confer cardiovascular benefits.
Cell culture models are useful for studying intestinal absorption and metabolism of carotenoids. The human intestinal cell line, Caco-2, has been the most widely used model for these studies. The PF11 and TC7 clones of Caco-2 exhibit beta-carotene-15,15'-oxygenase activity, a key enzyme in the conversion of carotenoids to vitamin A. Studies on the recent cloning of this enzyme are discussed. An in vitro cell culture system used to study intestinal absorption of carotenoids is presented. Under conditions mimicking the postprandial state, Caco-2 cells on membranes take up carotenoids and secrete them incorporated into chylomicrons. Both the cellular uptake and secretion of beta-carotene are saturable, concentration-dependent processes. The selective absorption of all-trans beta-carotene versus its cis isomers, the differential absorption of individual carotenoids, and the specific interactions between carotenoids during their absorption are discussed. The participation of a specific epithelial transporter in the intestinal absorption of carotenoids is proposed.
The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals (R) during metabolism is a necessary and normal process that ideally is compensated for by an elaborate endogenous antioxidant system. However, due to many environmental, lifestyle, and pathological situations, excess radicals can accumulate, resulting in oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been related to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other chronic diseases that account for a major portion of deaths today. Antioxidants are compounds that hinder the oxidative processes and thereby delay or prevent oxidative stress. This article examines the process of oxidative stress and the pathways by which it relates to many chronic diseases. We also discuss the role that endogenous and exogenous antioxidants may play in controlling oxidation and review the evidence of their roles in preventing disease.