Engaging Neighborhood: Soft Power as a Strategic Variable in China's Foreign Policy with South Asia

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So Power and Public
Diplomacy in India and China
Edited by
Bibhu Bhusan Biswas
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Soft Power and Public Diplomacy in India and China
Bibhuti Bhusan Biswas
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First Published: 2020
ISBN : 978-93-86754-61-5
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CHAPTER
14
Engaging Neighbourhood: Soft Power as a Strategic
Variable in China’s Foreign Policy with South Asia
Syed Sabreena Bukhari
Introduction
The concept of power has gained attention of social and political scientists since
earliest times and has been an important component of strategy theories. Max weber
denes power “as the probability of one actor within a social relationship to be in a
position to carry out his own will despite resistance”.1 In political science as well as
in International Relations academia power has been one of the most critical subjects.
However for a long time power was treated as the exclusive domain of Realist thought.
E.H. Carr in his “Twenty Years Crises” argued that “military power was the most
important form of power in international politics, as it serves both a means and an
end in itself.”2 The rigid notion of hard power, however, started to change gradually,
with increasing globalisation and digitalisation of the world and more particularly
after Nye Came out with the concept of Soft power in 1990s in his “Bound to Lead:
The Changing Nature of American Power” and again discussing it in 2001 in “The
Paradox of American Power”. After Joseph Nye coined the term, it gradually gained
huge importance, because of its ability to inuence foreign states through attraction
rather than coercion and military force. Non- Traditional and Non Military resources
of power such as culture and political values are emerging as important sources of
power in International Relations. Nye dened Soft Power as “the ability to get what
you want through attraction rather than coercion”3 and dierentiated between two
types of power, “hard power” and “soft power”. He says that coercion, threat and
force are the main instruments of hard power while as soft power uses attraction and
payments as main methods. If State has an eective Soft power, it will be able to
convince other states with the use of its values, and dierent set of practices. Since
the concept is still new, there is still ambiguity about the resources of Soft Power.
According to Nye the soft power of a country rests primarily on three resources: its
culture, its political values, and its foreign policies.”4 According to Nye soft power
comes from intangible tools like ideology, culture, and institutions. In recent years,
more particularly during the last decade, Soft power has become an intensely debated
topic in international relations. Patalakh denes Soft Power Strategy “as a coherent
and purposeful set of actions aimed to improve an IR actor’s (usually, a country’s)
image abroad”.5 However, Literature on Soft Power shows that strategists have not

Soft Power and Public Diplomacy in India and China
172
focused upon Soft power as a strategic variable in International relations.
Since the end of World War II, China’s emergence on the world stage constitutes
the most signicant event. Its rise has led to an intense debate at the global level about
its resources and capabilities. Beijing is trying to pursue foreign policy that is based
on persuasion and appeal rather than on coercive means, making Soft power a critical
strategic variable in China’s foreign policy. China’s Soft power diplomacy is mainly
reactive to the international perception that China poses a threat. Initially, when the Soft
power as a concept was developed in international relations, its discussion in China
remained conned to academic circles. However after 2000, Chinese theorists began
to theorise it in terms of “Soft power with Chinese characteristics” and it stimulated
a lively debate about how to increase China’s Soft Power as well as its relevance to
the Foreign policy strategy. In managing its strategic priorities, China has been very
pragmatic. China is trying to use soft power in ways that will enhance its rise as a
global power. The concept of soft power has been more integrated in China’s strategy
during the past decade and has become a critical strategic variable in China’s Foreign
policy in recent years. According to Chinese analysts, Wang Huning is credited to be
the rst Chinese scholar to publish an article on Soft Power in 1993. Under President
Xi Jinping the attention to Soft Power in Foreign policy strategies has intensied.
Soft Power in China’s Context
Chinese leaders view 20th century as a strategic opportunity to alleviate its image at
the international level. China’s main concern in developing its Soft power has been to
counter the China threat theory and to develop its benign image at the international
level. In 1990’s when Joseph Nye’s book “Bound to lead” was rst published, there
were mainly theoretical discussions on Soft power and the main focus was on its
meaning and how it should be dened in Chinese context. Two main schools of thought
have emerged around the debate on Soft power in China. One School of thought
mainly focuses on “Culture” as the main source of Soft power. This school enjoyed the
greatest impact on China’s policy making. The other school holds that the main source
of Soft power is the “Political power.” Lui Yushan during the 16th CPC Congress 2002,
noted that“the power of culture is becoming an important component in integrating
national power and international competitiveness.”6. In the 16th National congress
report of Chinese Communist party (CCP), Jiang Zemin’s reports that “China needs
to concentrate on building a well o Society of a higher standard in an all-round way
to the benet of well over one billion people”.7 Hu Jintao in one of the speeches to the
party’s Foreign Aairs Leadership group meeting in 2006 said that“the enhancement
of China’s international status and international inuence must be reected both in
hard power including the economy, science and technology, and national defense
power and in soft power such as culture”.8 It was during his administration that the
Peaceful Development Concept was ocially adopted as States rhetoric for China’s
Foreign policy. In July 2007 CPCCC National Committee held a special session in
which Cultural construction was held as the main approach for national soft power
construction. The CPPCC President Jia Quinglin urged Chinese Ocials to “deeply

Engaging Neighbourhood: Soft Power as a Strategic Variable in China’s Foreign 173
understand the importance of national soft power with cultural construction as the
main task to meet domestic demands and enhance Chinese competitiveness in the
International arena.”9
Beijing consensus10 that was introduced in 2004 and the peaceful rise theory,
introduced in 2003 have also decisively shaped the use of soft power in China. Most of
the literature on China’s soft power have highlighted, culture, politics and economics
as important source of China’s Soft power. China’s willingness to use Soft Power is
reected in several policies of the government like ‘friendly and good neighbourly’,
“enrich, harmonise and reassure the neighbourhood” etc. China is continuously
reassuring its intentions through its policies and initiatives of its benign image in
the world. Chinese leaders aim to deepen relations with all the regions of the world,
particularly with the developing regions of Asia, Africa etc.
Sources of China’s Soft Power
Joshua kurlantzick in “Charm Oensive” employed broader denitions of Soft
power and included diplomacy and economic relations as the means to achieve the
objectives of power politics.11 With the increase in China’s Soft power, its culture is
becoming more and more attractive to other nations with time. China’s traditional
culture, Confucianism, Toasim and other schools of thought are regarded as important
sources of soft power. Various scholars have also highlighted Chinese achievements in
economic development, its development models, nancial assistance to neighbouring
countries, tourism, language etc as other important notions of soft power.
Cultural Diplomacy
Milton C Cummings denes cultural diplomacy as “the exchange of ideas,
information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture, with the
intention of fostering mutual understanding.”12 Cultural diplomacy refers simply to
the diplomacy between cultures and has been there since many centuries. During the
seventeenth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 2007, soft power
as a government policy was for the rst time referenced when President Hu Jintao
said “The great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation will denitely be accompanied
by the thriving of Chinese culture”….. We must enhance culture as part of the soft
power of our country… we will further publicise the ne traditions of Chinese culture
and strengthen international cultural exchanges to enhance the inuence of Chinese
culture worldwide”.13 Culture has emerged as one of the important strategic tools in
China’s Foreign policy because of its rich cultural heritage and ancient civilisation.
For developing and enhancing socio-cultural relations with dierent nations of
the world Beijing has developed the Confucian Institute project since 2000 which is
gaining immense popularity as a soft power tool in China’s Foreign policy. China has
set up more than 500 Confucian Institutes in dierent parts of the world since 2004 to
2011.14 Nye (2008) argues that establishing Confucius institutes in many parts of the
world and the huge success of 2008 summer Olympics, popularity of Chinese lms
abroad is the clear indication of Chinese growing Soft power. In recent years China

Soft Power and Public Diplomacy in India and China
174
also set up overseas cultural centres to improve State’s image overseas. These centres
mainly host exhibitions, and teach Chinese martial arts, music, cuisine etc. These
cultural centres receive part of their funds directly from Hanban, a body of China’s
Ministry of Education. China is investing huge funds in cultural diplomacy which put
it at rank 27 in Soft Power 30 index. Public diplomacy, a part of cultural diplomacy,
characterised as a tool of soft power includes cultural exchanges, television, radio etc.
in recent years China has increased its public diplomacy budget. Public diplomacy of
China also includes exchange programmes including academics, language, political
training to Foreign ocials.
Chinese Development Model/ Trade and Investment
Many scholars argue that it is economics that has conditioned China’s image as a
benign sovereign. China’s steady economic rise is one of the most important factors
that shapes the country’s Foreign policy today and is an important source of appeal in
developing countries being viewed as an alternative to Western development model.
Ramo in “Beijing consensus” argues that Chinese development model is based on
innovation and that China strives for self- determination in Foreign policy.15 He also
argues that Chinese development model has given hope to developing countries in an
uncertain international situation.16 Walter Russel published an article in 2004 in which
he argued that the projection of nations economic success can attract other states to
believe that its increasing inuence is desirable, inevitable or perhaps permanent.17
China’s Soft Power Strategy in South Asia
Since the end of cold war, more particularly in the last decade South Asia has assumed
signicant importance in China’s Foreign policy and its strategic discourse. Many trade
routes and Sea lanes of communication pass through this region. To nd a geostrategic
space in view of geopolitical shift in South Asia in the post-cold war era, China has
re-oriented its foreign policy towards South Asia. The Chinese premier Li Ping once
declared that “along with the South Asian countries China is ready to write a new
chapter of friendly relations and cooperation”.18 As a part of its public diplomacy,
China is increasingly giving importance to private visits by its Leaders, academicians,
Etc. to the South Asian Countries. One of the key components of China’s soft power
diplomacy in south Asia has been its Development assistance. China’s infrastructural
investments in South Asian countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives, and
Bangladesh has increased signicantly during the last decade enhancing its diplomatic
and economic engagement with the region. China has been trying to project a more
benign image among South Asian countries through economic assistance, and more
accommodating foreign policy. South Asian region comprises of eight countries:
(Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka)
and China shares borders with four of them. Sharing borders with four of the Seven
South Asian countries China has emerged as one of the largest and viable economic
and trading partner for South Asian countries. Developmental assistance has been
integral to China’s relations with South Asia. China’s economic rise at the international

Engaging Neighbourhood: Soft Power as a Strategic Variable in China’s Foreign 175
level also symbolises its growing economic investments in South Asia and increasing
trade activities in the region promotion its image as a soft power strategist. China
has been oering many Scholarships to South Asian students for learning Chinese
language and perusing other research in China and taking up several cultural exchange
programmes, Track II diplomacy etc. In 2005 China Scholarship council (CSC)
signed a memorandum of understanding with the Higher Education Commission of
Pakistan (HEC) to identify around 1,000 college teachers or scientic researchers to
pursue doctoral degree studies in Chinese institutions of higher learning.19 Similar
Scholarships are being provided in Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and other South
Asian countries.
As part of its foreign policy, China is trying to project its benign image in South
Asia through Belt and Road initiative and other infrastructural projects .Establishing
Confucius Institutes in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, and Bangladesh clearly
signal china’s eorts for its Soft Power projection in the region. The Confucius
institute established in Nepal in June 2007 aims to strengthen bilateral cooperation
in the realm of Education, culture, tourism etc.20 Track II diplomacy started by China
with Nepal has also resulted in vast interface between researchers and think tanks of
both the countries.21 In Sri Lanka also, the Confucius institute has been established
to promote better ties. With Pakistan, being an all-weather friend, there have been
cultural exchanges for several decades now.
Apart from being an infrastructural project, BRI includes circulation of Chinese
language, tourism and to revive cultures, enhance commercial trade and connect
people in south Asia.
One of the most important soft power tools of China is its investment strength.
Due to the low infrastructural development among South Asian countries China has
responded eectively to their infrastructural needs and has become one of the major
players in infrastructural development in the region, projecting its benign image and
developing its strategic objectives. Pakistan has been one of the main beneciaries of
China’s aid and development assistance since many decades.22In recent years China
has also taken up infrastructural reconstruction in war torn Afghanistan.23 In Sri Lanka
also China is investing huge amount in the infrastructural development of Hambantota
port and other projects. As Joseph Nye put it:
“You can also get soft power from your performance. I think China gets a lot
of soft power from its astonishing record economically, raising hundreds of
millions of people out of poverty. A lot of people admire that. That produces
soft power.”24
Conclusion
Since the term was coined by Joseph Nye, Soft Power has had a huge impact on China’s
foreign policy discourse. Many scholars argue that, for China, Soft power dates back to
the times of ancient Chinese philosophers like Confucius Lao Tsu, Sun Tzu etc. and is
not a new phenomenon. Shogo Suzuki in “The Myth and Reality of China’s soft power”

Soft Power and Public Diplomacy in India and China
176
says that there are three factors for the ocial recognition of soft power in China.
First, more and more statesmen in China are interested in understanding the primary
constituents of power, thus soft power is viewed as a primary constituent of states
power. Second, with increasing globalisation, military power has become obsolete,
the statesmen in China believe that competition at the global level will be carried now
with cultural attractiveness rather than with weapons. Third, Beijing is trying to ght
the China threat theory by embracing soft power as an instrument in Foreign policy. As
for as South Asian region is concerned, Frost argues that “as long as Chinese economy
keeps growing the growth of Chinese inuence in the region in inevitable” in order to
improve its image abroad, Beijing has in the past few years started several initiatives
like Condence Building Measures, resolving existing border disputes with neighbours,
reassuring neighbours of its benign intentions, enhanced economic engagement and
aid to the neighbouring countries, which has clearly indicated its preference for soft
power strategy. Soft power remains an important variable in China’s foreign policy
strategy to engage with its neighbours and is clearly evident in Beijings initiatives in
the South Asian region.
Endnotes
1. Weber, Max. “The theory of economic and social organization.” Trans. AM Henderson and
Talcott Parsons. New York: Oxford University Press (1947).
2 Cox, Michael, and Edward Hallett Carr. The twenty years’ crisis, 1919-1939: an introduction
to the study of international relations. Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
3 Nye Jr, Joseph S. Soft power: The means to success in world politics. Public aairs, 2004.
4 “JOSEPH S. NYE JR.: The Paradox of American Power Why the World’s Only Superpower
Can’t Go It Alone.” Internationale Politik Und Gesellschaft 1 (2003): 192-193.
5 Patalakh, Artem. “Assessment of soft power strategies: towards an aggregative analytical
model for country-focused case study research.” Croatian International Relations
Review22.76 (2016): 85-112.
6 Yunshan, Liu. “Hold high the banner of advanced culture.” Renmin Ribao (2002).
7 Jiang, Zemin. “Full text of Jiang Zemin’s report at 16th Party Congress.” People Daily.
December 10 (2002): 256-272.
8 Lisi, Ma. “Primary Thoughts on Soft Power Development in China.” Literature of the
Chinese Communist Party 5 (2007).
9 Pan Yue, ‘Quanguo Zhengxie Zhaokai Zhuanti Xieshanghui’, (‘CPPCC National
Committee Convenes a Special Consultation Meeting’), Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily),
July 25, 2007
10 Ramo, Joshua Cooper. “The Beijing Consensus”. London: Foreign Policy Centre, 2004.
11 Kurlantzick, Joshua. “Charm Oensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the
World”. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.(2007)
12 Cummings, Milton C. Cultural diplomacy and the United States government: A survey.
Centre for arts and culture, 2003.
13 Xinhua News Agency October 15, 2007).
14 (Chinese Language Council International, 2011).
15 Ramo, Joshua Cooper. “The Beijing Consensus.” London: Foreign Policy Centre, 2004.

Engaging Neighbourhood: Soft Power as a Strategic Variable in China’s Foreign 177
16 Ibid
17 Walter Russell Mead, “Sticky Power”, Foreign policy, March//April 2004.
18 Tang, Shiping, and Li Mingjiang, eds. “Living with China: Regional states and China
through crises and turning point”s. Springer, 2009.
19 China Scholarship Council (CSC) signed MOU between the Higher Education
Commission (HEC) of Pakistan, 30 May 2005. See http://en.csc.edu.cn/News/
da715f360f75496082ade5429f91f262.shtml
20 Nepal welcomes rst Confucius Institute, Xinhua, 14 June 2007 at http://www.china.org.
cn/english/ education/213859.htm.
21 Nihar Nayak, “Nepal: New ‘Strategic Partner’ of China?” Institute for Defence Studies and
Analyses at http://www.idsa.in/idsastrategiccomments/NepalNewStrategicPartnerofChina_
NNayak_300309
22 Syed Fazl-e-Haider, China-Pakistan rail link on horizon, Asia Times, 24 February 2007.
See http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IB24Df02.html.
23 Remarks of Chinese Vice Foreign Minister Song Tao at the Special Conference on
Afghanistan convened under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,
Ministry of Foreign Aairs of the People‟s Republic of China, 27 March 2009. See http://
www.fmprc.gov.cn/ eng/zxxx/t555299.htm
24 China Power, (2017, September 11). “Is China’s soft power strategy working?” China
Power. Retrieved from https://chinapower.csis.org/is-chinas-soft-power-strategy-working/
Google Scholar.