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What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of
solo and non-solo travellers
Elaine Chiao Ling Yang*
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith Business School,
Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Nathan Campus, Griffith University
Building N72, Room 0.28
170 Kessels Road, Nathan
Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
Tel.: +61(0)7 3735 6730, Fax: +61(0)7 3735 6743
e.yang@griffith.edu.au
Declarations of Conflicting Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding Acknowledgement
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,
authorship, and publication of this article: This work was supported by the 2019 Griffith
University New Researcher Grant Scheme. The Version of Record of this manuscript
has been published and is available in Current Issues in Tourism since 28 October 2020.
URL: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13683500.2020.1839025
DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1839025
What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of
solo and non-solo travellers
Contemporary lifestyles and social changes have precipitated the popularity of
solo travel. Despite the growing prominence of the solo travel market, it remains
an underresearched area. This study explores the definitions, motivations, and
constraints of solo travel, taking into consideration both existing and potential
solo travellers, and provides a gender-balanced investigation and subsequent in-
depth understanding of the underlying factors that drive solo travel motivations
and constraints. Interviews were conducted with 14 solo travellers and 14 non-
solo travellers. The findings suggest that solo travel as an evolving and fluid
concept, varies according to individual travel experiences and personal
circumstances. Solo travel motivations can be broadly categorised into “solo by
circumstances” and “solo by choice”. Transformative experience, freedom, and
flexibility are key motivators for solo travellers, while anticipated self-discovery
and freedom inspire the potential solo travellers. Safety, cost, and social
constraints emerged as the top three inhibitors impeding or constricting solo
travel participation and experience. The findings reveal the institutionalisation of
solo travel and proclivity to join tours as strategies to build confidence and
overcome safety and social constraints. Recommendations for the travel industry
to cater to the solo travel market were also examined from the travellers’
perspectives.
Keywords: solo travel; motivation; constraint; tour; Australia
Introduction
Solo travel has been a steadily growing market, especially in the past few years, as the
popularity of solo travel soared by 42% between 2015 and 2018 (Karantzavelou, 2018).
A global survey in 2019 with 21,000 respondents reveals a 76% interest in solo travel
(Klook, 2019). Solo travel is estimated to account for 18% of global travel bookings
(Travelport, 2019), and is appealing to both women and men from generation Z to baby
boomers (Booking.com, 2018, 2019; Klook, 2019). Increasingly individualised
lifestyles, changing perceptions of relationships and marriage, and the growing number
of solo dwellers are some frequently cited explanations for the rise of solo travel
(Klinenberg, 2012; Yang et al., 2019).
Solo female travel contributed substantially to this trend at an early stage. The
progress of gender equality enables women with social and financial means to travel
independently, which subsequently empowers women with transformative experiences
and broadened life perspectives (Wilson & Harris, 2006). Being able to travel alone
carries profound symbolic and socio-cultural meanings for women, which gives rise to
converging research on solo female travel (e.g., Jordan & Aitchison, 2008; Jordan &
Gibson, 2005; Su & Wu, 2020; Yang et al., 2019). Contrastingly, relatively less
research has extended beyond the gender lens to provide a holistic understanding of
both female and male solo travellers, although solo travel has gained comparable
interest from women and men (Booking.com, 2019; Klook, 2019).
Apart from descriptive statistics provided by travel companies such as
Booking.com and Klook, only a handful of scholarly studies have offered a non-gender-
focused examination of the emerging solo travel trend. Some representative works
include the seminal research of Goodwin and Lockshin (1992) and later, of Laesser et
al. (2009) and Bianchi (2016). These studies have established the significance of the
solo travel market and laid the groundwork for future research. Several solo travel
studies have surfaced in the past three years, focusing on the constraints to travelling
alone in an Asian context (Chung et al., 2017; Yang & Tung, 2018). Overall, the extant
literature has provided preliminary insights into the motivations and constraints of solo
travel. Nonetheless, there is lack of an in-depth understanding of the underlying factors
that drive people to, or prevent them from travelling alone. Additionally, extant studies
have predominantly focused on actual solo travellers. Little is known about the latent
solo travel market, comprising travellers who may have an interest in solo holidays but
are yet to attempt one.
Furthermore, existing research has commonly adopted a narrow definition of
solo travel, one based on solo arrival (McNamara & Prideaux, 2010) or single
relationship status (Chung et al., 2017), while other research has assumed a solitary,
adventurous or non-institutionalised form of travel (Elsrud, 2001; Mehmetoglu et al.,
2001; Wantono & McKercher, 2019)—a detailed discussion of the definitions of solo
travel will be provided in the Literature Review section. However, recent industry
reports suggest an increasing interest in group tours and social activities among solo
travellers (Kutschera, 2019; Lisella, 2019). The changing trend warrants updated
research into the current definition and perception of what constitutes a solo holiday and
the need for solitude vis-à-vis social experiences.
Based on the gaps identified above, this study provides an in-depth exploration
of solo travel from existing and potential solo travellers, both males and females.
Specifically, the study aims to explore the contemporary meanings of solo travel and the
underlying factors that drive solo travel motivations and constraints. Strategies for the
travel industry to enhance solo travel participation and experience are also examined
from the travellers’ perspectives.
Literature Review
The evolution of solo travel
Existing studies have adopted inconsistent definitions of solo travel. Some studies
defined solo travel based on arrival status (McNamara & Prideaux, 2010) or relationship
status (Chung et al., 2017). Others considered solo travel as travelling alone (Bianchi,
2016) or mostly alone (Wilson, 2004) throughout the journey. More recent solo travel
studies have not discussed the definition of solo travel (Osman et al., 2019; Seow &
Brown, 2018; Yang et al., 2019). The varying and ambiguous definitions have resulted
in a body of solo travel literature covering diverse travel experiences, ranging from
visiting friends and relatives (VFR), city escape, volunteer tourism, resort holiday and
backpacking, to frontier expedition (Campbell, 2009; Heimtun, 2012; Laesser et al.,
2009; Laing & Crouch, 2009; McNamara & Prideaux, 2010; Wantono & McKercher,
2019). This inconsistent conceptualisation of solo travel has to some extent hindered
theoretical advancement and meaningful comparison of solo travel research findings.
Solo travel, however, is a moving target. The meaning of “being alone” has
evolved in recent times (Yang et al., 2019). Aloneness, for a long time in human
history, signified social exclusion and being outcast, and was associated with deviant
and pathological behaviour (Lai et al., 2015), although it was also evident in the history
that some individuals would seek solitude for self or spiritual cultivation (Goodwin &
Lockshin, 1992). Public display of solitude has only become acceptable with recent
social changes, including changing family structure and increasingly individualised
lifestyles, and has been further bolstered by contemporary urban design and technology
advancement (Goodwin & Lockshin, 1992; Yang et al., 2019). These changes have
progressively normalised solo activities in public space. Despite these positive changes,
hedonistic solo consumption such as travel is subject to enduring social stigma. Existing
studies have reported negative stereotypes and discriminatory practices against solo
travellers, including unwanted attention (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008), inferior service
(Bianchi, 2016), and single supplement charges (Rosenbloom, 2013).
The development of solo travel resembles that of aloneness. Solo travel in the
past was evident in pilgrimage (Genoni, 2011), an example of self and spiritual
cultivation through solitude. More recently, solo travel has been practised and
investigated within the realms of frontier expedition (Laing & Crouch, 2009) and
backpacking (Wantono & McKercher, 2019). Note, however, that although
“backpackers” and “solo travellers” have been used interchangeably in the literature for
their shared emphasis on independence (Elsrud, 2001; McNamara & Prideaux, 2010),
the two terms are not equivalent, as backpackers do not necessarily travel alone. Just as
backpacking is becoming a tourism mainstream (O’ Regan, 2018; O’Reilly, 2006), solo
travel has progressively transformed from a travel niche to an increasingly popular
holiday option. The meaning of solo travel has evolved and expanded in response to
recent social changes. Klinenberg (2012) noted the emergence of solo consumption,
including travelling alone, as a result of the increasing single population. This has given
rise to a different type of solo traveller. Unlike their predecessors who chose to travel
alone to exotic destinations for spiritual and self-discovery, some solo travellers today
go on a solo holiday because they have no one to travel with, and they do not
necessarily seek to avoid touristy places (Yang et al., 2018). Laesser et al. (2009)
cautioned not to assume all solo travellers as independent travellers as some may prefer
a more structured, organised holiday (Haugen, 2018). The motivations and travel
experiences of these solo travellers are likely to be different from those of the traditional
solo travellers and hence, warrant an updated investigation into the contemporary solo
travel experience.
Solo travel motivation and experience
The reasons for people travelling alone can be broadly divided into two categories: by
default and by choice (Mehmetoglu et al., 2001). “Solo travellers by default” refers to
individuals who lack travel companions (Mehmetoglu et al., 2001; Osman et al., 2019;
Seow & Brown, 2018). Chung et al. (2017) limited solo travellers by default to those
living alone, while other studies considered a wider range of living arrangements and
relationship status for individuals who have no one to travel with (Bianchi, 2016;
Laesser et al., 2009).
Existing studies have found that many solo (female) travellers choose to travel
alone despite having family or friends to travel with (Bianchi, 2016; Osman et al.,
2019). Transformative experience appears as a key motivator for solo travellers by
choice (Pung et al., 2020). Transformative experience is described as self-change
resulting from the inward journey taken by travellers when encountering an unfamiliar
environment and experience, and the transformation is amplified in solitude (Pung et al.,
2020). The self-change or transformation includes transformative learning, existential
transformation, and behavioural change (Pung et al., 2020). Past studies have alluded to
transformative outcomes of solo travel using other terms, including self-discovery, self-
development, emancipation, empowerment, becoming autonomous and confident, and
learning something new (Bianchi, 2016; Osman et al., 2019; Pung et al., 2020; Wilson
& Harris, 2006; Yang et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2019). Solo travellers by choice are also
motivated by freedom, flexibility, and escape (Chiang & Jogaratnam, 2006;
Mehmetoglu et al., 2001; Osman et al., 2019; Seow & Brown, 2018; Wilson & Little,
2005); relaxation (Chiang & Jogaratnam, 2006; Laesser et al., 2009; Seow & Brown,
2018); and personal indulgence (Bianchi, 2016).
Existing research has also suggested social motives for solo travel, where solo
travellers seek to meet and connect with locals and other travellers (Bianchi, 2016;
Laesser et al., 2009; Osman et al., 2019). Meeting and travelling with others for a short
period is common among backpackers as the hostel setting encourages social
interactions, and being alone makes it easier to meet people (Murphy, 2001). A similar
motive was reported among solo travellers. The notion of ‘solo but not alone’ (Osman et
al., 2019, p. 257) suggests social interactions, including connecting with other travellers,
talking to locals, and receiving kindness from strangers as key motivators for and
benefits of solo travel. Likewise, Bianchi (2016) identified social interaction as an
important source of satisfaction for solo travellers and recommended tourism businesses
provide social-oriented activities for solo travellers. Some studies, however,
underscored that not all solo travellers are interested in social activities; some travel
solo for solitude (Goodwin & Lockshin, 1992; Laing & Crouch, 2009; Yang et al.,
2019).
Past solo travel studies have predominantly focused on women’s motivation and
experience. For instance, empowerment, transformative experience, and escape were
found to be especially important among solo female travellers (Chiang & Jogaratnam,
2006; Wilson & Little, 2005; Yang et al., 2018). Pung et al. (2020), one of the few
exceptions to have investigated both genders, identified gender differences in that
transformative solo travel experience for females focused more on self-consciousness
and embodied feelings, while for males, on sense of community and adaptation. That
study, however, was based on the experience of two individuals using a duo-
ethnography approach. In terms of social interactions, sexual encounter was identified
as a motivation for solo male travellers (Mehmetoglu et al., 2001), whereas romantic
experience was identified for solo female travellers, and was less important (Chiang &
Jogaratnam, 2006). Prior researchers have thus highlighted the need for further
investigation into solo holiday experience with a gender-balanced perspective (Bianchi,
2016; Pung et al., 2020).
Challenges encountered with solo travel
Solo travel is a relatively new uptake by average travellers (Yang et al., 2019). Existing
tourism space and travel offerings have been conventionally designed for couples and
families, and have not kept abreast with recent social changes, including the increasing
single population (Heimtun, 2010; Klinenberg, 2012). This is evident in the persistent
challenges faced by solo travellers such as having to pay a single supplement (Bianchi,
2016; Rosenbloom, 2013). As the default setting of existing accommodation is double
occupancy, solo travellers are often charged extra for packaged tours and cruises
(Goodwin & Lockshin, 1992; Rosenbloom, 2013). Rosenbloom (2013) identified the
notion of singlism to explain the discrimination against solo travellers.
Safety concern is another challenge widely cited in previous solo travel studies.
Most studies agreed on the predisposition of women to perceive a greater risk when
travelling alone. For instance, the fear of sexual harassment has been underlined as the
top concern for solo female travellers (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008; Seow & Brown, 2018;
Su & Wu, 2020). The paper by Bianchi (2016), one of the few non-gender-focused
studies, extends the finding to male solo travellers who also reported vulnerability and
concerns for safety without a travel companion. Other challenges reported in the extant
literature that affect both female and male solo travellers include unfriendly service
providers (Bianchi, 2016; Yang et al., 2018) and loneliness (Bianchi, 2016; Seow &
Brown, 2018).
Two gaps arise from the existing research around challenges and constraints
pertinent to solo travel. First, existing research has fixated on women’s experiences; the
challenges experienced by male travellers have received minimal attention. Two recent
studies on solo travel constraints have included both female and male respondents but
gender difference was not assessed (Chung et al., 2017; Yang & Tung, 2018). Second,
there has been little discussion on the constraints perceived by non-solo travellers, even
though prior research has substantiated the effect of constraints on solo travel intention
(Chung et al., 2017). While insightful, past studies have mainly focused on the
experience of experienced solo travellers, but the findings have limitations in extending
to non-participants. Therefore, it is important to provide a holistic investigation into
what hinders people from travelling alone in order to effectively remove the barriers to
participation.
Methodology
This exploratory study aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the meanings,
motivations, and constraints of solo travel experienced by existing and perceived by
potential solo travellers. To achieve this objective, a qualitative method guided by an
interpretivist paradigm was employed to elicit rich descriptions of the social
phenomenon (i.e., solo travel) and allow multiple perspectives and voices to be heard
(Creswell & Poth, 2016). The participants were recruited via social media, where
recruitment ads were posted on solo travel group sites on Facebook and the researcher’s
social network. A combination of purposive, convenient and snowballing sampling
techniques (Creswell & Poth, 2016) was utilised to achieve balance in gender and solo
travel experience – half of the participants had travelled alone while the other half,
never. To investigate the contemporary meanings of solo travel, no specific definition of
solo travel was included in the recruitment ads; the participants self-identified if they
had or had not travelled solo.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 Australians either face-to-
face, or through Skype to overcome geographical barriers. To protect the participants’
identities, a code was assigned to each participant. For example, NF01 refers to female
interviewee 1 without solo travel experience while SM01 denotes male interviewee 1
who is a solo male traveller. As presented in Table 1, the participants ranged from 19 to
73 years old. Nearly half of the participants in the solo travel group were single at the
time of the interviews and three were living alone. Contrastingly, only one participant in
the group without solo travel experience lived alone and most were either married or in
a relationship.
<Insert Table 1 Here>
The interviews comprised five stages: (1) building rapport; (2) encouraging the
participants to share their perception of and experience with solo travel (for those who
had travelled alone); (3) directing the questions towards what motivates them to travel
solo and what the barriers and concerns of undertaking a solo holiday are; (4) seeking
the participants’ opinions of the changes they would like to see in the travel industry to
facilitate their solo travel experience/participation; and (5) collecting personal
information. Aligning with the core principles of qualitative research, the interviews
were guided by a set of open-ended questions, but the dialogues were allowed to emerge
naturally, where the researcher listened attentively and followed up with probing
questions for deeper insights (Charmaz, 2014; Creswell & Poth, 2016). During the
interviews, the researcher regularly summarised the responses and sought the
participants’ validation to ensure credibility. The interviews lasted 50 minutes for solo
travellers and 30 minutes for non-solo travellers on average and were digitally recorded
and transcribed verbatim for analysis.
Data analysis was conducted using MAXQDA, computer software that
facilitates coding; organises, stores and retrieves codes and coded text; and records
analytic memos (Woolf & Silver, 2017). The analysis began with the researcher reading
and becoming familiar with the transcripts. The transcripts were then analysed
inductively using a bottom-up approach guided by thematic analysis (Creswell & Poth,
2016). The transcripts were read several times and coded line-by-line, which was
followed by focused coding to revise, integrate, and collapse emerging codes into
meaningful themes. The researcher took detailed memos throughout the analysis
process to reflect on the development of the codes and themes. To safeguard
authenticity, the findings are presented in the participants’ own voices through the
interview excerpts.
Findings
Contemporary meanings of solo travel
Imagining solo travel
Non-solo travellers generally associated their imaginings of solo travel with a grand
tour in Europe or backpacking. NM01 commented, ‘When I think of solo travel, I think
about just exploring Europe’ while NM05 stated, ‘The feeling I get around solo
travelling is backpacking’. The imaginings of solo travel varied across gender. Male
participants were more likely to ascribe a rigid definition of solo travel. For instance,
NM06 imagined solo travel as ‘travelling by yourself, going everywhere by yourself
with no one else’. Contrastingly, non-solo female travellers generally considered joining
a group tour without anyone they knew, as solo travel. The first thing that crossed
NF01’s mind was Contiki (a tour company that is famous among young Australians for
tours in Europe): ‘I’d probably go with a Contiki where I don’t know anyone, so it’s
kind of travelling alone.’
The evolution of solo travel
Solo travellers adopted a fluid definition of solo travel, and gender difference was not
obvious. In this study, solo travellers undertook a wide range of travel activities, and
many included a combination of different activities within a single trip, encompassing
train travel, self-drive travel, visiting friends and family, volunteer program,
backpacking, packaged tour, day tour, and short city escape.
Most solo travellers opined that solo travel entails travelling with people they
meet on the road. SF06 commented, ‘I did the travelling on my own even though there
were other people, it was just part of the experience . . . going and staying in a
backpacker, you are there on your own, you meet everybody else.’ This view was
shared by a few participants who also underscored the independent organisation of the
trip: ‘I would say solo travel is booking for yourself your own itinerary, at your own
pace’ (SM02). Nonetheless, due to the remote location of Australia, several participants
engaged travel agents to organise the accommodation and transportation for
international trips. Other participants opined that solo travel is defined by arrival and
departure status, with SF06 aptly summarising, ‘You might be doing lots of travel with
lots of different people, but you’re still essentially when you arrive, you’re on your own,
when you leave, you’re on your own.’
The definition of solo travel evolves with individuals’ travel experience. SM07
reflected, ‘it would have been different had I been asked this question like maybe at the
start of solo travelling, but now you’ve done it for a while, you’ve kind of experienced a
few things, that changes.’ SM07 discerned different stages in solo travel: ‘When you’re
a young solo traveller, it’s a bit more hedonistic, you are going there for like fun,
partying. But when you’re a bit older, it’s purely like achieving something.’ A
progression was also observed by SF07: ‘In my early 20s, I wanted to do more the tour
group things because I wasn’t very confident and didn’t feel very safe to do independent
travel, but from my mid-twenties onwards, I’ve been doing independent travel.’
Why travel solo?
Solo travellers: by choice and by circumstances
Solo travellers reported a mix of motivations to travel alone. Lack of travel companion
is a common reason, underpinned by life stage and relationship status. SM02
proclaimed, ‘I think it’s a life stage thing, we sort of hit middle age and at this point,
we’re single. I’m not going to sit at home anymore on my own.’ This is reinforced by
SM03 who recounted, ‘I didn’t have a partner or anything. I guess I was at the age were
a lot of my friends had a partner or even younger kids.’ Several participants, however,
admitted that they assumed no one was available, without asking. Major life transition is
another reason why the participants travel alone. For SF03, solo travel was her way of
overcoming grief: ‘I was really grief-stricken when my husband died, and I didn’t know
how to cope with that. Then I started to plan for the trip.’ SF03 chose to visit England
where her husband was born for the healing trip: ‘I just walked around by myself . . .
getting over being really sad because that’s where my husband came from . . . It was a
very healing trip for me.’ For SF01, her first solo trip was a celebration of adulthood:
‘Well I was only 19. So, I was pretty young, fresh out of school. I just happily got on a
plane and went about my business.’
However, many solo travellers intentionally chose to travel by themselves for
freedom and flexibility. SF01 articulated, ‘I quite enjoy being solo and just going ahead
and doing what I want to do and not having to check in with anyone else.’ SM02 also
stated, ‘I wanted to be able to commit my own time to my interests, at my own pace and
take advantage to that opportunity I might not get again to indulge my interests and
passions.’ Many solo travellers reported negative experiences they had had travelling
with other people, which motivated them to go solo.
When asked about their overall solo travel experience, the responses were
overwhelmingly positive. SF04 aptly described her experience as ‘illuminating’. SF07
concluded, ‘Solo travelling is allowing yourself the freedom of movement and the
freedom of adventure and experience. It allows you to develop yourself on a level that
non-independent travel does not allow. For me, it’s very liberating and very
empowering.’ A subtle gender difference was observed, with solo female travellers
reporting transformative experience, while male participants emphasised freedom and
flexibility more strongly.
Non-solo travellers: self-discovery and freedom
Of those without solo travel experience, four participants planned to try it, and six
would consider travelling solo. Self-discovery and freedom were the two main
motivators that inspired these participants. NM01 imagined solo travel was about
‘finding yourself’, while NM07 depicted it as ‘a soul-searching holiday’. NF02 was
enticed by the anticipated freedom: ‘freedom . . . the opportunity to be by yourself and
really just experience more, like gain more world experience by yourself. You have to
do it alone, so that’s more liberating.’ Resonating with the sentiment of freedom, NM01
believed that solo travel would release him from social pressure, stating, ‘I think it
would be quite freeing to go by yourself because there’s no pressure to be who you
were. You can just do whatever.’
Several participants were inspired by someone they knew. For instance, NF01
was inspired by her grandmother: ‘My grandma did it recently, and she really enjoyed
it. She met heaps of people along the way, and I thought that would be pretty fun.’
Similarly, NM05 who was keen to try solo travel, was inspired by his cousin and friends
who had backpacked around Europe. NF02 hoped to have stories to tell: ‘I think mostly
to have stories to tell, I guess, just to be able to say, I went to Italy and I did this. And
just to see the world.’
Barriers to solo travel participation and experience
As reported, 10 out of 14 non-solo travellers showed an interest in solo travel. Safety,
cost, and social constraints emerged as the top three inhibitors preventing them from
travelling alone. While these constraints did not stop the participants in the solo travel
group, such concerns constricted their solo travel experience and satisfaction.
It’s expensive to travel alone
For both solo and non-solo travellers, cost is the most significant constraint. Many
complaints were related to accommodation in various settings, including hotel, cruise,
multi-night tour, and sleeper train. NM02 commented, ‘When you travel alone with the
hotel, you normally have to pay per room. So, when you’re with someone else, it’s half
the price.’ NF04 shared a similar view: ‘I’ve thought about doing a cruise by myself but
it just a bit expensive like, I might just have someone come with me for the same price.’
SF01 analysed that ‘a lot of the accommodation is geared for couples and not really for
singles.’ Most participants mentioned that they understood why they have to pay extra
but were not happy about it: ‘Look, I get it, but it’s kind of annoying’ (SF04); ‘I
understand why it’s so expensive, but when you add on those extra fees just because
you’re on your own, I don’t think that’s very fair’ (SF02).
Safety concerns of solo travel
Non-solo travellers raised concerns about their physical safety, as commented by NF06:
‘I wouldn’t feel very safe being by myself.’ While safety concerns have not deterred
solo travellers from undertaking solo holidays, it has limited their experience. SF07
reported, ‘I don’t go anywhere in the evening if I don’t have company.’ For some,
safety concerns have resulted in unpleasant experiences. SF01 recounted, ‘the man on
the [hotel] counter seemed to have a bit of a crush on me. And I found it a bit awkward
because he knew that I was staying alone.’ SF05, who joined a packaged tour to gain
confidence and experience with solo travel found herself in a distressing situation when
she was assigned to share a room with a drunken male tour participant: ‘I’ve also been
roomed with a guy. I brought my concerns to the tour director and she really didn’t do
much . . . he’s been drinking all night, I’m not comfortable. I didn’t sleep properly for
three days.’ SF05 requested a room change to no avail, until her situation was
eventually resolved by a couple from the tour who volunteered to swap roommates.
In contrast to the accounts of solo female participants where most concerns were
related to sexual harassment or assault, solo male travellers were concerned about theft
and petty crime. SM04 conjectured that his concern was shaped by his gender and
ability to defend himself when confronted with danger: ‘Maybe it’s just this sort of
being a solo man . . . If I was to find myself in an alley and someone was threatening me
like I do think I could put up a bit of a fight.’ SF04 believed ‘there is a vast difference in
the experience of moving through the world for men, as it is for women’. Albeit lacking
actual solo travel experience, non-solo travellers observed a similar gender difference in
their perceptions of safety. NM07 assumed ‘there is a difference between a bloke
travelling alone versus a girl travelling alone’. NM02 believed that safety concerns
affect both genders: ‘getting pickpocketed . . . that would be the same concern as a male
or female’, but he supposed ‘you are just more likely to experience it as a female
because you’re seen as an easier target.’
‘Having no one’ versus ‘someone is always available’
Social constraint was another concern, mainly among non-solo travellers. The constraint
encompasses two dimensions: no one to share with or rely on, and someone who is
always available. As commented by NM02, ‘I like being with someone. . . to share the
moment with. I don’t think I’d have as much fun if it was just me.’ NF05 expressed fear
of getting lost and ‘having nobody to fall back on’. In contrast to SFs and SMs who
travelled alone as they had no one to travel with, several non-solo travellers explained
that they have not travelled alone because someone is always available: ‘Whenever I
said I wanted to go somewhere, there’s always been other people wanted to do the
same’ (NM07). Many participants in the non-solo-travel group self-declared as ‘people-
oriented’ (NM02). Some participants also described Australian culture as social-
oriented, as NF03 proclaimed: ‘we’re all very social people, we’re all extroverts. I’m
pretty much surrounded by extroverts. We like to be together.’
What can the tourism industry do?
Many solo travellers felt that there is room for improvements in the travel industry for
accommodating solo travellers, especially in the accommodation and cruise sectors.
SF03 commented, ‘oh, I think there needs to be quite a lot of improvement. I think they
mainly still caters for couples and families or groups.’ Interestingly, participants who
have not travelled alone rate the industry’s performance better than actual solo
travellers. Three main appeals emerged regarding how the travel industry could enhance
solo travel participation and experience.
A room for one
In response to the perceived barrier around extra cost incurred by solo travellers, many
participants demand the abolition of the single supplement. Several participants
recognised that some companies have waived the single supplement but hoped to see
this practice adopted more widely across the travel industry. Other participants went to
the root of the problem and called for more single rooms: ‘They [accommodation
providers] should start looking at having single rooms so then it encourages people to
travel alone, maybe a little bit cheaper because you don’t need as much space, so a
smaller room. They can make more rooms’ (NF01). This sentiment was shared by SF03
who stated, ‘I think they should always have some space for single people so that single
people don’t have to pay double and don’t have to share.’ SF03 further indicated, ‘If I
couldn’t afford it, sometimes that would mean then I wouldn’t go. I just think more
people are travelling on their own, so the companies are going to have to start taking
solo travellers more into account.’
Solo-friendly marketing
Numerous participants also called for marketing images and content that speak to solo
travellers. SM04 commented, ‘you look at TV commercials, it’s always like families
and young partners or seniors, always doing things together, maybe there’s a big market
there for solo travellers but we’re not seeing that. I think images are really important.’
NF07 shared a similar sentiment: ‘They [solo travel marketing] are sort of not out there
unless you’re looking for them, in terms of solo like there’s nothing that advertises like
come by yourself, make friends sort of thing.’ SM05 pointed out the important role
travel marketing plays in addressing the social stigma around travelling alone:
There’s that sort of stigma associated with solo or by yourself, so any tour
packages maybe not branded as if like you’re by yourself sort of thing, I know
some people may be put off by that . . . maybe if they just changed the language of
who a solo traveller is.
For both existing and potential solo travellers, solo-friendly travel marketing
will help them to make an informed decision and know what to expect: ‘Just something
to show you that it can be safe and fun, and good to meet new people and things like
that, just a little bit of extra confidence, like help with your confidence’ (NF01);
‘Probably more education around if you wanted to do independent travel, more
education around where to go, and what to do . . . Just more information’ (SF02).
A mobile app for solo travellers
Meeting people is an integral experience of solo travel. However, for non-solo
travellers, the uncertainty around social interactions has hindered them from solo travel
participation. Apart from joining tours to overcome the social constraint, the suggestion
for a solo travel mobile application emerged coincidentally among numerous non-solo
travellers. According to the participants, the app could incorporate functions for
connecting with other travellers: ‘Could be like an app that people use. An app to
connect with people’ (NM02). NF03 echoed, ‘We use Tinder all the time to travel, not
because we want to hook up, but because we’re asking, we need help, we need advice,
we need guidance and we want to meet fellow travellers.’ NM03 envisioned the app to
serve as a virtual companion: ‘My biggest thought about solo travelling was having like
a companion app to help you through.’ Concerning safety, NF02 proposed a ‘walk with
me’ app: ‘Design an app . . . you are worried about walking somewhere by yourself late
at night, there could be an app or something where someone can meet with you and
walk with you to the place.’ NM02 supported the app idea but suspected that similar
apps may exist, resonating the need for better marketing: ‘It can be a great app but if no
one knows about it and no one uses it, it doesn’t have a good purpose . . . need to
market them a bit better so everyone that travels independently knows.’
Discussion
This study addresses the knowledge gaps pertaining to the growing solo travel market.
Specifically, the study contributes a gender-balanced viewpoint, investigates both
existing and potential solo travellers, and provides an in-depth understanding of the
underlying factors that drive solo travel motivations and constraints. Furthermore, this
study reveals the changing definition and imagining of solo travel. In doing so, it
provides an updated understanding of what it means to travel alone in the contemporary
world.
The findings suggest that solo travel is an evolving and fluid concept that varies
according to individual travel experiences, personal circumstances, and social changes.
The study expands the existing understanding of solo travel by revealing the
multifaceted interpretations and imaginings of solo travel spanning a spectrum of solo
status, with ‘being by oneself for the entire trip’ at one end, and ‘joining a packaged
tour alone’ at the other. One’s location on the spectrum is influenced by the intersection
of travel experience, gender, and age. In contrast with those of many studies that have
discussed solo travel within the realm of backpacking or other non-institutionalised
forms of travel (Elsrud, 2001; Wantono & McKercher, 2019), the findings here reveal
the institutionalisation of solo travel, which aligns with the mainstreaming of
backpacking (O’Reilly, 2006). The proclivity of Australian solo travellers to engage a
travel agent could also be partly explained by the remote location of Australia. The
findings further identify gender difference in the normalisation of packaged tours
among the participants, especially among female travellers with little to no solo travel
experience. Contradicting previous solo travel studies that reported a negative attitude
or lack of interest in tours (Mehmetoglu et al., 2001; Osman et al., 2019), tours are
deemed by the participants as a strategy to build confidence. The findings underline the
importance of understanding the contemporary imagining of solo travel from the
perspectives of existing and potential travellers, as this underpins their motivation and
need for travelling alone. It is also important not to presume solo travel is a
homogenous market.
Findings on solo travel motivations echo the typologies proposed by
Mehmetoglu et al. (2001) but further expand solo travellers ‘by default’ to solo
travellers ‘by circumstances’. Past studies considered individuals who are single, live
alone, and/or lack travel companion as solo travellers by default. The findings here
reveal a similar pattern, with relationship status underpinned by life stage as a push
factor to travel alone. ‘Solo travellers by circumstances’ extends to individuals
experiencing major transitions in life such as grief, especially among senior travellers,
and coming of age. Seow and Brown (2018) discussed life transitions under the
motivation of ‘escape’. This study conceptualises life transitions as circumstances that
drive people to travel solo. Not all life transitions lead to escape. As seen in this study,
the loss of partner has compelled the participant to travel, not to escape, but to engage
and to rise above the unfortunate life events. Findings about ‘solo travellers by choice’
are consistent with previous studies (e.g., Mehmetoglu et al., 2001; Osman et al., 2019),
with transformation, freedom, and flexibility emerging as key motivators. Nevertheless,
gender difference is observed, with transformative experience being most prominent
among solo female travellers. This finding supports the existing solo female travel
literature (Osman et al., 2019; Wilson & Harris, 2006; Yang et al., 2018) and offers
evidence from the male’s perspectives. Furthermore, this study extends the extant
literature by investigating the motivations of potential solo travellers and reveals
anticipated self-discovery and freedom as two main motivators, which is consistent with
the motivations of experienced solo travellers who travel by choice. The main
difference between the two groups is that existing solo travellers are also motivated by
circumstances, while this was not observed in individuals without solo travel
experience.
The study reveals a strong interest in travelling alone and provides insights into
the perceived barriers to solo travel participation among non-solo travellers, including
cost, safety and social constraints. Similar challenges, that limited their experience,
were identified among existing solo travellers. The reported barriers are in accord with
the extant studies from the past three decades (Bianchi, 2016; Goodwin & Lockshin,
1992; Jordan & Aitchison, 2008; Seow & Brown, 2018), indicating that little has
improved. Above all, this study makes an important contribution by exploring safety
concerns from both female and male perspectives. The findings show that male
travellers face different safety challenges (e.g., theft and petty crime) in contrast to the
gendered physical safety issues that confront female travellers. The study further reveals
men’s perception of the sense of security from the point of view of their being male, and
how this contributes to the actual and imagined gendered experience of solo travel. This
finding, therefore, adds to the existing solo travel literature that has predominantly
focused on women’s safety. Furthermore, previous studies have identified social
constraints such as loneliness that hinder people from travelling solo (Bianchi, 2016;
Seow & Brown, 2018). The findings of this study indicate that the availability of travel
companion is a social constraint as to why some participants have not travelled solo,
which is in contrast to the findings that some solo travellers travel solo because they
have no one to travel with. A deeper investigation suggests that personality plays an
important role in determining solo travel motivation and constraint. Likewise, the
findings in this study also imply the socially oriented culture in Australia, which
requires further investigation.
Practical implications
The findings of this study provide implications for solo travel experience design and
marketing that speak to the need of contemporary solo travellers. More importantly, the
recommendations for the travel industry to enhance solo travel participation and
experience were examined from the travellers’ perspectives.
Making solo travel more affordable emerges as the most prominent request from
among the study participants. The default unit of consumption in the accommodation
sector continues to assume double occupancy, which is out of sync with the growing
single population. The room size has a flow-on effect to the price of tours and cruise
holidays where solo travellers are often penalised by a single supplement fee, reflecting
the discrimination perpetuated against single or solo travellers. Some service providers
have experimented with solo rooms, such as the Norwegian Cruise Line (Rosenbloom,
2013), but we are yet to see widespread adoption in the travel industry. Having more
solo rooms is a strategic move, given the rise of the solo travel market, fuelled by
changing social structures.
Contradicting the conventional depiction of solo travel as autonomous and non-
institutionalised, tours appear as a strategy to build confidence and overcome safety and
social constraints among less experienced solo travellers and potentially, those
travelling solo by circumstances. This presents a great opportunity for tour companies,
but adjustments need to be made around pricing, room assignment, and marketing
message to effectively attract solo travellers. Some tour companies attempt to resolve
the price issue by matching solo travellers with a roommate (Rosenbloom, 2013).
Nonetheless, as evidenced by the findings of this study, this may not be the best solution
without responsible practices by the companies such as ensuring solo travellers are
matched with a compatible roommate and being willing to absorb the cost if
compatibility is unachievable. Setting up a process or even a digital platform or mobile
application that enables tour participants to e-meet potential roommates prior to the trip,
may be a way forward. This would also help create a travel community made up of new
and existing customers.
Similarly, mobile travel applications that facilitate social connection were
suggested by the participants. Other recommended features include a virtual travel
companion and guide using artificial intelligence and safety functions through
crowdsourcing, such as the proposed ‘walk with me’ app – a safety app proposed by
one participant, that searches for someone in the proximity to walk with at night. There
is a myriad of travel and social applications available in the market but still, the call for
one accentuates the importance of effective marketing.
Both existing and potential solo travellers called for more solo-friendly
marketing and specifically, marketing messages and images that destigmatise solo
travel. Some suggestions include incorporating more images of solo travellers in the
advertising materials to counterbalance the overemphasis on couples and families. The
travellers also demanded more information and education on solo travel to help them
make informed decisions. Predicated on the findings of this study, self-discovery and
freedom could be featured in the marketing message targeting the latent solo travel
market. As for the existing solo market, transformative experience is likely to strike a
chord with female travellers, while freedom and flexibility would do so with male
travellers.
Conclusion
Solo travel has evolved from once being a niche, to a maturing market appealing to
travellers in all walks of life and of all genders, stimulated by the individualised social
structure of the 21st century. Despite the prominence of this market, it remains an
underresearched area, within which most studies have focused on women’s experience.
This study addresses the knowledge gap by exploring the contemporary meanings,
motivations and constraints of solo travel from both genders and from the perspectives
of solo and non-solo travellers. The investigation into what changes travellers need from
the travel industry to facilitate their solo travel participation and experience, bridges the
gaps between research and practice. In doing so, the study provides not only practical
implications about catering to solo travellers, but also strategies to convert non-solo
travellers into solo travellers by removing the barriers.
This study, despite its contributions, is limited by the small sample size and
constricted to Australian travellers. While the sample size is appropriate for a qualitative
study, it has not been able to fully establish the different segments within the solo travel
market. However, the qualitative findings of this study could be used to inform future
research. For instance, a quantitative market segmentation study would be fruitful to
establish the typologies and segments suggested in this exploratory study. More
research is also needed to further examine gender and age differences suggested in this
exploratory study. Similarly, further research is warranted to explore whether
personality, and specifically social tendency, plays a more significant role than
relationship and solo living status in determining solo travel motivation and intention.
Another potential area to examine is cultural influence in shaping social tendency and
the subsequent effect on the perceived barriers and proclivities to travelling solo. By the
same token, a cross-cultural comparison may provide valuable insights into the
determinants of solo travel motivation and constraint. Finally, an investigation of the
adoption and usage of digital technology among solo travellers may also provide useful
insights.
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Table 1. Participant profiles
Participant Code
Age
Relationship Status
Household Size
NF01
19
In a relationship
6
NF02
20
Single
5
NF03
25
In a relationship
2
NF04
19
Single
3
NF05
53
Married
2
NF06
29
In a relationship
1
NF07
27
In a relationship
4
NM01
25
Single
2
NM02
23
In a relationship
7
NM03
25
In a relationship
3
NM04
35
In a relationship
4
NM05
21
Single
3
NM06
58
Married
2
NM07
23
In a relationship
2
SF01
29
In a relationship
1
SF02
27
Single
2
SF03
73
Single (Widowed)
1
SF04
46
Married
3
SF05
27
Single
4
SF06
34
Single
2
SF07
49
Married
2
SM01
27
In a relationship
3
SM02
51
Single (Divorced)
1
SM03
35
Single
3
SM04
30
In a relationship
2
SM05
21
In a relationship
4
SM06
23
In a relationship
3
SM07
26
In a relationship
5
