BookPDF Available

The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective and Contemporary Issues

January 2020

Authors:

Mines Paris, PSL University

Global domestic mining in 2017, by material group 2 . For a color version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

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Temporal and territorial dimensions

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Organization of the standardization process. For a color version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

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Towards creating a positive impact rather than reducing the negative impact (source: Upcyclea based on MBDC 2 ). For a color version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

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Cradle to Cradle, between biological cycle and technical cycle (source: Upcyclea from MBDC 3 )

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Figures - uploaded by Franck Aggeri

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by Franck Aggeri

Content may be subject to copyright.

Circular Economy

Modern Finance, Management Innovation

and Economic Growth Set

coordinated by

Faten Ben Bouheni

Volume 3

Circular Economy

From Waste Reduction to Value Creation

Edited by

Karen Delchet-Cochet

First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as

permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,

stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,

or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the

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undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street

London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030

UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.co

The rights of Karen Delchet-Cochet to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her

in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020935510

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-573-2

Contents

Foreword ........................................... xiii

François-Michel LAMBERT

Introduction ......................................... xvii

Karen DELCHET-COCHET

Part 1. The Circular Economy, Between Framework and Stakes ....... 1

Chapter 1. The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective

and Contemporary Issues ................................ 3

Franck AGGERI

1.1. Introduction ..................................... 3

1.2. From the origins of the reflections on the circular economy

to its inclusion on the public agenda .......................... 4

1.2.1. The reasons for the enthusiasm ........................ 5

1.2.2. Circular economy as a new rational utopia .................. 7

1.3. Is the circular economy really a new practice? .................. 8

1.3.1. Circular economy, mode 1 ........................... 8

1.3.2. Circular economy, mode 2 ........................... 9

1.4. Obstacles to the circular transition to mode 2 ................... 10

1.4.1. Local value creation .............................. 11

1.4.2. The need for a new industrial policy ..................... 11

1.5. References ...................................... 12

vi Circular Economy

Chapter 2. The Circular Economy and Lifecycle ................. 13

Christian BRODHAG

2.1. Resources ....................................... 14

2.2. Environmental context ............................... 16

2.2.1. The global question ............................... 18

2.3. Methods to address the circular economy ..................... 20

2.3.1. Historical background: from industrial ecology to circular economy ... 20

2.3.2. The lifecycle approach ............................. 20

2.3.3. Eco-design .................................... 22

2.4. Political and normative processes ......................... 22

2.4.1. The European and French approaches..................... 22

2.4.2. ISO standardization ............................... 24

2.5. Conclusion ...................................... 25

2.6. References ...................................... 26

Chapter 3. Circular Economy: Transformation of the Labor

Market and Change in Human Resources Management Practices ...... 29

David MORIEZ

3.1. Introduction ..................................... 29

3.2. The circular economy, labor market and jobs ................... 31

3.2.1. The circular economy: a response to the regionalization

of unemployment .................................... 32

3.2.2. The circular economy: a response to structural unemployment ....... 35

3.2.3. The circular economy: “green jobs” and “greening jobs” .......... 36

3.3. The circular economy and human resources management practices ...... 38

3.3.1. Green human resources management (green HRM) ............. 38

3.3.2. Green human resources management practices................ 39

3.4. Conclusion ...................................... 41

3.5. Appendix 1 ...................................... 42

3.6. Appendix 2 ...................................... 43

3.7. Appendix 3 ...................................... 47

3.8. References ...................................... 48

Chapter 4. The Role of Education in the Ecological and

Circular Transition: Current Situation and Prospects .............. 53

Dominique BONET FERNANDEZ

4.1. Introduction ..................................... 53

4.2. Findings and challenges for universities and companies ............. 54

4.2.1. Multidisciplinary challenges, requiring a review of training courses .... 55

4.2.2. The companies and universities concerned .................. 55

Contents vii

4.3. How to meet the skills and training needs of the circular economy? ...... 56

4.3.1. From Green Plan to education for sustainable development ........ 56

4.3.2. A wide range of skills ............................. 57

4.3.3. Towards new practices ............................. 57

4.4. An initiative provided by the French Virtual University for

Environment and Sustainable Development ...................... 60

4.5. The proposed 2019 law on the generalization of education

on issues related to the preservation of the environment and biological

diversity and climate change within the framework of global boundaries ...... 61

4.6. Legislative proposals to be closely monitored ................... 62

4.7. Conclusion ...................................... 64

4.8. References ...................................... 65

Chapter 5. Boosting the Circular Economy through

Proximity: The New Competences of Local Authorities ............ 67

Karine FABRE and Alexis POKROVSKY

5.1. What scale for proximity? .............................. 68

5.2. Understanding the territorial levels: sharing of competences in the

context of waste management .............................. 70

5.2.1. Historical expertise in waste management acquired by municipalities ... 70

5.2.2. Territorial tiering of competences ....................... 71

5.3. The levers for steering the circular economy ................... 74

5.3.1. An increasingly environmentally oriented public procurement ....... 75

5.3.2. Some examples of public practices or policies: between responsible

purchasing and waste reduction at source ...................... 76

5.4. Conclusion ...................................... 77

5.5. References ...................................... 77

Part 2. Circular Economy: A Few Tools and Approaches ........... 79

Chapter 6. Example of a Pioneering Approach to the

Circular Economy: Cradle to Cradle ......................... 81

Anne DE BÉTHENCOURT

6.1. The origins of Cradle to Cradle ........................... 82

6.1.1. Thus, Cradle to Cradle was born........................ 82

6.1.2. The founding principle: design differently and “upcycle” to create

“positive loops” .................................... 83

6.1.3. Counter false good ideas ............................ 85

6.2. Creating resilient models .............................. 85

6.2.1. High-performance business models ...................... 85

6.2.2. The material passport, a key factor in traceability .............. 86

viii Circular Economy

6.2.3. Promoting the abundance of renewable energies ............... 86

6.2.4. A recognized approach ............................. 86

6.2.5. A demanding approach ............................. 87

6.3. Some examples of C2C certified products ..................... 88

6.3.1. Carpets ...................................... 88

6.3.2. Buildings ..................................... 88

6.3.3. Fashion ...................................... 89

6.3.4. Cleaning products ................................ 90

6.4. Conclusion ...................................... 91

6.5. References ...................................... 91

Chapter 7. From the Circular Economy to Industrial and

Territorial Ecology Approaches: What Modes of Governance

to Ensure their Sustainability? ............................. 93

Valérie FERNANDES

7.1. Introduction ..................................... 93

7.2. Leverages and obstacles to the sustainability of ITE approaches:

findings and analysis ................................... 94

7.2.1. Circular economy and ITE approaches: definition

and key elements .................................... 94

7.2.2. Success factors and obstacles to the sustainability

of ITE approaches ................................... 96

7.3. The modes of governance of ITE approaches ................... 99

7.3.1. Key elements .................................. 99

7.3.2. The modes of governance of ITE approaches ................ 100

7.4. Articulation of ITE approaches on the same territory: the example of the

La Rochelle territory ................................... 102

7.4.1. Presentation of the three approaches ..................... 102

7.4.2. Challenges, risks and opportunities ...................... 104

7.5. Conclusion ...................................... 108

7.6. References ...................................... 108

Chapter 8. Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the

Circular Economy? .................................... 111

Catherine LEJEALLE

8.1. Introduction ..................................... 111

8.2. Web 2.0 disrupts consumption practices ...................... 112

8.2.1. Arguments over definitions .......................... 112

8.2.2. Mapping the sharing economy ......................... 114

8.3. The circular economy in Moore’s chasm ..................... 115

8.3.1. The pillars of the circular economy and the role of consumption ...... 115

Contents ix

8.3.2. Adoption of the circular economy: consumer behavior ........... 116

8.3.3. Moore’s chasm to cross ............................ 117

8.4. The uses of the sharing economy .......................... 118

8.4.1. Motivations ................................... 118

8.4.2. Percolation of uses ............................... 120

8.5. Conclusion ...................................... 121

8.6. References ...................................... 122

Chapter 9. The Circular Economy from the Perspective

of Voluntary Standardization .............................. 125

Anne BENADY, Melodie MERENDA and Mérylle AUBRUN

9.1. Why and how has voluntary standardization appropriated

the concept of the circular economy? .......................... 125

9.1.1. A need expressed by economic actors ..................... 125

9.1.2. Towards an ISO standard ............................ 128

9.2. The main principles of the XP X30-901 standard ................. 129

9.2.1. Structure and content of the reference framework .............. 130

9.3. The circular economy project management standard, a suitable

tool for evaluating, enhancing and improving projects ................ 133

9.3.1. Towards a “Circular Economic Assessment” ................. 133

9.3.2. First feedback from users ............................ 134

9.4. References ...................................... 135

Part 3. Activity Sectors through the Prism of the Circular Economy .... 137

Chapter 10. Circular Economy and Construction ................. 139

Vincent AUGISEAU

10.1. Introduction ..................................... 139

10.2. Global environmental issues related to construction .............. 139

10.3. Sixteen elements of definition ........................... 141

10.3.1. Three principles of the circular economy according to the

Ellen MacArthur Foundation ............................. 143

10.3.2. Definitions from the six levers for a transition to a circular economy

according to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation.................... 144

10.3.3. Definitions according to a strategy similar to an R scale .......... 145

10.3.4. Definitions according to the stages of a building’s lifecycle ........ 146

10.3.5. Definitions of the circular economy close to that of

sustainable development ................................ 147

10.3.6. Cross-referenced analysis of definitions ................... 148

10.4. Policies and projects aiming to apply the concept of the circular

economy to construction ................................. 148

x Circular Economy

10.4.1. Policies ..................................... 148

10.4.2. Research and development projects ..................... 149

10.4.3. Construction and urban development projects ............... 150

10.5. Four main limitations ............................... 150

10.5.1. An uncertain delimitation of the scope of the circular

economy between waste management and sustainable development ....... 151

10.5.2. Low consideration of the territorial context ................. 152

10.5.3. A scale for the application of the circular economy concept that

is too narrow ...................................... 153

10.5.4. Insufficient coordination between the circular economy and

spatial planning ..................................... 153

10.6. Conclusion ..................................... 154

10.7. References ..................................... 154

Chapter 11. Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid

its Production ........................................ 159

Yvon PESQUEUX

11.1. Introduction ..................................... 159

11.2. Waste defined as that which crosses a boundary ................ 161

11.3. The ambiguity of waste .............................. 163

11.4. Institutional definitions of waste ......................... 164

11.5. Lifecycle analysis ................................. 169

11.6. Conclusion: arguing about boundaries ...................... 171

11.7. References ..................................... 173

Chapter 12. When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt

a Circular Economy .................................... 175

Bénédicte BOURCIER-BÉQUAERT, Karen DELCHET-COCHET and Valérie FERNANDES

12.1. Introduction ..................................... 175

12.2. State of play ..................................... 177

12.2.1. The circular economy: main principles and application

in companies ...................................... 177

12.2.2. CE in textile companies in France: a waste-based approach ........ 179

12.3. Methodology .................................... 182

12.4. Results ........................................ 183

12.4.1. There is a collector and… a collector .................... 183

12.4.2. A still partial implementation of the CE ................... 184

12.5. The limits of the actions implemented ...................... 187

12.6. Conclusion ..................................... 189

12.7. References ..................................... 190

Contents xi

Chapter 13. The Circular Economy and Packaging: Challenges

and Avenues for Reflection ............................... 193

François CABARET

13.1. Division function .................................. 195

13.1.1. Bulk goods ................................... 196

13.1.2. The sale in unit packaging .......................... 197

13.1.3. Sales in the so-called family or “giant” promotional packaging ...... 197

13.2. Protection function ................................. 197

13.3. Marketing and communication functions .................... 200

13.4. Service functions .................................. 201

13.5. Reflection points .................................. 202

13.6. Conclusion ..................................... 202

13.7. References ..................................... 203

Chapter 14. The Circular Economy and Toy Sector ............... 205

Karen DELCHET-COCHET and Coralie DAMAY

14.1. The toy sector between impact and innovation ................. 206

14.1.1. The main characteristics of the toy sector .................. 206

14.1.2. The circular economy in the toy sector: a lifecycle perspective ...... 208

14.2. A toy is more than “just a product” ........................ 213

14.2.1. Toys, the company’s flagship products ................... 213

14.2.2. A brief historical return ............................ 214

14.2.3. The role of the toy in educating the future consumer? ........... 215

14.2.4. Toys and environmental education ...................... 215

14.2.5. The toy, a role to be redefined ........................ 216

14.3. To conclude: proposals for rethinking our relationship with toys ....... 218

14.4. References ..................................... 219

Postface ........................................... 223

Jean-Louis BERGEY

List of Authors ....................................... 227

Index .............................................. 229

Foreword

With the arrival of new words and new concepts, our understanding of what they

carry requires a significant period of time to stabilize, first of all in the framework of

the first warnings to reach public opinion, through the field of politics in charge of

operational implementation.

This is the case with the concept of “sustainable development”. In France, and

probably in French-speaking countries, “sustainable development” has come to be

commonly summed up as the only ecological requirement, forgetting the other two

pillars of sustainable development – social and economic requirements.

So what should we think of the term “circular economy”, which semantically

refers to reference points that have no known link with each other? Of course, with

these two words, “economy” and “circular”, what do we do with them? The answer

lies in Nature, which in essence has not forgotten the limits of the planet: a blue

orange has been circling the Sun for billions of years; of these billions of years and

the billions that follow, it will not grow a gram heavier. Like this sailboat launched

non-stop into the ocean of the Universe with what it carried, such is our Earth.

Waste and destroy the resources available on board and that is the end of humanity’s

destiny. Fortunately, as human beings, we are extraordinarily fortunate to be able to

understand the limits of our own existence, our place in the galaxy and therefore the

need to preserve our resources.

However, recycling waste into a new raw material cannot be the only answer. In

a few decades, the Earth will be home to 10–12 billion people, including 5–7 billion

who will be able to possess as much as we have, as they will have been lucky

enough to possess things in our so-called developed countries. In this scenario, two

or three Earths would not be enough. And we only have one!

xiv Circular Economy

One Earth with abundant but limited resources.

A rapidly growing population multiplied by 10 in 150 years.

A model of development known as linear economy, based on voracious levying,

wasteful processing and wasteful consumption.

The only parameter that can be changed in order to close this parenthesis on a

century and a half of linear economy, is our development model. This is the very

essence of the circular economy, which shares the Earth’s resources among all its

inhabitants today, tomorrow and in the centuries to come so that everyone can have

the means to live without suffering shortages, conflicts and wars over raw materials.

This is the challenge, to rethink our development to achieve this balance between

growth for the common good and preservation of resources. Our current model,

based solely on the creation of economic wealth, artificial in the sense of the physical

reality of the planet, must incorporate a new dimension in order to continue to create

values, certainly values that are economic, as well as social and societal, while at the

same time reducing the amount of resources we take from it: quite a challenge.

It is the aim of this book, which, in a cross-disciplinary research of

transdisciplinarity, provides answers for the implementation via policies of the new

foundations of our development model. Based on the experience of pioneering

companies, on work in sociology and education, on the shared normative framework

and on the indispensable return to territories as spaces for sustainable development,

this book enables everyone to grasp this paradigm shift, this revolution, by

approaching it by author’s contribution, by thematic chapter or as a whole.

I would like to commend this work, a remarkable work of reference today, to be

read as a matter of urgency. It will not be out of date for years to come, even if it is

clear that new ideas, new concepts and innovative models will emerge, because the

foundations are real foundations for those who want to understand the circular

economy in relation to the many challenges posed by the limits of our planet and the

framework of our unique way of thinking, which is blocked by a development

model, the societal rules that structure our common life and the dynamics of human

growth.

Supervised by Karen Delchet-Cochet, the experts, many of whom I know and

whom I thank for what they have brought to my understanding of the issues, give us

the bricks that we now need to put together to build a society for ever more shared

common goods without wasting our planet’s resources.

Foreword xv

In my contributions, I am pleased to recall that the most important thing in a

circular economy approach is the coffee machine, a place that brings together those

who should not meet and who will share their expertise and co-construct the project

together. This book is a paper coffee machine. Annotate this book, alter it, share it,

enrich it! Make it a book of circular economy, bringing in more and more

knowledge; collective knowledge.

I reiterate my admiration to all the contributors and my special thanks go to

Karen Delchet-Cochet, the initiator and editor of this book.

François-Michel LAMBERT

Member of French Parliament

President of the Institut national de l’économie circulaire

Introduction

The circular economy is an exciting topic, both for the present and the future

since it is nothing more than a system overhaul, to paraphrase the Ellen MacArthur

Foundation1. At a time of climate change, the collapse of biodiversity, and

increasing inequality, “the Earth is reacting to human actions”, explained Bruno

Latour in his inaugural lesson to Sciences Po2,3 students in 2019. We are facing a

second “Galilean revolution”. For Lacy and Rutqvist, “transitioning to the circular

economy may be the biggest revolution and opportunity in our global economy”4.

However it is also necessary to understand what the circular economy means, which

we believe is already too often reduced to a system adaptation.

Beyond the interest and topicality of the subject, the need for a collective work

originates from a triple observation. The first observation is the absolute need to

engage experts from different disciplines in a dialogue to collectively address the

many challenges we face both in terms of resources and equity. Most of the time, we

remain confined to our fields of research or expertise. The topic of the circular

economy is, by nature, transdisciplinary. In other words, “it goes beyond the silos

between disciplines”5. It, therefore, requires perspectives and proposals between

them, i.e., interdisciplinary. The second observation is the need for academic

research to inform operational debate and implementation. The French legislative

calendar for 2019 was conducive to discussions in terms of the circular economy.

1 https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/fr/economie-circulaire/concept.

2 https://www.sciencespo.fr/actualites/actualit%C3%A9s/%E2%80%9Cce-n%E2%80%99est-

plus-une-question-d%E2%80%99%C3%A9cologie-mais-de-civilisation%E2%80%9D/4306.

3 Sciences Po is a prestigious French higher education institution. It has notable alumni,

including previous heads of state and government including seven of the eight past French

Presidents.

4 Lacy, P. and Rutqvist, J. (2015). Waste to Wealth. Palgrave Macmillan, London.

5 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/transdisciplinaire/79087.

xviii Circular Economy

Indeed, the “Anti gaspillage pour une économie circulaire” (“Anti waste for a

circular economy”) bill has launched a debate in which we are participating here.

We wish to stress the need to consider the circular economy as a resource economy

rather than a waste economy, a path that one now seems to be taking. The final

observation, as a corollary to the first two points, is the importance of a collective

reflection with multiple perspectives.

This book, therefore, includes reflections by environmentalists, urban planners,

and specialists in management sciences, including the perspective of researchers,

business consultants, local actors, and institutions.

They base their comments on theories, observations and business examples.

They shed light on what the circular economy covers and allow us to understand its

framework and issues in Part 1. Thus, if the circular economy is not an entirely new

concept, it seems, as Franck Aggeri says in Chapter 1 of this book, necessary to

“invent a new model”, a “mode 2” circular economy. He emphasizes the creation of

local value and the importance of a new industrial policy.

Christian Brodhag stresses the need to return to the notion of resources and the

environmental context (Chapter 2). He highlights the importance of a lifecycle

approach and of an environmental, social, and economic assessment to innovate

without negative impacts.

This paradigm shift towards a circular economy necessarily leads to an evolution

of the labor market and human resources management, the main trends of which

David Moriez studies (Chapter 3). New jobs and new skills are emerging.

This evolution, therefore, implies that we must reflect on the role of education in

the ecological and circular transition, both in terms of initial and continuing training,

as Dominique Bonet Fernandez points out in Chapter 4. Student mobilizations and

higher education commitments are a strong testimony to this responsibility.

Finally, the work of Karine Fabre and Alexis Pokrovsky concludes Part 1 by

focusing on proximity as a lever for a circular economy (Chapter 5). Local and

regional authorities are now equipped with new skills to be part of a circular

economy. They illustrate their point with examples of public practices and policies

between responsible purchasing and waste reduction at the source.

Part 2 presents some examples of tools and approaches. Anne de Bethencourt

looks back at the history and philosophy of Cradle to Cradle (Chapter 6).

This pioneering approach proposes to eliminate the notion of waste and create

positive loops. Several sectors, such as textiles, carpets, and cleaning products, have

already deployed it.

Introduction xix

Industrial and territorial ecology is closely linked to the circular economy, as

Valérie Fernandes points out (Chapter 7). After having reviewed the common points

and differences between these two concepts, she wonders about the modes of

governance that would ensure the sustainability of industrial and territorial ecology

approaches, by giving many examples.

The sharing economy can also be an interesting approach from a circular

economy perspective. According to Catherine Lejealle, the sharing economy rightly

contributes to the debate around the circular economy (Chapter 8). She highlights

the role of consumers in a circular economy and the potential leverage of the sharing

economy to play this role.

Finally, Anne Benady, Melodie Merenda and Mérylle Aubrun argue that the

circular economy, a subject under construction, required a normative framework, as

explained by the Afnor authors’ group. They review the genesis of the XP X30-901

standard: “Circular economy – Circular economy project management system –

Requirements and guidelines” and present us with its content and challenges,

particularly at the international level (Chapter 9).

Lastly, Part 3 of this book focuses on a few sectors of activity with high

environmental stakes. Vincent Augiseau provides a comprehensive overview of the

issues, definitions, policies, and projects of the circular economy in construction

(Chapter 10). He stresses the variability of the scope of the circular economy,

insisting in particular on the insufficient consideration of the territory, and the need

to articulate circular economy and spatial planning.

Yvon Pesqueux returns to the notion of waste and what it reflects in terms of

society in Chapter 11. He discusses the ambiguity of waste and its lifecycle, and

questions the boundaries of this stigma in our societies.

Fashion is a highly topical sector in terms of circular economy which Bénédicte

Bourcier-Béquaert, Karen Delchet-Cochet, and Valérie Fernandes are interested in

(Chapter 12). Subject to extended producer responsibility (EPR) regulations, this

sector has substantial environmental and social impacts. They carry out a critical

analysis of the circularity practices of major fast-fashion retailers from a logistical,

marketing, and strategic perspective.

Another sector subject to EPR is packaging. It is questioned with regard to the

circular economy by François Cabaret in Chapter 13. Returning to the different

functions of packaging, he discusses the real need in terms of the service provided

and suggests some possible actions.

xx Circular Economy

Finally, Karen Delchet-Cochet and Coralie Damay examine, from both an

environmentalist and a market researcher point of view, a sector that is somehow

special as it affects children: the toy sector. While environmental and social impacts

imply rethinking the lifecycle of toys, the very question of the utility of the toy

deserves to be asked (Chapter 14).

These authors’ comments are complementary. They define and analyze the

circular economy from different angles, but all stress the need to not consider

the circular economy from a restrictive angle. The circular economy should not be

limited to waste management. They call for a paradigm shift in their academic

and/or professional wishes and commitments, including the question of resources.

May this book make it possible to establish a dialogue between all stakeholders and

to collectively innovate to rethink our relationship with the world.

Dr. Karen DELCHET-COCHET

ISC Paris Business School

France

PART 1

The Circular Economy, Between

Framework and Stakes

The Circular Economy: Historical

Perspective and Contemporary Issues

1.1. Introduction

Over the past 10 years, the circular economy has experienced spectacular interest

from public authorities, the media, economic and social actors and, more generally,

the general public. This enthusiasm is based on a vulgate illustrated by a short

promotional film of one and a half minutes that can be viewed online on the

European Union’s website1. What does this film tell us? Each individual (here a

European) consumes an increasing amount of raw materials (14 tons per inhabitant

of Europe) and generates an increasing volume of waste (5 tons per inhabitant of

Europe). These products, resources and waste could, on the other hand, be repaired,

reused or recycled. This is the principle of circular economy. It is therefore

necessary, as is explained, to move away from the linear economic model that has

gradually become structured since the industrial revolution and has eventually

become dominant. This linear economy is based on the idea of a world of infinite

resources, which can be taken without limits and transformed into products, which

in turn will be consumed and then disposed of in landfills. Conversely, the circular

economy model aims to close the flows of materials and energy circulating in the

economy. Several strategies could be used to achieve this: reducing the quantities of

materials and energy actually used to produce goods, extending their lifespan

through sharing, repair and reuse, or recycling the materials they contain at the end

of their life, according to an endless cycle.

Chapter written by Franck AGGERI.

1 www.europarl.europa.eu/news/fr/headlines/priorities/ecirculaire-dechets/20151201STO05603/

economie-circulaire-definition-importance-etbenefices.

4 Circular Economy

As this short film highlights, circular economy is nowadays presented in the

form of a utopian narrative that draws a new economic model and an ecologically

sustainable society. This is where a crucial explanatory factor for the current success

of the notion lies: the common view of the circular economy does not threaten blood

and tears, or the specter of degrowth as a condition for saving the planet; conversely,

it suggests that another mode of growth, more virtuous, and based on the principles

of economy and systematic reuse of resources, is possible.

However, the expert and historian are left in doubt: is the circular model really

new? As for the linear model, how far back does it really go? And if it is not so old,

what did the economic model that preceded it look like?

In short, to better understand the contemporary challenges of the circular economy,

a historical perspective is essential. We will first briefly recall the origin of the concept

and its placement on the public agenda. We will then return to the history of so-called

circular practices. This detour will allow us to highlight that the circular economy

historically preceded the linear economy model, which only emerged at the end of the

19th Century and only became definitively established after World War II. However,

this historical model of the circular economy, which we will call mode 1, has

disappeared for reasons that we will explain and that remain valid. This historical

detour will allow us to highlight the conditions of the new circular economy model,

which we will call mode 2, to meet contemporary requirements, in terms of pollution

traceability, ecological, economic and social sustainability. Finally, we will conclude

with an analysis of the main obstacles to a circular transition.

1.2. From the origins of the reflections on the circular economy to its

inclusion on the public agenda

The idea of circularity of material and energy flows is not new. It can be found

as early as 1966 in Kenneth Boulding’s book, which advocates that men must find

their place in an ecological cyclical system capable of a continuous reproduction of

any material form. The very notion of circular economy first appeared in a book on

environmental economics in 1989 (Pearce and Turner 1989).

However, it was not until the early 2010s that the concept became truly popular

internationally, with the publication of several reports that would help to popularize

the concept among decision-makers and the general public.

The notion was quickly seized by the public authorities. As early as 2016, the

European Union adopted a circular economy package that has since been translated

into an action plan for the circular economy. In France, the publication of an

ADEME report in 2013, followed by the first conference on the circular economy in

The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective and Contemporary Issues 5

2014, at the initiative of the Institut national de l’économie circulaire (INEC), which

brought together more than 2,000 people in Paris, were the first markers of the

future enthusiasm. In 2016, the Energy Transition Act made it one of the pillars of

its action. Finally, in April 2018, the roadmap on the circular economy, which

prefigures the draft law currently being debated in the National Assembly on the

fight against waste and the circular economy, which echoes the circular economy

package adopted by the European Parliament in December 2017, constitutes the last

step in placing this concept on the public agenda.

1.2.1. The reasons for the enthusiasm

How can we explain the enthusiasm for this concept?

The first reason is the historical conditions under which the circular economy

project is formulated. The end of the 2000s was a time of “crystallization”, to use

Hannah Arendt’s (1988) formula. In Arendt’s analysis, crystallization refers to a

time when heterogeneous and disconnected elements are suddenly linked together.

Three concomitant events create an environment receptive to the idea of a circular

economy: the first element was the boom in commodity prices, which quadrupled

between 2000 and 2010 and reminded economic and political actors of their

economic dependence on natural resources; the second element was the Chinese

embargo on rare-earth elements, which are used in all high-tech applications and

which is causing panic among economic and political actors; and the third element

was the continued degradation of environmental indicators, which underlines the

urgency of the ecological crisis.

Taking advantage of this favorable context, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation

(EMF), a new player in the circular economy, created in 2010, partnered with

McKinsey to write a report in 2013 that made a big impact. This report proposes a

pedagogical problematization of the circular economy, taking up the arguments of

established approaches (industrial ecology, ecodesign, Cradle to Cradle, etc.) and

integrating them into a coherent system associated with evocative visual schemes.

But more importantly, the report highlights the potential of circular economy: not

only could this new paradigm reduce environmental impacts by reducing the

consumption of natural resources, and encourage reuse and recycling, but also new

business models for repair, reuse or recycling could generate thousands of billions of

dollars (EMF 13). Reducing the environmental footprint without sacrificing

economic growth, by decoupling the latter’s consumption from resource and energy

consumption, is the great promise that the concept covers and that immediately

appeals to economic and political actors.

6 Circular Economy

The second reason for the success of the concept is thus the pedagogical

dimension of the proposed approach and the promise of a possible reconciliation of

economic and environmental objectives.

The promoters of circular economy, such as the EMF, ADEME or INEC, have

not only built the storytelling, putting linear economy and circular economy under

tension. They have also sought to produce striking diagrams to visualize the concept

of a circular economy. The most well-known educational scheme is that proposed by

the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, also known as the “butterfly”, which describes

different circular economy strategies based on loops of increasing compactness. To

avoid landfilling, the most circular solution is to extend the life of products through

maintenance and repair. Next come strategies to give the product a second life, such

as reuse (for the same use), repurposing (for another application) and

remanufacturing (renewing the product through remanufacturing). Functional

economy, i.e. the intensification of the use of a product through the sale of

associated services (e.g. rental), is another strategy. When none of these strategies

are possible, recycling and finally energy recovery remain. From an economic point

of view, the most solid strategies are those that retain the most economic value.

However, they can cannibalize the sale of new products and therefore imply a

change in business model. From an environmental point of view, the most compact

loops are, in principle, the ones with the least impact. But this also depends on

technological progress. Imagine a product whose new generation is much more

environmentally efficient than previous ones. It may then be more interesting to

encourage the replacement of old products by new ones, following the example of

old vehicles, which public authorities are seeking to remove from the market

through scrapping premiums. To rigorously assess the best environmental strategy,

methods such as lifecycle assessment can be used. This diagram can also serve as a

guide to an eco-design approach, where each company defines criteria and

specifications for each strategy to improve maintainability, reparability, reusability

and recyclability. These different strategies predate the notion of a circular

economy. The interest of the proposed approach is to integrate them into a coherent

conceptual framework.

Finally, and thirdly, these promoters have developed a series of reports, models

and tools (indicators and standards) to serve as a guide for collective action. In

France and abroad, actors such as the EMF, ADEME, AFNOR, Entreprises pour

l’Environnement or the World Business Council on Sustainable Development

(WBCSD) are now actively involved in the production of indicators and benchmarks

The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective and Contemporary Issues 7

for the circular economy, taking into account the specific characteristics of each

sector2.

1.2.2. Circular economy as a new rational utopia

The combination of these three elements (mobilizing narrative, visual diagrams

and tools/models) precisely constitutes the three dimensions of what can be called,

following Jean-Louis Metzger (2001), a rational utopia.

According to this author, a rational utopia is constructed around three registers: it

takes the form of a mobilizing narrative that articulates both a critique of the existing

(e.g. linear economics) and a description of an ideal (e.g. circular economy). It is

conceived as a set of powerful images aimed at imbuing collective beliefs (e.g. the

“butterfly” scheme); it is structured around tools and models that guide collective

action (e.g. circularity indicators, norms and management tools for the circular

economy). A rational utopia thus corresponds to the problematized narrative of an

ideal society, which is therefore based on images that strike the imagination, and on

rational elements (reasoning, modeling, calculations) that are supposed to anchor it

in the realizable domain. Rational utopias thus combine the mobilizing properties of

utopia with the reassuring properties of reason. In doing so, it is a matter of building

collective promises that can aggregate and mobilize heterogeneous actors.

Jean-Louis Metzger suggests that the production of rational utopias is a

characteristic of our modern societies since the Enlightenment, at the end of the 18th

Century, and are a driving force for social change. Far from being governed solely

by rational calculation and interests, our societies need the constant production of

new utopias to move forward and transform themselves. The circulation of these

rational utopias is all the easier because they are works without authors: their

production is collective, anonymous. They appear to the public as neutral

constructions, open to multiple interpretations and depoliticized, i.e. free of

references to ideologically marked currents of thought or to particular authors,

which can be the subject of a wide variety of possible appropriations. This is one of

the major differences, it seems to me, between the circular economy and related

concepts, more precise as well as more marked, such as industrial ecology or

Cradle to Cradle, which are more associated with scientific currents, communities of

2 AFNOR, standard XP-X30-901 on circular economy. Available at: https://

normalisation.afnor.org/thematiques/economie-circulaire/; WBCSD (2018). Circular economy

metrics landscape Available at: https://docs.wbcsd.org/2018/06/Circular_Metrics-

Landscape_analysis.pdf; EPE (2018). Les indicateurs de l’économie circulaire pour les

entreprises. Available at: http://www.epe-asso.org/les-indicateurs-de-leconomie-circulaire-pour-

les-entreprises-octobre-2018/.

8 Circular Economy

practice and identified authors. But it is this construction, which some consider too

ecumenical, that provokes criticism from those who support strong sustainability3.

1.3. Is the circular economy really a new practice?

Do the characteristics of the circular economy, that we have just briefly

described, refer to really new practices? A historical detour is required. The linear

economy model became dominant with the rise of consumer society and mass

production, i.e. after World War II.

1.3.1. Circular economy, mode 1

Forms of circular economy have always existed, as historical research shows.

Repair, recycling, reuse and repurposing were common practices until the middle of

the 20th Century. The term waste, explains the philosopher François Dagognet

(1997), was only introduced in France in the 15th Century. At that time, everything

was reused or left to natural degradation.

With the industrialization of the paper mill and the creation of the

paper machine at the end of the 18th Century in England, the price of

rags reached new heights, thus enhancing the value of the rag-making

business. A sector was born. Similarly, bones had multiple outlets:

animal charcoal to bleach beet sugar, ammonia salts, bone tallow,

glue, etc. The sludge was used for agriculture.

Nothing was lost, everything was recovered and valued, explains Helen

Micheaux in a recent thesis and book (Micheaux, 2017, 2019). Historian Sabine

Barles (2005) points out that, until about 1870, there was a spontaneous circulation

of matter between the city, industry and agriculture.

Three main changes explain the gradual disappearance of this mode 1 circular

economy: the first evolution was the industrial revolution, which introduced three

disruptions: the production of cheap energy thanks to coal and steam; the reduction

of production and extraction costs of natural resources thanks to mechanization and

mass production; and the reduction of costs and delays thanks to the development of

mechanized transport. These concomitant transformations then made the materials

and products resulting from recovery less economically interesting.

A second change disqualified these products and materials: the development of

hygienics from the Pasteurian revolution at the end of the 19th Century. With the

3 Bourg, D. (2019). Available at: https://usbeketrica.com/article/dominique-bourg-l-economie-

circulaire-ne-constitue-pas-une-demarche-de-progres.

The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective and Contemporary Issues 9

discovery of microbes, hygienics banished the circulation of waste as one of the main

causes of epidemics. Eugène Poubelle, then Prefect of the Seine, became famous by

the 1884 decree in which he required landlords to provide tenants with containers for

household waste, garbage cans, or, in French, “poubelles”. This was the beginning of

the invention of waste containment solutions that led to the development of landfill as

the dominant waste treatment solution in the 20th Century.

The third change, from 1930 onwards, is the development of what Baudrillard

(1970) called the “consumer society”, i.e. the emergence of consumption not as a

response to basic needs but as a means of differentiation, where modern people now

live through the objects they consume, leading to a society of superabundance where

objects eventually possess them. This consumer society could not have developed

without the massive intervention of new professions (marketing, design,

communication, advertising) and new techniques that have contributed to creating a

desire to always own material objects and to constantly renew them.

1.3.2. Circular economy, mode 2

The current challenge of the circular economy is obviously not to return to the

previous model of the circular economy but to invent a new one, where the requirements

of traceability, hygiene, lower environmental impact and quality are respected.

Hygiene and health issues have not disappeared today, quite the contrary, as

shown by the obsession of European public authorities to trace, for example, through

the REACH directive, potentially toxic substances found in chemicals and consumer

products in general. Brominated flame-retardant plastics are a very good example.

These plastics, which are widely used in electrical and electronic products, have an

important function: they aim to prevent the ignition of devices with hot batteries.

But they have a major disadvantage: they contain heavy metals (chromium,

bromine, etc.), which are potentially harmful to health. As a result, their recovery is

prohibited and they must be disposed of in landfills. However, in current processing

centers, automatic plastic sorting does not guarantee 100% efficiency and some

brominated plastic residues can be mixed with other plastics for recycling. The

controversy grew when traces of brominated plastics were discovered in children’s

toys made from recycled plastic in China, where environmental norms are less

stringent than in Europe. This example underlines the fact that hygiene issues

remain completely topical and currently limit the potential of recovery and recycling

and are likely to undermine consumer confidence if doubts remain.

Whether for repair, reuse or recycling, the contemporary circular economy

therefore depends on the development of a quality economy where strict compliance

with specifications and traceability standards must be accompanied by an increase in

the skills of the players in these new industrial and business ecosystems.

10 Circular Economy

1.4. Obstacles to the circular transition to mode 2

If public policies are needed, it is obviously because there is no reason for this

transition to take place naturally. As everyone has observed, consumer society is

now deeply rooted in our behavior. Planned obsolescence is a common practice of

manufacturers who are accelerating the rate of product renewal while seeking to

control, like Apple, their reparability.

As for the potential value contained in products and waste, it is certainly proven

(precious metals, scrap metal, aluminum, plastics, etc.), but it must also be excluded

from illegal trafficking and exports. Experts point out that illegal waste trafficking is

the fourth largest source of income for organized crime after drugs, prostitution and

illegal gambling. Traffickers have a decisive advantage over legal channels: they do

not bear the administrative costs, tax levies or clean-up costs that others incur. These

traffic flows are also a source of diffuse pollution since they only recover interesting

parts or materials, leaving the polluted parts to be abandoned.

The fragility of some sectors is another obstacle. The French government thus

aims to recycle 100% of plastics by 2025. A laudable objective, since only 28% of

plastics are currently recovered in Europe (including 14% recycled) compared to

40% that end up in landfills and 32% in the wild, according to a recent study by the

EMF (2016). However, its development is not solely due to exogenous variables,

such as the price of virgin raw materials (oil for plastic), on which the price of

recycled materials is indexed. The difficulty is also due to the lack of structure

of industrial sectors, which threatens their sustainability. Indeed, the industrial fabric

is still weak in this field. Except for scrap metal, paper, aluminum and precious

metals, which are now mature sectors, the other sectors are mainly composed of

SMEs operating in niche markets, with limited skills and resources to access quality

industrial opportunities. For their part, the major waste manufacturers are only

beginning to develop recycling activities, anticipating that their traditional landfill

and incineration activities will decrease in the face of pressure to reduce these

opportunities.

Concerning repair or reuse, the development of these activities presupposes the

emergence of a whole ecosystem of actors covering the entire territory and likely to

provide the expected services. As for functional economy, which consists, for the

producer who retains ownership of the products, of selling services associated with

these products, its development today remains very limited despite promises to

reduce environmental impacts by intensifying the use of the products while creating

economic value through the sale of services. The emblematic examples are few, and

concern primarily industrial customers (B to B) through examples such as

photocopying (Xerox), lighting (Signify, for example, Philips lighting) or haulage

(Michelin fleet solution) rather than end consumers (B to C).

The Circular Economy: Historical Perspective and Contemporary Issues 11

We see that the obstacles to the transition to a circular economy are many and

varied. They lie both in changing consumer behavior and in transforming producers’

strategies, in combating trafficking, in structuring recycling, repair or reuse chains

and in strengthening requirements for eco-organizations to support the development

of these chains.

1.4.1. Local value creation

The stakes are nevertheless real because such a transition brings territorialized

economic value creation and contains important sources of employment. Developing

local reuse and repair, setting up short collection and recycling chains, all this can

contribute to the reindustrialization of areas that are currently in difficulty.

In terms of job creation, ADEME estimates that recycling is 20 times more

employment-intensive than landfilling. Repair and reuse are also employment-

intensive service activities. Local authorities and public authorities alike have

clearly understood the challenge of developing territorial strategies to capture and

develop these valuable deposits and activities. In May 2019, for example, the French

government’s roadmap on the circular economy mentioned a target of creating

500,000 jobs by 2025 associated with the circular economy.

To encourage the transition to a circular economy, both French and European

public authorities are now trying to bring together a whole series of incentives,

information, regulation and support measures for innovation: this is the objective of

this roadmap.

1.4.2. The need for a new industrial policy

However, it should be noted that beyond incentives and some flagship measures

(development of eco-modulation, reparability indices, target, etc.) to achieve

ambitious objectives, policies in Europe are significantly lacking a long-term vision.

In particular, ambitious industrial policies are lacking. The notion of industrial

policy, it must be said, has bad press in Europe and is associated, in France, in the

collective unconscious with the centralized policies of the 1960s and 1980s, with the

TGV, nuclear power or calculation plan; in other words, with planning policies

considered outdated in an era of globalization and intensive innovation.

However, an industrial policy for the circular economy would be necessary to

organize and support, in the long term, a series of initiatives that are currently

disorganized and fragile, and to overcome economic downturns and market

volatility. As we have seen in the case of recycled plastic, the development of new

sectors requires a training effort, the production of skills, the emergence of technical

12 Circular Economy

and expertise centers, the production of standards and rules, and the stimulation of

research and innovation that is lacking.

It is not a question of returning to the old ways but of inventing new forms of

public action, territorialized and more participatory, which involve the main actors

concerned. The most advanced countries in this area, such as Sweden, are much

more proactive than we are. They have renewed their public and industrial policies,

in consultation with all stakeholders, by undertaking a complete overhaul of their

taxation and public interventions to make their country the leader in climate and

circular transition. Similarly, China has revived planning for a more resource-

efficient transition. Why would that be a crazy idea? Contemporary financialized

capitalism, where the future is negligible in quantity through the mechanism of

discounting and short-term financial return, has shown its limits in integrating the

challenges of an ecological transition, circular or otherwise. It is a question of

inventing other forms of action. There is still time.

1.5. References

Arendt, H. (1988). Condition de l’homme moderne. Plon, Paris.

Barles, S. (2005). L’invention des déchets urbains: France, 1790–1970. Eyrolles, Paris.

Baudrillard, J. (1970). La société de consommation. Denoël, Paris.

Boulding, K.E. (1966). The economics of the coming spaceship earth. In Environmental

Quality in a Growing Economy, Jarrett, H. (ed.). Resources for the Future/Johns Hopkins

University Press, Baltimore, pp. 3–14.

Dagognet, F. (1997). Des détrituts, des déchets, de l’abject. Une philosophie écologique. Les

Empêcheurs de penser en rond, Paris.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) (2013). Towards the circular economy volume 1:

Economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition. Report managed by

McKinsey & Company.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) (2016). The new plastics economy: Rethinking the future

of plastics & catalysing action. Report.

Metzger, J.L. (2001). Management réformateur et utopie rationnelle. Cahiers internationaux

de sociologie, (2), pp. 233–259.

Micheaux, H. (2017). Le retour du commun au cœur de l’action collective : le cas de la

Responsabilité Élargie du Producteur comme processus de responsabilisation et de

co-régulation. PhD thesis, École des Mines, Paris.

Micheaux, H. (2019). Responsabiliser pour transformer : des déchets aux mines urbaines.

Presses de l’École des Mines, Paris.

Pearce, D.W. and Turner, R.K. (1989). Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment.

John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle

Before giving a substantive definition of the circular economy, based on

principles and the scope of its application, it is necessary to note its contingent

aspect to the political and scientific processes of which it is part. Concepts have a

life, not to say an ecology; they are born, they confront other concepts that they will

modify or supplant. During their life, they are redefined by restricting or extending

their field, they spread and decline.

From a scientific point of view, they originate and/or are reinterpreted in

different disciplinary fields, taking on different definitions. Broad and polysemous

concepts such as the circular economy, industrial ecology or sustainable

development will be reduced to interpretations as limited as those of the models to

which they refer.

On the political level, the legislative process also takes place in silos. The

circular economy law discussed in France at the end of 2019 focuses on recycling.

It is based on the principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR), which implies

that economic actors (manufacturers, distributors, importers), who place products on

the market that generate waste, take responsibility for all or part of the management

of this waste. This approach focuses the circular economy on downstream and waste

management.

The international framework places the circular economy in sustainable

consumption and production, one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals on the

2015–2030 agenda.

Chapter written by Christian BRODHAG.

14 Circular Economy

Finally, ISO standardization has its own agenda, disconnected from the

European or UN political agenda, which is integrated into the existing standard

system, dominated by management standards (see Figure 2.3).

We will organize the chapter into several stages. The first stage will lead us to

question the problem of resources to which the circular economy responds. The

second on its articulation with other ecological problems, the third on methods to

address the circular economy and the fourth on ongoing political and normative

processes. The first two deal with substance (especially matter and energy) and the

last two with procedures and tools.

2.1. Resources

Access to resources is an essential condition for development and well-being.

Their limits and the conditions under which they are used have led to the concept of

sustainable development. The Brundtland report considered

but ultimate limits there are, and sustainability requires that long

before these are reached, the world must ensure equitable access to the

constrained resource and reorient technological efforts to relieve the

pressure. (WCED 1987)

The International Resource Panel1 considers that maintaining historical trends

would lead to an increase in global material use by 110% by 2060, compared to

2015 levels, from 90 to 190 billion tons in 2060, and that resource use would thus

increase from 11.9 tons to 18.5 tons per capita (Oberle et al. 2019). This

development is not sustainable, as the extraction and production of these resources

places a considerable burden on the environment.

On the other hand, decoupling resource use from economic growth and

well-being could generate an additional $2 trillion to the global economy. It is in this

perspective that the circular economy is embedded by promoting value retention and

reducing environmental impacts, while reducing costs and creating economic

opportunities. By terminating the open lifecycles of extraction → production →

consumption → waste by closing the loops, the circular economy contributes to this

decoupling in a practical way.

1 The International Resource Panel was established by the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) in 2007. It is composed of scientists, qualified in the field of resource

management, and its mission is to provide independent scientific assessments for the

sustainable use of natural resources and, in particular, their environmental impacts throughout

their lifecycle: www.resourcepanel.org.

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 15

Figure 2.1. Global domestic mining in 2017, by material group2. For a color

version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

The resources are of very different natures (Figure 2.1). Half of them are non-metallic

minerals used mainly in construction. A quarter consists of biomass, and the rest is

divided between fossil fuels (16%) and metal ores (10%). The measurement of these

resources in tons gives a quantitative view of this pressure, to which qualitative

considerations must be added.

Water is not included in this list, whereas with a global consumption of

4000 km3/year, it is also decisive both for the production of biomass, which

consumes 70% of this water, and for the industry (20%).

Since the Earth is a closed system with respect to matter, non-renewable resources

are necessarily present in limited stocks. As the Earth is an open system for energy,

biomass resources that use solar energy are renewable, but limited in flow.

2 http://www.materialflows.net/visualisation-centre/raw-material-profiles/.

16 Circular Economy

2.2. Environmental context

Although included in the same list, these resources, their availability and their

links with the environment are very different.

Food, some fuels, building materials or fibers are material resources derived

from ecosystems. Together with supporting services, regulating services (climate,

water, etc.) and cultural services, provisioning services are one of the four categories

of ecosystem services (MEA 2005). Biomass exploitation competes with these other

services. Ecologically, the sustainability of these biologically based resources

requires a balance between these services and the conditions of their use that do not

threaten the integrity of ecosystem functioning.

The rest of the resources are non-renewable; they concern materials contained in

the Earth’s subsoil. Reserves will be used to designate recoverable volumes under

current technical, economic and political conditions. The reserve/production (R/P)

ratio is traditionally used to account for these limits. But as it is expressed in years, it

introduces confusion, suggesting that it would be a time limit for the depletion of the

resource. In fact, this relationship is the result of a dynamic largely determined by

market price: a high price makes it possible to explore and exploit more expensive

resources and thus increases the numerator. At the same time, the price increase

leads to a decrease in demand and therefore reduces the denominator. For decades,

the oil reserve/production ratio has been close to 40 years.

Fossil energy resources (coal, oil, gas, etc.) are largely determined by the price of

oil. The decline in resources becoming more scarce was illustrated by the image of

Hubbert’s peak: the growth in production would be followed by a decrease. This

approach places the debate on the date of this reversal. This imminent decline is

doubly challenged by new resources and environmental limits. New unconventional

resources, such as shale oil and gas, have added 10% to oil reserves and one third to

gas reserves, respectively. But from an environmental point of view, these fuels

release CO2, the main greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. To limit climate change,

it is not the reduction of their use that should be targeted, but their elimination. The

availability of carbonaceous fossil resources (coal, oil, gas, etc.) is much higher than

the atmosphere is able to support. We will not know Hubbert’s peak on resources,

because the scarcity of the oil resource is not the limiting factor. The limit is not

economic but ecological, and therefore political.

For metals, these natural reserves, present in the lithosphere, are competing with

materials present in the “technosphere” that can be exploited through recycling.

Metals such as iron and steel are recycled by 70–90%, manganese by more than

50%, lead or niobium by more than 50% (Graedel et al. 2011). On the other hand,

rare earths (neodymium, dysprosium, terbium, etc.), which in 2014 represented less

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 17

than 0.2% of global mining production, are recycled for only 1%. However, these

rare earths are essential in the modern economy to produce permanent magnets,

phosphors or batteries, present in electrotechnical devices from wind turbines,

electric cars to microcomputer hard disks.

But a high recycling rate does not change the situation significantly when uses

are increasing. With a recycling rate of 83%, recycled end-of-life steel represents

only 16% of the steel produced, 22% comes from manufacturing waste and 62%

from ores. In a context of demand growth of approximately 2–3% per year, as is

currently the case, recycling only delays the deadline by a few decades at best

(Geldron 2017). It is therefore necessary to reduce uses, in addition to targeting

recycling percentages.

Materials used in construction and infrastructure represent half of the resources

exploited. Some of them are used under problematic environmental conditions, such

as the sand needed to make concrete. Two approaches are envisaged: the use of

recycled materials, which is directly related to the circular economy, and the use of

biosourced materials, which is an additional pressure on ecosystems.

Resource management through the circular economy must therefore be considered

environmentally in relation to other global issues such as climate, biodiversity and

water. The limits do not only concern the availability of resources and their

exploitability, but also the capacity of the biosphere to produce these resources, for

biomass, or to absorb pollution, for others.

The exchanges between the economic sphere of life and the industrial sphere, the

technosphere, must be carefully evaluated. There are two distinct types of material

flows to be considered: biological nutrients, intended to re-enter the biosphere

safely, and technical inputs, designed to be recycled while maintaining a high level

of quality, without entering the biosphere

An uncontrolled circular economy can be catastrophic. The recycling of animal

protein in animal feed led to the mad cow disease crisis. The valorization of organic

sludge from wastewater treatment plants in the agricultural amendment can lead to

the contamination of soils with heavy metals. Under the guise of a circular economy,

waste dilution strategies can prove problematic: industrial residues in the road base,

or even, in the future, the recovery of low-level radioactive metals from the

dismantling of nuclear power plants. Toxic concentrations considered acceptable at

one time are often challenged by further research, which justifies the a priori

application of the precautionary principle. The closure and recovery of waste must

be subject to an impact assessment.

18 Circular Economy

Similarly, the extension of the duration of use, another proposal of the circular

economy, may also be problematic. This property, valued industrially and

economically, can be an environmental disaster. Some very stable molecules, widely

used for this purpose, will contaminate the biosphere: PCB endocrine disruptors that

accumulate in the food chain, or plastics that contaminate the entire biosphere, until

they form a seventh continent.

Biomimicry, which draws its inspiration from the forms, materials, properties,

processes and functions of living organisms to design products and objects, is also

not a systematic guarantee of compatibility with the environment. Finally, the

dematerialization model, the functional economy (FE) that aims to substitute the

rental of a service for the possession of an object, is also not a guarantee of

environmental control, if the rate of renewal is based on the obsolescence of this

object, such as the cell phone.

All the concepts used in the circular economy must be carefully evaluated from

an environmental point of view, both locally and globally.

2.2.1. The global question

The article published in Nature in 2009 under the title “A safe operating space

for humanity”, specified global boundaries that must not be transgressed in order to

prevent unacceptable environmental change (Rockström et al. 2009). This study was

updated in 2015 (Steffen et al. 2015). It answers the question of the limitations

formulated by the Brundtland report. Quantitative limit values, which allow the

stability of the biosphere, have been set in nine areas. Two are very problematic and

have far exceeded the tolerable threshold: biogeochemical flows of nitrogen and

phosphorus and the integrity of the biosphere, particularly genetic diversity. Two

may reveal increasing risks: atmospheric CO2 concentration and land-use change.

Three appear below the thresholds and are tolerable: freshwater use, ocean

acidification and stratospheric ozone depletion. Finally, two require further scientific

investigation: atmospheric aerosols and new chemical entities.

Environmental limits are global as well as local. This question of scale, the

scalar/interscalar problem, is essential (Cash et al. 2006); scalar referring to

the different geographical, temporal, institutional scales, etc., and interscalar for their

combination.

First of all, the geographical scale, from the local to the global level. Sustainable

development aims to take into account the limits of the planet by changing the mode

of development, but is embodied at different levels; national where institutional

frameworks are deployed, local where solutions are implemented or even

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 19

micro-local, those of individual behavior. The density of a resource is decisive,

i.e. its economic value in relation to its weight. This ratio determines the distance

over which it can be transported economically, whether the resource is of natural

origin or from recycling (see Figure 2.2a). Metals will become part of a global

market; very heavy construction materials are mobilized at the local level. Two quite

different approaches must be considered: a value chain approach for the former and

a territorial approach for the latter.

Figure 2.2. Temporal and territorial dimensions

The second scale, the temporal scale, in particular the long term, which is

undoubtedly the new contribution of sustainable development that considers the

control of the effects of current choices on the future, and therefore the entire life

span of infrastructure products and their impact on resources and ecosystems.

Extending the duration of resource use can lead to a slowdown in overall

metabolism and therefore in the growth of resource use. On the other hand, a

circular economy policy, focused solely on downstream waste management and the

promotion of recycling alone, can lead to an acceleration of metabolism.

These lifespans are very different according to the products, see Figure 2.2b

(Theys and Vidalenc 2013), and lead to different strategies for managing them in the

context of the circular economy. This can be achieved through the fight against

planned obsolescence, by promoting reparability, resilience and frugality, and the

simplicity of solutions. It is therefore a question of design, of eco-design.

The structure and geographical size of the market of the circular economy are

closely linked to the geographical and temporal material conditions of the resources

and their use.

Metals

Fossil energies

0 20 40 60 80 100 120Yea r

Arboriculture

Cultivation (rotation)

Deciduous forest

Conifer fo rest

Behaviors

Buildings

Infrastructure

Industrial processes

Automobile models

Consumption goods

Transport distance

Val ue

density

Low

High

Local Regional National Worldwide

Biomass

Construction

materials

Manufacturing

chain

Short

loops

Territorial

approach

Val ue c hain

approach

Lifetime

a) b)

According to Theys & Vidalenc, 2013

20 Circular Economy

2.3. Methods to address the circular economy

2.3.1. Historical background: from industrial ecology to circular economy

It was in an article in Scientific American in September 1989 that Robert Frosch

and Nicholas Gallopoulos initiated the concept of industrial ecology, proposing an

analogy between the concept of the industrial ecosystem and the natural ecosystem.

They considered that the industrial system is based on the resources and services

provided by the biosphere, which cannot be separated from it (Frosch and

Gallopoulos 1989; Erkman 1997). Industrial ecology leads to an understanding of

the functioning of the industrial system, its regulation and interaction with the

biosphere, and to restructuring it to make it compatible with the functioning of

natural ecosystems.

This analogy led to the use of concepts from ecology to industry. “Industrial

metabolism”, for example, describes all the flows of materials and energy through

the industrial system.

At the end of the 1990s, this concept survived through its location in

eco-industrial parks and islands of sustainability, where industrial symbioses could

develop with waste from one activity becoming the raw material for another.

The second approach was the strategy of dematerialization–decarbonization of the

economy, including the service economy, or the FE (Erkman 1997).

Historically, industrial ecology has developed a double logic: to be compatible

with the biosphere and to adopt the ways in which the biosphere functions, in order

to improve this compatibility. In a way, it is a mimicry of the economic system with

the functioning of ecosystems, in particular, through the two components: the use of

renewable solar energy and the recycling of materials.

The deployment of the circular economy raises two questions, its evaluation and

design.

2.3.2. The lifecycle approach

The lifecycle approach consists of considering the environmental impacts of

each of the stages: raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, use and end-of-life.

It aims to minimize the impacts on all these stages, and no longer just one of them:

the production or treatment of waste. It makes it possible to avoid pollution transfers

from one stage to another.

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 21

It is based on an evaluation method, lifecycle assessment (LCA), which makes it

possible to carry out a multi-criteria environmental assessment on all the

environmental and multi-stage issues of a system (product, service, company or

process) over its entire lifecycle. In the case of global value chains that separate

production stages geographically, LCA measures the impact on the entire chain by

including impacts outside national jurisdictions.

To illustrate this approach to resources, the concept of an ecological backpack

was proposed in the 1990s (Hinterberger et al. 1997). By measuring material inputs

per unit of service (MIPS), it supported the authors’ proposed objective of reducing

resource use by a factor of 10 (Hinterberger and Schmidt-Bleek 1999). Another

proposal, which had more political success, had the same objective: the ecological

footprint (Wackernagel and Rees 1996; Boutaud and Gondran 2009). This

composite indicator reflects the consumption of resources and waste emissions on

the biologically productive surface, to produce these resources and absorb the waste.

This notion of footprint is now used for carbon or water. The carbon footprint

considers national emissions and the import/export balance of emissions during the

production of goods. This reference is indeed necessary. Emission reduction country

commitments only cover emissions that occur within their national territory.

However, in 2015, French national emissions were only 6.6t CO2e per capita,

while the French carbon footprint reached 11 tCO2e per capita (HCC 2019, p. 34).

On a national basis, GHG emissions in France decreased by 19% between 1990 and

2018, still exceeding its commitments by 3.5% (HCC 2019, p. 28). But the French

carbon footprint increased by 20% between 1995 and 2015 to the point where

imports exceeded emissions on the territory (excluding exports).

This global/local scalar problem is now embodied in new approaches that are

still emerging in terms of research. The absolute sustainability approach allows all

of these footprints and planetary boundaries to be taken into account. This approach

makes it possible to assign the planet’s carrying capacity to global value chains and

thus to different types of consumption. This approach has been applied, for example,

to the impact on biodiversity of a distributor’s food portfolio and thus, to individuals

and their customers (Wolff et al. 2018).

The territorial approach of the circular economy, and of local metabolism, must

also integrate the footprint of the territory’s consumption at the global level. This is

the objective of LCA applied to territories (Albertí et al. 2017; Albertí et al. 2019a;

Albertí et al. 2019b).

22 Circular Economy

2.3.3. Eco-design

The efficient use of resources, and the reduction of the environmental impacts of

products and services, are the main challenges we all face in making the circular

economy a reality. They can only be identified from a lifecycle perspective. Meeting

these challenges and achieving these objectives requires a systemic approach and

strong cooperation between the various actors operating in the supply chain, from

producer to final consumer: this is eco-design.

Eco-design is therefore a methodological framework defined in the French

standard X30 264, the objective of which is to reduce the environmental impact of

products and services at source, from a lifecycle perspective. While it has been

suggested that the integration of eco-design into product development processes can

reduce environmental impacts by up to 80% (Graedel and Allenby 1995), it is also a

source of performance and profitability for companies that implement it. Indeed, the

study on the benefits of eco-design, carried out by the Eco-design Center in 2014,

found that 96% of companies that implement this approach increase their overall

performance (Haned et al. 2014). Those that use eco-design as an innovation factor

even increase their gross margin in 45% of the cases studied. This leads us to the

notion of eco-innovation, defined as an eco-design whose output is

a new or improved product or service that offers the user higher usage values, and

gives a competitive advantage and economic value to the issuer in the market.

In a controlled and holistic framework of environmental impacts, reducing at

source, increasing life expectancy and closing loops are the main eco-design

strategies. But eco-design goes beyond this by proposing new business models for

companies through lifecycle thinking, such as product-service systems, the economy

of sharing or the FE. In this respect, eco-design is at the crossroads of

an environmental dimension, assessed throughout the lifecycle and lifespan, and an

economic dimension by considering the business model, situating it in the value

chain, and thus guiding innovation.

In this logic, eco-design cannot be limited to a component of the circular

economy, but a transversal approach to selecting relevant circular economy models

or other sustainable consumption and production models, and ensuring their

environmental, social and economic coherence.

2.4. Political and normative processes

2.4.1. The European and French approaches

In 2015, the European Commission adopted an action plan to accelerate

Europe’s transition to a circular economy. On this basis, new rules were adopted in

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 23

May 2018, setting recycling targets: 60% by 2030 for municipal waste, 55% for

plastics, 70% for packaging, 80% for ferrous metals, etc. The European approach is

based on the principle of EPR, whereby economic actors (manufacturers,

distributors, importers) who place products on the market that generate waste, take

charge of all or part of the management of this waste, including separate collection.

The French legislative framework is part of the European framework. The draft

anti-waste law for a circular economy, adopted at first reading by the Senate in

September 2019, aims to transpose this European Package on the circular economy.

It thus focuses the circular economy on the downstream end of the cycle and

treatment of waste, and indirectly on the secondary product market, more than on

the upstream end and control of resource use. The law will lead to a strengthening of

EPR regimes, introducing new obligations for sorting, collection, repair or recycling,

and the creation of new waste treatment facilities.

The French doctrine promoted by ADEME is broader, covering three areas based

on seven pillars (ADEME 2014):

– offer side economic actors: (1) extraction/exploitation and sustainable purchasing,

(2) eco-design (products and processes), (3) industrial and territorial ecology,

(4) functional economy;

– consumer demand and behavior: (5) responsible consumption (purchasing,

collaborative consumption, use), (6) longer use (reuse, repair);

– waste management: (7) recycling (material and organic).

This pillar design leads to separate approaches. At the legislative level, under the

influence of the European principle of EPR, priority is given to the last area, waste.

The financing of waste treatment is favored to the detriment of other preventive

approaches.

However, eco-design plays a particular role in allowing a choice between these

different components, in order to make a real contribution to reducing the use of

resources and to coherent ecological management. It plays the role of the

“intelligence” of the circular economy:

– Sustainable procurement: eco-design helps to look for suppliers offering

materials or sub-assemblies that are less toxic, renewable, recycled, recyclable, with

a lower energy content, “natural”, agro-sourced or resulting from reuse.

– Industrial ecology: eco-design envisages the control of material flows, inputs

or outputs, in particular by considering the resources of a territory and the symbiosis

between companies in the same territory.

24 Circular Economy

– Functional economy (FE): eco-design can involve economic innovations, such

as promoting service and use rather than product ownership. Eco-design can also

ensure that the FE takes the environment into account.

– Responsible consumption: in addition to the optimal design, with regard to the

environment, eco-design gives the consumer credibility and information elements.

– Extension of the duration of use: life extension is one of the strategies to reduce

the impact of a product, but eco-design makes it possible to consider cases where,

for some products, technological developments make new products much more

virtuous.

– Recycling: finally, end-of-life design is one of the strategies of eco-design, but

eco-design considers the limits of this model by comparing it with the environmental

impact.

2.4.2. ISO standardization

The general objective of the circular economy technical committee, established

in 2019 by ISO TC 323, is to develop frameworks, guidance, supporting tools and

requirements for the implementation of circular economy projects. The proposed

deliverables will apply to any organization or group of organizations interested in

implementing circular economy projects, including commercial organizations,

public services and non-profit organizations. For practical reasons, it will not cover

some specific areas of action in the circular economy already covered by existing

technical committees, such as eco-design, lifecycle analysis in ISO/TC 207

Environmental management and responsible purchasing (ISO 20400:2017).

The standardization process formalizes exchanges with other standardization

processes, thus providing a good overview of the content of the circular economy

and its implementation context.

The purpose of standardization is limited to circular economy projects, a term

that is rather ambiguous and does not allow the whole issue to be covered. In

addition, standards related to the circular economy are based on the concept of

continuous improvement, as proposed in ISO 14001. However, management

standards for organizations or projects are based on continuous, incremental

improvement, pushing to do “the same thing” with less impact on the environment.

If the orientation is virtuous, their impact on the resource issue is limited for two

main reasons.

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 25

Figure 2.3. Organization of the standardization process. For a color

version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

They do not systematically integrate the lifecycle perspective, a principle

necessary to avoid any transfer of pollution and the reduction of consumption and

impacts. They give no ambition to the projects, while disruptive changes are needed

to address resource and environmental impact issues, such as the reduction factor

of 10.

2.5. Conclusion

The circular economy is one of the solutions to the challenge of sustainable

development, i.e. making development compatible with the limits of the planet.

The various content proposals given to the circular economy are limited by the

approaches and rationalities of the institutions that tackle them: the legislative

framework favors the downstream end of the lifecycle, waste management and

recycling, and standardization favors management systems.

26 Circular Economy

The circular economy can rise to the challenge if its principles and approaches

are systematically assessed from an environmental point of view: environmental

impact studies and a lifecycle approach, and from an economic and social point of

view through eco-design. Its performance objectives must be at the heart of

innovation, including initiating disruptions in consumption and production patterns.

2.6. References

ADEME (2014). Economie circulaire: notions. Technical document, Direction Economie

Circulaire et Déchets – ADEME Angers, p. 10. Available at: http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/

files/assets/documents/fiche-technique-economie-circulaire-oct-2014.pdf.

Albertí, J., Balaguera, A., Brodhag, C. and Fullana-I-Palmer, P. (eds). (2017). Towards life

cycle sustainability assessment of cities. A review of background knowledge. Science of

the Total Environment, (609), pp. 1049–1063.

Albertí, J., Brodhag, C. and Fullana-I-Palmer, P. (eds). (2019a). First steps in life cycle

assessments of cities with a sustainability perspective: A proposal for goal, function,

functional unit, and reference flow. Science of the Total Environment, (219),

pp. 1516–1527.

Albertí, J., Roca, M., Brodhag, C. and Fullana-I-Palmer, P. (eds). (2019b). Allocation and

system boundary in life cycle assessments of cities. Habitat International, (83),

pp. 41–54.

Boutaud, A. and Gondran, N. (2009). L’empreinte écologique. La Découverte, Paris.

Cash, D.W., Adger, W.N., Berkes, F., Garden, P., Lebel, L., Olsson, P., Pritchard, L. and

Young, O. (eds). (2006). Scale and cross-scale dynamics: governance and information in a

multilevel world. Ecology and Society, 11(2), p. 8.

Erkman, S. (1997). Industrial ecology: an historical view. Journal of Cleaner Production,

5(1–2), pp. 1–10.

Frosch, R.A. and Gallopoulos, N.E. (1989). Strategies for Manufacturing. Scientific

American, (261), pp. 144–152.

Geldron, A. (2017). L’épuisement des métaux et minéraux : faut-il s’inquiéter ? ADEME.

Graedel, T.E., Allenby, B.R., and Cοmrie, P.R. (1995). Matrix approaches to abridged life

cycle assessment. Environmental Science & Technology, 29(3), pp. 134A–139A.

Graedel, T., Buchert, M., Reck, B. and Sonnemann, G. (eds). (2011). Metalstocks and

recycling rates, s.l: UNEP.

Haned, N., Lanoie, P., Plouffe, S. and Vernier, M.-F., (eds). 2014. La profitabilité de

l’écoconception: une analyse économique, Institut de développement de produits, Pôle

écoconception Saint-Etienne, Montreal.

HCC (2019). Agir en cohérence avec les ambitions. Haut Conseil pour le Climat Premier

rapport annuel Neutralité Carbone, Paris.

The Circular Economy and Lifecycle 27

Hinterberger, F., Luks, F. and Schmidt-Bleek, F. (eds). (1997). Material flows vs. ‘natural

capital’: What makes an economy sustainable? Ecological Economics, October, 23(1),

pp. 1–14.

Hinterberger, F. and Schmidt-Bleek, F. (1999). Dematerialization, MIPS and Factor 10

Physical sustainability indicators as a social device. Ecological Economics, 29(1)

pp. 53–56.

MEA (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.

Oberle, B., Bringezu, S., Hatfield-Dodds, S., Hellweg, S., Schandl, H. and Clement, J. (2019).

Perspectives des ressources mondiales. Des ressources naturelles pour l’avenir que nous

voulons. ONU Environnement, Nairobi, Kenya.

Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F.S., Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M.,

Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C.A., Hughes, T., van der

Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Snyder, P.K., Costanza, R., Svedin, U., Falkenmark, M.,

Karlberg, L., Corell, R.W., Fabry, V.J., Hansen, J., Walker, B., Liverman, D., Richardson, K.,

Crutzen, P. and Foley, J.A. (eds). (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature,

461(7263), pp. 472–475.

Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S.E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E.M., Biggs, R.,

Carpenter, S.R., de Vries, W., de Wit, C.A., Folke, C., Gerten, D., Heinke, J., Mace, G.,

Persson, L.M., Ramanathan, V., Reyers, B., and Sörlin, S. (eds). (2015). Planetary

boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 13 February,

347(6223).

Theys, J., and Vidalenc, E. (2013). Repenser les villes dans la société post-carbone. CGDD

ADEME, Paris.

Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W.E. (1996). Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact

on the Earth. New Society Publishers, Philadelphia.

WCED (1987). Our Common Future, (The Brundtland Report). Oxford University Press,

New York.

Wolff, A., Gondran, N. and Brodhag, C. (2017). Detecting unsustainable pressures exerted on

biodiversity by a company. Application to the food portfolio of a retailer. Journal of

Cleaner Production, issue 166, pp. 784–797.

Circular Economy: Transformation of the

Labor Market and Change in Human

Resources Management Practices

The circular economy (CE) is an economic model that combines economic

performance with resource conservation. This economic model has no component

relative to human resources and human resources management (HRM). The

objective of this chapter is to define the impact of the CE on the labor market and

how it will transform employment and HR practices. Such reflection helps to

understand how the CE can contribute to the renewal of HRM policies and practices.

Our central argument is that companies cannot achieve their economic and

environmental performance objectives without understanding labor market changes

and reviewing their HRM practices. After presenting the impact of the CE on the

labor market and jobs, we discuss green human resources management (green HRM)

in terms of recruitment, training, and remuneration.

3.1. Introduction

The company has always been at the heart of a conflict between its proximate

commercial interests and seemingly more remote societal interests in which its

activity is directly involved (Touraine 1969). Extensive growth – which uses a

significant amount of resources and leads to many negative externalities (Pigou

1920) such as the depletion of natural resources and the rise of social inequalities

(Piketty 2013) – questions the hegemony of capitalism and could lead to its end

(David 2016). The traditional productive vision of the company (Fordism) based on

capital accumulation is therefore increasingly distant from the reality of the new

Chapter written by David MORIEZ.

30 Circular Economy

societal paradigm: sustainable development (Beaupré et al. 2008; Hébert 1990;

Waaub 1991).

The definition of “circular economy” is not fixed. It varies by author and

between the public and private sectors. The three dimensions of economic and social

sustainability are rarely totally addressed. The most comprehensive definition comes

from the British Ellen MacArthur Foundation:

A circular economy seeks to rebuild capital, whether this is financial,

manufactured, human, social, or natural (Ellen MacArthur

Foundation 2019).

The concept was evoked in France during the 2007 Grenelle de l’environnement,

and made official with the opening of the Institut National de l’Economie Circulaire,

at the initiative of MP François-Michel Lambert, on February 6, 2013. The ballot

box has recently reflected its importance. In essence, the French Ecological Party

(Europe Ecologie Les Verts, EELV) rose to third place in the last European elections

in May 2019. Therefore, the law on the circular economy, initially presented to MPs

on July 10, 2019, arrived before the French National Council for Ecological

Transition (Conseil National de la Transition Ecologique, CNTE) on June 3 in a

renewed social and political context. It lies in the “polluter pays” principle, and it

clearly emphasizes the producers’ responsibility. The ideal of progress changes

fundamentally to move from the primacy of the linear economy (extract –

manufacture – consume – throw away) to the primacy of the circular economy

(recycle – transform – reuse) (Waaub 1991).

As a result of this paradigm shift, companies are formalizing their environmental

practices (Bonnie and Huang 2001). The body of knowledge on the environmentally

responsible manufacturing (ERM) process is diversifying and extending to many

disciplines (Curkovic and Sroufe 2016) such as green marketing (Peattie 1992),

green accounting (Bebbington 2001; Owen 1992), green supply chains (Jabbour and

Sousa Jabbour 2016; Lai et al. 2010) and green management in general (McDonagh

and Prothero 1998).

Though one of the “main obstacles” to the successful deployment of a circular

economy in companies is the lack of appropriate human resource management

(HRM) (Garcés-Ayerbe et al. 2019, p. 1), HRM does not appear in any of the

existing models. In January 2020, that of the French Environment and Energy

Management Agency (Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Énergie,

ADEME) did not have any social component. Although many international

researchers have stressed the importance and challenges of green HRM (Del Brío

et al. 2007; Govindarajulu Nalini 2004; Jabbour et al. 2013; Jabbour and Santos

2008; Madsen and Ulhøi 2001; Massoud et al. 2008; Muster and Schrader 2011;

Transformation of the Labor Market 31

Ramus, 2002, 2001; Renwick et al. 2013; Stringer 2010; Wehrmeyer 1996) and the

fundamental role of employees in the adoption and deployment of more efficient

(i.e. added financial value) and effective (i.e. added quality) environmental practices

(Florida and Davison 2001; Garcés-Ayerbe et al. 2019; Jackson et al. 2011;

Renwick et al. 2013), the scientific community in France has remained silent. A

search of the EBSCO database for peer-reviewed articles in French management

sciences published between 2000 and 2019 for which we entered the keywords

“management”, “green”, and “human resources” in the fields “title” and “abstract” did

not yield any results.

The objective of this chapter is thus to define the impact of the circular economy

on the labor market. More precisely, the employment and the jobs, and how this will

change HR practices. Such reflection helps us understand how the circular economy

can contribute to the renewal of HRM policies and practices.

We now examine the data on the structure of the labor market in the CE. We see

why it is likely to address the dual problem of regional and structural

unemployment. From there, we specify the inherent implications for HR practices.

3.2. The circular economy, labor market and jobs

In 2015, the European Commission published its action plan for the circular

economy, “Closing the loop”, which paves the way for the European Union’s

transition from a linear to a circular economy. The rationale of which we find in

nature, where the lifecycle of the elements never ends but regenerates (European

Commission 2015). Regenaration is the EU’s strategy for a sustainable,

low-carbon, resource-efficient, and competitive economy. An economy that

promotes the reuse and recycling of materials and extends the life of the product

requires more labor than one based on disposal, i.e. linear. The main reason is

that repairing, maintaining, and reconditioning existing final goods takes more time

and labor than mining and processing activities (Wijkman and Kristian 2016). In an

economy with fewer material resources, the transition from a linear to a circular

economy will, therefore, generate more skilled labor (Stahel 2016).

Four recent studies in Europe confirm that the transition to a circular economy

will have a positive impact on job creation by 2030:

– a study by the Club of Rome in 2016 indicates that circular economy could

create more than 500,000 jobs in France (Wijkman and Kristian 2016);

– a WRAP report in 2015 states that the transition to a circular economy at

European level could create between 1.2 and 3 million jobs and reduce

unemployment from around 250,000 to 520,000 people (Mitchell and James 2015);

32 Circular Economy

– a study by the European Remanufacturing Network (ERN) in 2015 shows that

the remanufacturing activity alone on a European scale could create between 34,000

and 65,000 jobs (Parker et al. 2015);

– a study by the Green Alliance and WRAP in 2015 states that the objectives of

combating regional unemployment and improving the efficiency of resource use at

the national level are linked (Morgan and Mitchell 2015).

According to these four studies, the circular economy is a response to the dual

problem of regional and structural unemployment.

3.2.1. The circular economy: a response to the regionalization of

unemployment

According to INSEE, the French regions with the highest unemployment rates

are the Hauts de France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardie), Occitanie (Languedoc-

Roussillon, Midi Pyrénées) and Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur (Alpes de Haute

Provence, Alpes Maritimes, Bouches du Rhône, Vaucluse). There are three reasons

for such regional differences:

– deindustrialization of economic activity;

– automation and robotization of tasks;

– lack of applicants’ mobility.

Over the past 50 years, due to technological progress, the share of employment

in the industrial sector has fallen by 50%. In other words, the shift from the

manufacturing to the service sector destroyed one in two jobs. At the same time, the

share of employment in the service sector increased by only 20%. In other words,

the service sector has compensated for only two in ten lost jobs from the

manufacturing industry (World Economic Forum 2016). Due to the automation of

tasks, the industry produces as much with fewer employees. For the industry to

maintain its jobs, its growth would have to be more significant. However, according

to a report by the Ministry of Economy and Finance in 2017, France is the eurozone

country whose share of the manufacturing industry’s value-added in gross domestic

product (GDP) is the lowest. The balance of foreign trade in manufactured goods

reached its lowest historical level in 2017 (-€51 billion) (Aubourg 2017). Regions

that have more industrial jobs, such as the Hauts de France, therefore have a higher

unemployment rate than the French average due to the deindustrialization of their

employment pool since the 1980s (closures of blast furnaces, mines and steel

plants). Moreover, job opportunities are not always close to the place of residence of

job seekers. According to a recent study by Pôle Emploi, the public employment

service in France, the low level of qualifications, the financial cost of mobility

Transformation of the Labor Market 33

(fuel prices) and some extra-professional reasons (lack of driving license and means

of transport, young children, rental of social housing and property) explain the

attachment to the territory of job seekers, who do not plan, in one case out of five,

to extend their geographical search area to more than 50 km from their home

(Chamkhi et al. 2019).

Research is struggling to accurately measure the share of unemployment

attributable to this geographical mismatch between labor supply and demand. France

Stratégie, administratively called the Commissariat Général à la Stratégie et à la

Prospective, an institution close to the Prime Minister, estimates that geographical

mismatches in France represent between 1 and 2.5 percentage points of the

unemployment rate (Gilles and Sode 2019). No research has been conducted in

France to measure the impact of circular economy on the territorial redistribution of

employment. Still, the Green Alliance and WRAP study in 2015 for Great Britain

shows relevant results for all developed countries. The level of employment

concentration depends on the nature of the circular economy activity (Morgan and

Mitchell 2015).

Activity

Level of

employment

concentration

Area of concentration

Reuse Very low Scattered all over the country.

Closed-loop

recycling High Close to manufacturing sites,

supply chains, and logistics.

Open-loop recycling Moderate Close to raw materials, markets,

and major ports.

Bio-refining High

Near major ports, consumer

industries, manufacturing sites,

major urban areas, and raw

material sources.

Remanufacturing Very high

Near manufacturing sites,

transport networks, major urban

areas, and abroad.

Servicing Low

The head office can be located in

Paris. The back office and service

jobs can be anywhere in France

or abroad.

Table 3.1. Circular economy activities and employment concentration

(adapted from Morgan and Mitchell 2015)

34 Circular Economy

The circular economy will affect employment mapping as we know it today

(see Table 3.1). In other words, the circular economy can reduce regional

unemployment mismatches (Mitchell and James 2015, p. 4).

Reconditioning, bio-refining, and closed-loop recycling (use of recycling

material for the same purpose, e.g. recycling of a PET bottle into a PET bottle,

recycling of packaging glass into packaging glass, and recycling of road mixes in the

manufacture of new mixes) are high concentration activities. With the new

“polluter-pays” principle, high concentration activities must optimize their flows.

They cannot relocate to remote places. They need to be physically present (Abitbol

et al. 2014).

The reuse, service (maintenance and repair), and open-loop recycling (use of

recycled material for a different destination, e.g. recycling a PET bottle made of

polar fiber and recycling paper into an insulation product) are low concentration

activities. The circular economy requires greater geographic proximity between

producers and users. In other words, the new circular economy law is much more

comprehensive and more ambitious than the first version circularized in January

2019 by the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition (Ministère de la

transition écologique et solidaire, MTES). It requires different sectors to identify

and map their maintenance and repair services so that most consumers can find them

easily and nearby. Reuse, servitization, and recycling activities in an open-loop will,

therefore, lead to the spread of economic activity beyond the usual areas of

consumption or capillarization.

To sum up, transitioning from a linear to a circular economy will cause both the

polarization and capillarization of employment. This combined phenomenon is

likely to solve the problem of unemployment regionalization. Very high and high

employment concentration activities (i.e. remanufacturing, closed-loop recycling,

bio-refining) will maintain employment in agglomerations and suburbs where it is

usually concentrated. At the same time, very low, low, and moderate (i.e. reuse,

servitization, open-loop recycling) employment concentration activities will disperse

employment throughout the territory. Open-loop recycling, servitization and reuse

activities will therefore assist in revitalizing regions where the unemployment rate is

higher (Hauts de France, Occitanie, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur).

Transitioning from a linear to a circular economy will also lead to the cross-

sectoral redistribution of jobs and the convergence of skills. It could, therefore,

address the problem of structural unemployment.

Transformation of the Labor Market 35

3.2.2. The circular economy: a response to structural unemployment

Structural unemployment is the result of the qualitative mismatch between

supply and demand in the labor market. The evolution of qualifications due to

technical developments leads to a decline in the employability of a part of the

working population that can no longer find jobs corresponding to its qualifications.

The OECD and the European Commission, which are the two leading

institutions that regularly publish estimates of the structural unemployment rate,

estimate that the structural unemployment rate in France is 9%. While this estimate

may seem high, the unemployment rate in France has not fallen permanently below

7.5% for 30 years, regardless of the level of growth or the orientation of French

economic policy (Gilles and Sode 2019). The Fourth Industrial Revolution (i.e.

dematerialization, object interconnection, and artificial intelligence) will have

destroyed 7 million white-collar jobs by 2020 (Davos Forum 2016). These losses

will only be partially offset by the creation of 2 million new jobs, mainly in

specialized fields such as the computer sciences, mathematics, and engineering

(World Economic Forum 2016). At the same time, according to a 2016 Club of

Rome study, the circular economy will benefit some branches of the primary sector,

such as agriculture and forestry, with the increased demand for biofuels. Demand for

renewable power plants, and the installation and construction services inherent in the

deployment of these plants will also increase. The manufacture of durable consumer

goods, in the economic sense of the term (i.e. those with a life span of more than

three years, such as furniture, automobiles, household appliances and consumer

electronics, sports equipment and toys), will decrease. However, the number of

companies remanufacturing, maintaining, repairing, and recycling these same goods

will increase (Wijkman and Kristian 2016). The combined effect of the Third and

Fourth Industrial Revolutions and transition from a linear economy to a circular

economy would, therefore, invite us to revisit Schumpeter’s (1942) theory of

creative destruction:

The same process of industrial mutation (…) that incessantly

revolutionizes the economic structure from within, whilst incessantly

destroying the old one, and incessantly creating a new one

(Schumpeter 1943, p. 83)

With the Third Industrial Revolution at the end the of the 20th Century

(Rifkin et al. 2012), the new information and communication technologies, the

Fourth Industrial Revolution (Schwab 2017), and the advent of artificial intelligence,

3D printers, and cobotics (i.e. human–robot collaboration), there is more into the

transition from a linear to a circular economy than destroying jobs in fossil fuels and

creating new ones in renewable energies. The jobs created within the framework of

the circular economy covers a wide range of skills. The transition from a linear to a

36 Circular Economy

circular economy requires production agents (PA), employees, technicians, and

managers (ETAM) as well as engineers and managers (EM) at different skill levels:

“low” for recycling and reuse activities, “medium” for remanufacturing activities

and “high” for bio-refinery activities (Morgan and Mitchell 2015). Highly-skilled

workers are necessary to create and develop new production loops. Lower-skilled

workers are necessary to operate and maintain production loops (Deboutière and

Georgeault 2015). According to France Stratégie, the development of activities to

repair used products, reuse, or recycle waste generates about 25 times more jobs

than landfilling this waste (Jolly and Douillard 2016). The transition from a linear to

a circular economy will, therefore, lead to an increase in the employability of the

primary (agriculture, forestry) and secondary (industries repairing, reusing,

recycling) sectors. The employees in the primary and manufacturing sectors will

undergo a significant change in their technical skills. However, relatively few new

jobs will emerge. More precisely, the transition from a linear to a circular economy

will lead to a convergence of transversal practices (i.e. eco-responsible) for all

“green” and “greening” occupations.

3.2.3. The circular economy: “green jobs” and “greening jobs”

The terminology used to describe jobs related to the environment is varied,

unstable, and does not always cover the same fields of activity. It is, therefore,

impossible to exhaustively list the professions concerned by the transition from a

linear to a circular economy. We invite the reader to go and look at our documentary

selection on green economy jobs at the end of this chapter (see section 3.5.

Appendix 1).

The literature generally distinguishes between “green jobs” and “greening jobs”.

“Green jobs” have an environmental purpose. They measure, prevent, control, and

correct the negative impacts and damage of human activity on the environment.

“Greening jobs” do not have an environmental purpose. Their technical base

remains unchanged, but they are incorporating new skill elements to take into

account the environmental dimension of their actions.

In terms of green jobs, we can mention the new profession of master composter

for which the French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) has

created the reference system. By 2025, in France, all vegetable waste will have to be

collected separately in buildings, neighbourhoods, and businesses. The master

composter is the point of contact of one or more composting sites. He/she raises

public awareness of the challenges of plant waste and provides training in the

collection and treatment of this waste. There is also Michael Page’s (2010) study of

the functions and wages of green jobs (see section 3.6. Appendix 2). Although this

study is old, it remains enlightening because it comes from an empirical and cross-

Transformation of the Labor Market 37

referenced analysis of three sources of information: application files, actual data in

terms of functions and salaries, and the history of more than 20 years’ presence on

the recruitment market. It makes it possible to highlight 17 reference professions

divided into seven sectors. Finally, other professions, such as those resulting

from the convergence of the energy, waste, and security sectors, will emerge

(see section 3.7 Appendix 3).

With greening jobs, employees will have to develop long-term sustainable and

ecological thinking to carry out their activities. All disciplines are concerned, as

evidenced by the research inherent in green marketing (Peattie 1992), green

accounting (Bebbington 2001; Owen 1992), green supply chains (Lai et al. 2010),

and green management in general (McDonagh and Prothero 1998). For example, at

the marketing level, new types of trade are emerging, such as bulk trade. The sale of

local products and the implementation of short circuits are developing. Sellers will

have to be able to integrate the notions of circular economy into their sales

arguments and marketing managers into their marketing plan (product, price,

communication, distribution). At the banking and insurance level, the circular

economy will lead to changes in the supply of insurance and financial products, and

the terms and conditions of bank loans and hedging agreements. In terms of research

and development, engineers, designers, and creators will have to specialize in

eco-design. Their job will be to design a product by making it as environmentally

friendly as possible at each stage of its lifecycle. Both green and greening jobs will,

therefore, benefit from increased transversality and employability. They will become

much more attractive.

From 1997 to 2007, according to Studyrama (2010), a French site specializing in

student training and orientation, enrolment in sustainable development training grew

by 3% per year, while at the same time, total enrolment in training increased by only

1.1% per year. Until 2010, young graduates from these courses were therefore

leaving at a higher rate than vacancies or job creation and it took them on average

longer to get a job (Roger 2010). In May 2019, a study by the French General

Commission for Sustainable Development for the Ministry of Ecological and

Solidarity Transition showed that the number of jobs in the environment sector

increased by 5.4% between 2016 and 2017. It reached 465,450 full-time equivalent

jobs or 1.8% of total domestic employment in France. Over the same period, in

proportion to the economy as a whole, the 24,000 new “green jobs” represented a

+1% increase in job creation in 2017 (Commissariat Général du Développement

Durable 2019). The spillover effect which indicates that technological progress

improves productivity (the ratio between the quantity of production and the number

of hours needed to produce it) and generates a linear transfer (spill) of jobs from one

economic sector to another (Sauvy and Hirsch 1980) is therefore to be nuanced. The

spillover of jobs associated with the transition from a linear to a circular economy is

multisectoral and multidisciplinary.

38 Circular Economy

At the end of this section on the impact of the circular economy on the labor

market and jobs, we note that the transition from a linear to a circular economic

model will lead to a profound transformation of the labor market. There will be a

polarization of remanufacturing, bio-refining, and closed-loop recycling activities,

and a capillarization of reuse, service, and open-loop recycling activities.

If relatively few new occupations emerge, the “green” and “greening” effects of the

circular economy will lead to a general increase in the need for workforces specific

to all economic sectors, skill levels, and disciplines, which will help to combat

regionalization and structural unemployment.

The development of appropriate human resources (HR) practices is an essential

prerequisite for a coherent approach. However, there is a resource traditionally

overlooked in the literature on the circular economy: the human resource. In the

second section, we therefore discuss the impact of the circular economy on HR

practices.

3.3. The circular economy and human resources management practices

There is a fundamental movement that began in the 1980s: the reflexivity of

work. The reflexivity of work implies that each employee increasingly needs to

align his/her life and work values (Moriez and Grima 2019). More precisely, the

decline of extrinsic (i.e. organizational) values in favor of intrinsic (i.e. individual)

values radically changes the relationship to work (Ester et al. 2006; Riffault and

Tchernia 2002, pp. 63–80; Tchernia 2005). Under the influence of this increased

reflexivity of work, the definition of professional success is changing. The linear

criteria of the position (salary, seniority, career progression, etc.) weaken as the

circular criteria of the job (sense of work, environmental awareness, etc.) intensify.

Happiness at work is, therefore, no longer limited to the material conditions of

performance as formalized in the contract of employment, but implies less

formalized principles such as being able to contribute to the common good.

3.3.1. Green human resources management (green HRM)

The integration of sustainable development into human resources management

policies is called green human resources management (green HRM) or “green HR”

(Dutta 2012; Margaretha and Saragih 2013). It has an impact on the entire

HR function from the employee’s integration to his/her departure.

A literature review indicates that there are five main issues for green HR

(Cherian and Jacob 2012):

Transformation of the Labor Market 39

– a reduction in the company’s environmental impact;

– an improvement in the company’s brand image;

– better attractiveness (number of applications) of the company;

– increased employee retention;

– increased performance (competitiveness and productivity).

Research shows that employee involvement in environmental actions contributes

to the “effectiveness” of the company’s overall sustainable management policy

(Bangwal and Tiwari 2015, p. 49). This effectiveness depends on the degree to

which employees adhere to the company’s sustainable development values

(Lok and Chin 2019). In other words, the quality of results depends on employees’

willingness to collaborate (Collier and Esteban 2007). More specifically, off-role or

discretionary behaviors are as important as in role or non-discretionary behaviors:

“both contribute to organizational results through value creation” (Dumont et al.

2017, p. 615). Not smoking in a public building is in-role or non-discretionary

behavior. It is not done at the employee’s “discretion”. It is the result of a collective

rule. It is a behavior dictated by law, the employment contract, and the internal

regulations. However, off-role or discretionary behavior is at the employee’s

discretion. It is the result of an individual initiative. It is a free, chosen behavior. For

example, turning off the computer and switching the lights off at the end of a

working day in a company that does not explicitly encourage this behavior.

Therefore, whether a behavior is in-role or not depends on the company (Paillé and

Boiral 2013) and its climate (Dumont et al. 2017). Due to the interactions between

professional and private life, some authors go so far as to argue that the role of

human resources should be to encourage responsible behavior at work and outside

work according to a logic of ecological balance between personal and professional

life (green work–life balance) (Muster and Schrader 2011). There is, therefore, a

link between individual engagement (sustainability engagement) and collective

green practices in companies (Kim et al. 2019; Lok and Chin 2019). The literature

on recruitment, training, and remuneration in particular highlights this link

(Mohd Yusoff et al. 2018).

3.3.2. Green human resources management practices

3.3.2.1. Recruitment and selection

Research shows that candidates are often aware of the company’s sustainable

development policy and that their decision to accept a job depends on this policy

(Stringer 2010). The successful implementation of a green human resources

management policy woud thus begin with appropriate green recruitment.

40 Circular Economy

Green recruitment and selection depends on the low-carbon steps, from the

definition of the position to the integration of the employee according to a general

orientation of “zero paper, zero fuel” (Saini and Shukla 2016). In other words, green

recruitment is the recruitment of talents who are familiar with conservation and

sustainability concepts (Bangwal and Tiwari 2015). More specifically, green

recruitment depends on new entrants’ knowledge of practices that contribute to the

effective implementation of a sustainable performance management policy in

the company (Wehrmeyer 1996).

Green recruitment will begin with an advertisement that will be published online.

As for Patagonia, a Californian company specializing in eco-designed mountain

sports and surf clothing, the HR department emphasizes the importance for the

candidate to demonstrate environmental responsibility when applying. It encourages

online applications. In the pre-selection phase, interviews are conducted by

telephone or video to reduce paper and fuel consumption related to travel. During

the selection phase, the job descriptions used to formulate questions when

interviewing candidates include responsible behavior qualities (Saini and Shukla

2016). HR managers can test these qualities during the pre-selection phase too. They

can evaluate the degree of consistency between the candidate’s and the company’s

eco-responsible values. The effectiveness of the implementation of a sustainable

performance management policy, therefore, depends on the job descriptions that

both define and serve as a benchmark of sustainability in the workplace (Mandip

2012).

3.3.2.2. Training and development

The second most crucial lever of green HRM is training: “innovation and

training are essential issues in terms of jobs. (They) are highlighted by all the studies

on ecological transition” (Deboutière and Georgeault 2015, p. 38). The French

Ministries of Ecological and Solidarity Transition and Economy and Finance (2018)

recall that the transition from a linear economy to a circular economy “will lead to

job transfers (…) [and that] a vigorous training effort facilitating these transfers

must be undertaken” (Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition and Ministry

of Economy and Finance 2018, p. 4). In other words, the successful deployment of

green initiatives in companies requires both technical and managerial skills

(Callenbach et al. 1993). Technical skills refer to green jobs whose business skills

are essential to measure, prevent, control, and correct the negative impacts and

damage of human activity on the environment. Managerial skills concern all green

and greening jobs since it is a question of taking into account the environmental

dimension of actions to change behavior.

Involving employees in solving environmental problems in order to stop the

decline in knowledge (expertise), know-how (skills), and attitudes (qualities) related

Transformation of the Labor Market 41

to sustainable development is fundamental (Zoogah 2011). In May 2019, Nestlé

joined forces with CleanCup, a young Lyon start-up, to change the way its

employees drink. CleanCup’s mission is to eliminate the use of disposable cups.

The operation of the machine is simple: the user puts one euro deposit, and collects a

clean glass that bears the company logo. Once he/she has finished drinking, he/she

puts his/her glass back into the machine, recovers his/her deposit, and the machine

automatically washes the glass on site (CareNews 2019). Beyond the technical and

collective training formalized in the training plans, the success of a green training

policy would, therefore, depend on participative and empowering management

practices that encourage eco-intrapreneurship in the workplace.

3.3.2.3. Compensation and benefits

Employees assume their environmental responsibility better when it is

accompanied by a compensation and benefits policy in response (Forman and

Jorgensen 2001). Companies can use monetary and non-monetary rewards to

encourage the acquisition and demonstration of green skills at work. Monetary

rewards include, for example, bonuses based on green objectives or results.

Non-monetary rewards include, for example, gifts, internal communication actions,

and the link between opportunities for advancement and the employee’s level of

green initiatives (Ramus 2002). These initiatives go beyond recycling actions.

They may involve accepting flexible hours, thus contributing to the reduction of

pollution peaks, or volunteering for telework (Jackson et al. 2011). Compensation

and benefits are, therefore, other powerful tools to support a green HRM policy and

facilitate the achievement of the company’s sustainable development objectives

(Milliman and Clair 1996).

3.4. Conclusion

The objective of this chapter was to define the impact of the CE on the labor

market and how it will transform employment and HR practices.

At the end of section 3.2, we saw that the transition from a linear to a circular

economy would lead to a profound transformation of the labor market under the

combined effects of both the polarization and capillarization of activities induced by

the CE. If few new occupations emerge, the “green” and “greening” effects of the

CE will contribute to combating the regionalization and structural nature of

unemployment.

Section 3.3 shows that the challenges of green HRM are numerous. The main

levers for action are recruitment, training, and compensation. Efforts will be in vain

without the coherence of technical and managerial actions, and the individual

commitment of employees encouraged to become eco-intrapreneurship agents.

42 Circular Economy

3.5. Appendix 1

Documentary selection on green economy jobs:

Title, publisher, year of

publication Description

Guide des formations aux

énergies renouvelables (Guide

to renewable energy training)

2018–2019, Observ’ER, 2018

This guide includes 220 training courses on renewable

energy and eco-construction from BAC+2 to BAC+5

generalists or specialists.

Les métiers de

l’environnement et du

développement durable

(Environment and sustainable

development jobs), ONISEP,

2015

This guide presents 31 jobs in risk prevention,

environmental protection, and pollution treatment.

The courses of study and diplomas are detailed and

accompanied by an address book of educational institutions

and data on employment trends. It contains highly

informative testimonies from professionals.

Les emplois de demain

(écolos, collaboratifs,

solidaires, innovants)

(Tomorrow’s jobs

(eco-friendly, collaborative,

solidarity, innovative)),

Terra Eco, 2015

This special edition presents 100 jobs of the future in 10

key sectors (energy, construction, nature protection, cities,

transport, pollution, waste, eco-design, alternative sales,

information, and communication) and through 50 training

courses. It contains highly informative testimonies from

professionals.

Le marché de l’emploi de

l’économie verte (The green

economy labor market),

Working Paper No. 44,

Observatoire National des

Emplois et des Métiers de

l’Economie Verte, 2018

Job figures, lists of activities related to green growth, and

“green” or “greening” jobs.

Etude sur les mutations des

emplois et des métiers des

secteurs de la banque, de la

finance et de l’assurance dans

l’économie verte (Study on the

changes in jobs and

professions in the banking,

finance and insurance sectors

in the green economy),

Ernst & Young, 2011

Carried out as part of the national mobilization plan for jobs

and professions in the green economy, this study diagnoses

the links between the green economy and the financial

industry. Based on this diagnosis, an overview of the

current and future structure of employment in the banking,

insurance, and finance sectors is presented, completed by

avenues and actions in the field of employment and training

policy to better support the expected changes.

Etude sur les mutations des

emplois et des métiers des

secteurs du commerce et de la

distribution dans l’économie

This study has three objectives: identify the specific

impacts of the green economy on the trade and distribution

sectors; describe the related changes in employment and

jobs; and develop courses of action making it possible to

Transformation of the Labor Market 43

verte et équitable (Study on

the changes in employment

and jobs in the trade and

distribution sectors in the

green and fair trade economy).

Final report, Ambroise

Bouteille et associés, 2012

deduce policies and support tools in human resources

management and training.

Table 3.2. A documentary selection on green economy jobs

3.6. Appendix 2

APEC green economy executive employment study (2010):

Sector Career Mission statement

Renewable energies

Renewable energy project

manager

In charge of creating and managing a

wind, solar, biomass, or biogas power

generation park, through the

development of new projects, the

purchase of existing parks or through

co-investment with other players.

Commercial renewable

energies

(Renewable energy sales

engineer building, or Sales

engineers for renewable

energies and public

procurement)

In charge of marketing renewable

products/solutions (heating, roofing,

insulation, energy) to distributors,

traders, generalist or specialized

artisans, private individuals or local

authorities.

Energy efficiency engineer

for buildings

In charge of carrying out energy audits

(pre-diagnosis, energy diagnosis,

thermal simulation, specific studies of

energy savings), coordinating,

implementing, and developing an

energy performance contract offer for

customers based on regular

technological and regulatory

monitoring.

44 Circular Economy

Environment

Environmental law lawyer

In charge of assisting (monitoring,

audit, management, negotiation,

obtaining authorizations,

prevention, liaison with the

DRIRE, prefectures, and

environmental protection

associations) in the creation,

operation, and closure of industrial

and agricultural activities and

disputes (administrative, judicial,

civil and criminal).

River hydraulics project

manager

In charge of flood forecasting and

management, flood control and

planning, runoff control, flood

inventories and prevention plans

(PPRI), river development (banks

and infrastructure) and wildlife

conservation and flora.

Project manager for

polluted sites and soils

In charge of examining the

different types of pollution and

their consequences in order to

secure land transactions and

propose techniques for

envrionmental clean-up and site

rehabilitation.

HQE (High

Environmental Quality)

project manager

In charge of defining and

communicating to the various

stakeholders (customer, design

office and staff), the energy and

environmental objectives in

compliance with regulations. Also

in charge of thermal and energy

simulations.

Carbon footprint expert

In charge of collecting data in order

to establish a diagnosis, inform staff

of the carbon footprint approach

and propose an action plan to

reduce CO2 emissions.

Sustainable

development

Sustainable development

manager

In charge of defining the company’s

sustainable development policy and

communicating it internally and

externally; setting up monitoring

indicators relating to sustainable

development objectives; raising

Transformation of the Labor Market 45

awareness, uniting and motivating

stakeholders to integrate sustainable

development into their strategic

decisions; promoting the integration

of sustainable development into the

commercial offer and supporting

CODIR in its reflection on the

necessary transformation of the

company in light of current

societal changes.

Diversity and CSR

(corporate social

responsibility) manager

In charge of defining a policy on

solidarity, diversity, professional

equality and disability applied to HR

activities (recruitment, mobility,

promotions, recognition, etc.), and to

manage training and programs on

diversity and discrimination.

Sustainable development

consultant

In charge of advising and assisting

clients in the fields of eco-design,

lifecycle and technical-economic

analyses, environmental information

communication, and sustainable

development strategy.

Fairtrade and

sustainable

development

purchasing

Buyer/head of fairtrade

product

In charge of promoting the benefits

of fairtrade and launching new

products, he/she accompanies the

product from its conception or

selection, in a logic of strong

partnership with fairtrade producers.

Sustainable development

buyer

Transversely, as a purchasing advisor

on goods and services to all the

company’s departments, he/she is in

charge of helping them achieve

sustainable development objectives

in order to achieve a comparable

level of sustainable development.

Vertically, he/she is in charge of the

administrative and technical

structuring of a call for tenders

(market access, determination of

sustainable development criteria,

etc.), and the selection of suppliers

based on the assessment of their

environmental impact.

46 Circular Economy

Living

environment Sound project manager

In charge, within a company or a

research and consulting firm, of

carrying out site studies, recording

and measuring the sound

environment, proposing acoustic

solutions adapted to the customer’s

needs, drawing up estimates,

carrying out studies on the sizing of

acoustic protection, and carrying out

noise maps, seeking subcontractors

and partnerships, monitoring the

production, and contributing to the

development and marketing of

acoustic products distributed by the

company.

Waste products

Incineration plant

operations manager

In charge of leading his/her team by

training and developing the skills of

his/her employees, managing his/her

activity following the company’s

objectives, regulations and

procedures, with the implementation

and development of tools and

indicators, analyzing and managing

his/her operating account following

the objectives set, applying the

regulations in force and the

company’s environmental policy,

and ensuring the safety policy

towards his/her employees. In the

case where the heat produced by the

incineration is recovered to supply

the boiler room of housing or public

buildings, he/she is the N+1 of the

thermal engineering engineer,

specialist in heat management, and

energy savings.

Waste treatment operations

manager

In charge of managing landfills

designed and implemented by the

waste treatment engineering

department, he/she manages the

treatment processes: landfilling,

incineration, and composting.

Transformation of the Labor Market 47

Socially responsible

investment funds

Specialized manager for

socially responsible

investment

In charge of optimizing the

performance of funds, rejecting stocks

in the portfolio of companies that do

not respect the moral order,

guaranteeing the payment of part of

the fund’s outperformance to

charities, ensuring reporting (written

and oral) to the manager and to

institutional clients in the context of

discretionary management and

possibly to individual clients in the

management of company mutual

funds, and contributing to the

implementation of statistical tools and

financial means aimed at improving

the management process.

Table 3.3. The 17 reference green executive jobs and the 7 sectors

(adapted from APEC 2010)

3.7. Appendix 3

Prospective study of CNIM’s green jobs by 2030 (CNIM 2017):

Business line Description

Expert in

rudological

sourcing

In 2030, waste will be a resource of choice, which must be identified,

recovered, and recycled optimally and securely. The expert in

rudological sourcing will be the specialist in this new value chain.

Expert in industrial

scalometry

By 2030, factories will be more energy-efficient, (i.e. cleaner and

more flexible). Production tools and processes, which are highly

digitalized, will adapt to demand in real-time. The scalometer will act

as an advisor to adapt production to the needs as well as to the

evolution of the urban and regulatory environment.

Circular ecologist

By 2030, urban dwellers will represent nearly two-thirds of the

world’s population. Waste and residues from human activity will be

transformed into resources. As the conductor of the energy recovery

orchestra, the circular ecologist will supervise all flows, from their

collection at the source and their recovery to their reintegration into

the virtuous loop of the circular economy.

Micro-energy

architect

By 2030, with multiple and widespread energy sources, monitoring

will become essential. Energy recovery and redistribution will be

refined and secured through complex sensor networks and control

solutions. The micro-energy architect will design these networks and

48 Circular Economy

will be able to reconcile the fluctuating capacities of renewable energy

sources with the needs of consumers who have also become energy

producers.

Projection

emergency

physician

By 2030, environmental or geostrategic emergencies will occur more

frequently. To respond to disaster situations, States as well as public

and private institutions will deploy comprehensive logistical

resources. In the living bases, energy will be self-produced and

drinking water treatment plants will treat the water. The projection

emergency physician is there to plan interventions in distant areas,

aiming to set up fully autonomous bases.

Table 3.4. Circular economy trades in 2030 (adapted from CNIM 2017)

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The Role of Education in the Ecological

and Circular Transition: Current

Situation and Prospects

4.1. Introduction

Ecological transition, circular economy, industrial ecology and functional

economy do not only question companies and organizations about their internal

management methods and their relations with economic and social partners (Lazzeri

et al. 2017). The emergence of new skills, even new professions, also calls on the

academic world to fully mobilize and play its part in preparing future generations for

the challenges of the 21st Century. Are higher education and research institutions

and companies in the territory prepared to respond jointly to this new challenge?

Should we create new training courses? Integrate this issue into existing training

courses? Can we respond to companies’ requests with lifelong learning actions? To

answer these questions, we will rely on:

– the comments and debates gathered during the meetings of the French Institut

National de l’Economie Circulaire in 2019, the round table “Les besoins en

compétences de l’économie circulaire” (The skill requirements in the circular

economy) which was held as part of the Aix-Marseille University Entreprise Week

on November 4, 20151;

Chapter written by Dominique BONET FERNANDEZ.

1 This round table, which was part of the “Training, Professions and Territory” theme of the

AMU/Enterprise 2015 Week, was organized by the Sustainable Development Department of

Aix-Marseille University, in collaboration with the Institut Régional de Formation à

l’Environnement et au Développement Durable (IRFEDD 2). It was summarized by B. Faye

54 Circular Economy

– the latest legislative proposals on Education for the Circular Economy in

September 20192;

– as well as the proposal of the UVED, Université Virtuelle pour l’Environnement

et le Développement durable (Virtual University for the Environment and Sustainable

Development).

This chapter presents the findings and challenges for the academic world, the

possible responses in terms of training in ecological transition and, more particularly,

in the circular economy, the solutions provided by UVED and, in conclusion and

perspectives, the proposal for a circular economy law, education section, of 2019.

Since the beginning of the 2019–2020 academic year, students and stakeholders

in higher education have been making their voices heard to ask the government and

institutions for concrete measures to address the climate emergency3. One of these

measures more particularly concerns the training of all students in circular economy

and sustainable management. The Shift Project Report4 published in spring 2019

highlighted the delay in French higher education in taking ecological issues in

training into account. The forums published since then have highlighted this need

and demand for higher education transformation on the part of students and higher

education stakeholders. Faced with this multitude of challenges, our focus is on

training in the circular economy, which we would call an operational approach to the

implementation of sustainable development.

4.2. Findings and challenges for universities and companies

Sustainable development issues and climate-energy issues are still poorly taught,

and a fortiori in post-high school training, which each year welcomes 6.5% of the

“working-age” population (15–64 years old). Indeed, a recent study conducted by

the Shift Project5 with 34 higher education institutions shows that 76% of courses do

not offer any courses addressing climate-energy issues to their students. In the

remaining 24% of courses, less than half (11%) offer at least one mandatory course

for students addressing the subject, and for good reason: the French Education Code,

et al. (2017) in the book Economie Circulaire et Territoires. Presses Universitaires de

Provence, Aix-en-Provence.

2 http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/15/propositions/pion2263.asp.

3 https://refedd.org/loi-former-enjeux-ecologiques/.

4 Mobiliser l’enseignement supérieur pour le climat. Report, The Shift Project, May 2019.

Available at: https://theshiftproject.org/article/nouveau-rapport-mobiliser-superieur-climat/

(accessed: June 3, 2019).

5 https://theshiftproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/2019-03-25_Rapport_Mobiliser-

lenseignement-sup%C3%A9rieur-pour-le-climat_The-Shift-Project.pdf.

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 55

like the other regulatory texts concerning the missions of higher education, does not

mention the responsibility of institutions in this field.

The student mobilizations of recent months and the signatories of the “Student

Manifesto for an Ecological Awakening”6 not only call on the public authorities to

assume their responsibilities, but also demand to be trained in these issues, in order

to prepare them to their professional careers7.

4.2.1. Multidisciplinary challenges, requiring a review of training courses

Emerging society issues concern major challenges: climate change, resource

depletion, poverty, world hunger, etc., all of which are sustainable development

goals that must be addressed in an interdisciplinary way in all training courses. The

circular economy makes it possible to address the question of sustainable

development using operational and operating business models, and can be broken

down into a series of practical training courses. Faced with the difficulty of training

for the “new topic” with its share of uncertainty and insufficient modeling, the

challenge for the education system is to revisit its training practices.

The training courses are insufficiently multidisciplinary. Admittedly, there are

training courses in the environment, sustainable development, public health,

mediation (cultural), CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and SSE (Social and

Solidarity Economy), but the link between the Human and Social Sciences and the

so-called “hard” sciences is unsatisfactory (Faye et al. 2017). Academics from

different sectors do not know each other well, and often do not speak the same

language. Thus, the first interdisciplinary meeting generally consists of jointly

defining terms such as ecosystem, ecology and sociological approach, each

associating with these words a vision inherited from their own training.

4.2.2. The companies and universities concerned

Companies and professionals, within their respective structures, are also an

important factor in individual development, hence the fundamental role of training

as a potential driver for the emergence of the circular economy at the societal level,

and beyond sustainable development. It should be noted that we are also talking

about working conditions and the issue of quality of life at work. However, there is a

great heterogeneity among companies, between lack of knowledge, skepticism and

commitment to sustainable development.

6 https://pour-un-reveil-ecologique.fr/.

7 http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/15/pdf/propositions/pion2263.pdf.

56 Circular Economy

Finally, there is the question of access to information, valuation and modeling.

Faced with this intersectoral observation, the increase in skills and, above all, the

greater versatility required of professionals are leading to a change in the expression

of skills. They also, and above all, encourage non-technical and transversal

situations and skills: the ability to fit into a collective framework and cooperate, the

ability to adapt, critical sense, autonomy, etc.

In terms of training, this requires a transversal adaptation rather than a modular

approach (Faye et al. 2017). The holistic approach thus becomes an essential

criterion in the development of a training offer. This also implies giving meaning to

the profession concerned and its developments, hence the importance of raising

awareness for a common culture of the circular economy and sustainable

development and its implications in the professional sector or profession concerned.

4.3. How to meet the skills and training needs of the circular economy?

4.3.1. From Green Plan to education for sustainable development

For Jeziorski et al. (2015), university education is undergoing rapid changes in

the context of education for sustainable development. Relayed by the European

authorities, then the States, the requirements towards universities have gradually

increased. In France, since the beginning of the 2009–2010 academic year, higher

education institutions have been developing a “Green Plan” for campuses8.

The Green Plan enables higher education institutions to integrate sustainable

development into their operations and teaching. Article 55 of the Grenelle 1 law stipulates

that “higher education institutions will draw up a ‘Green Plan’ for campuses for the 2009

academic year. Universities and grandes écoles may apply for labelling on the basis of

sustainable development criteria…”.

Box 4.1. The Green Plan

But higher education institutions must lead the way through education for

sustainable development. Within this framework of the institutional integration of

education for sustainable development, university training is therefore undergoing

rapid change, but it is confronted with or based on the specific characteristics of

each country, which may be institutional, financial or cultural. Wals and Blewitt

(2010) provide an interesting analysis on the implementation of sustainable

development in higher education, and conclude that institutions are entering a “third

8 http://www.campusresponsables.com/sites/default/files/ressources/lecanevas_plan_vert_-

_enseignement_superieur.pdf.

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 57

wave” (after the environmental wave and the green campus wave) that focuses on

teaching and learning about sustainable development. For these authors, should

environmental education and education for sustainable development change

student behavior or should they focus on improving the environment? Or on

capacity-building and critical thinking?

4.3.2. A wide range of skills

In terms of skills, the challenge is to train people in the ability to fit into a

holistic system, in cooperation, in interdisciplinarity, in adapting to novelty and

uncertainty, in evaluating and transmitting the intangible. Recently, the “Groupe

technique sur les compétences (GTC) en DD”, led by the Conférence des Grandes

écoles and the Conférence des Présidents d’Université, proposed a new version of a

reference framework on competencies for sustainable development in higher

education. This reference framework distinguishes five meta-skills characteristic of

education for sustainable development:

– collective skills;

– forward-looking vision;

– systemic vision;

– competence in terms of responsibility and ethics;

– changes (support, follow-up, initiation, etc.).

It is necessary to integrate into existing training courses an awareness of

sustainable development, the circular economy, the economy of functionality, etc.

through specific modules, or by integrating these concepts into the training in the

form of a guiding principle. When developing the training offer, it is necessary to

adopt a new approach based on trades and skills rather than diplomas. MOOCs,

badges and accreditations are moving in this direction.

4.3.3. Towards new practices

In a constantly changing society, the time devoted to experimentation is not

always appropriate. Nevertheless, it would be advisable to enhance the processes of

trial and error, experimentation and action to facilitate understanding of the issues at

stake. This requires not only time, trust and dialogue on the part of the partners, but

also adapted pedagogical methods, including the experimentation of active and

participatory pedagogies (serious games, problem-based learning, etc.). Awareness

of the issues and debate should make it possible to meet current challenges.

Engaging stakeholders in dialogue, questioning representations, tracking the

58 Circular Economy

implicit, disrupting routines – all actions that will move the debate forward. Thus,

the importance of a shared problematization associated with the challenge of

democratic debate can be fully expressed (Faye et al. 2017).

For their part, companies do not always need to create new professions but must

consider a different use and exercise of the profession. Companies and their senior

executives are facing ever more pressing challenges. Sustainable management and

business globalization require skills and knowledge on the social and environmental

challenges and impacts of economic activity. With digitalization as a backdrop,

artificial intelligence (AI) offers potential for measuring and reducing the social and

environmental impacts of managerial decision-making9. The training of managers

and staff throughout life is therefore a fundamental challenge for a successful

transition and responds to SDGs 4 and 10 (see Figure 4.1) which emphasizes that

quality education is the foundation for improving people’s lives and sustainable

development.

Figure 4.1. Sustainable development goals. Source: https://www.un.org/

sustainabledevelopment/fr/2015/09/26/onu-appelle-contributions-secteur-prive/

On the initial training side, even if students generally lack a general knowledge

of sustainable development, nothing is lost. As a first step, the Sustainability

9 https://business.lesechos.fr/directions-ressources-humaines/management/formation-

elearning/0601636873742-comment-se-former-sans-cesse-aux-enjeux-du-monde-331318.php.

10 https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/fr/education/.

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 59

Literacy Test11, which allows students to assess their general culture in terms of

sustainable development, could help to lay the first bricks.

Sustainability literacy is a term that covers all knowledge, skills and mentalities that

enable everyone to commit themselves to building a sustainable future and to make

informed and relevant decisions in this regard. Simple to use, adaptable and deployed

worldwide, the “Test”, created by Sulitest, is a valuable tool to help organizations and

individuals contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see Figure 4.1) and

to participate in a global movement enabling everyone to understand, be able and willing

to commit themselves to the collective construction of a sustainable future and actively

contribute to the Global Agenda.

Box 4.2. Sustainable literacy

Suggestopedia, a learning method, could be applied, to promote the learning of

new concepts that use sustainable development and the circular economy, without

making it a discipline. Finally, to develop awareness, to move from a state of

interdependence to a state of cooperation. Lifelong learning trainees have learned to

distance their experience, while students have a sharper capacity for learning and

questioning. Hence, the need, in training courses, to mix initial and continuing

training audiences. In view of the development of new technologies, it is also

possible to combine SD training and digital training to make SD more concrete, for

example, through serious games. All professions are concerned by what constitutes a

societal revolution: learners must integrate these elements to prepare for tomorrow’s

world and become agents of change themselves.

In a non-exhaustive way, avenues are discussed to prepare students for their

integration into the professional world and thus face the challenges that await them

in their professional life:

– prepare for entrepreneurship;

– encourage group evaluation;

– develop interactive pedagogies;

– decompartmentalize the fields of training and employment: this is done in the

knowledge of experience rather than in the knowledge acquired at university;

– value the importance and role of lifelong learning;

– not create new professions but consider a different use and exercise of the

profession;

11 https://www.sulitest.org/en/index.html.

60 Circular Economy

– propose an economic model adapted to the challenges; economically speaking,

a balance must be found, thus transforming intangible capital into a value of

profitability savings. And how to institutionalize it? Financial leverage is important.

4.4. An initiative provided by the French Virtual University for

Environment and Sustainable Development

In a proactive approach, UVED has addressed these issues. This actor could be a

catalyst for change by offering everyone simplified access to these new pedagogies

around the circular economy and its components. According to UVED12 , it is

essential that all university students, high school students, citizens and future

economic actors are informed, sensitized and trained on these vital global issues. It

is therefore essential to continue to make knowledge on environmental issues

accessible to all and to help institutions quickly equip teachers to better train their

students in environmental issues, whatever their curriculum.

To date, there is little teaching on climate and environmental issues in university

courses. However, all disciplines are concerned by the ecological transition, with

each discipline facing environmental and sustainable development issues. In this

context of ecological and climatic emergency, and the growing mobilization of high

school students, it is urgent to integrate these challenges into higher education

training, all disciplines combined.

The lack of a strategy in higher education hinders the implementation of the

necessary training. Faced with this need, schools are confronted with pedagogical,

political and financial difficulties and obstacles: the lack of teacher training in these

issues, the lack of human and financial resources, time, tools or even the lack of

legitimacy to provide such training, the problem of the compartmentalization of

disciplines, the saturation of teaching models, the rigidity of structures, etc. UVED

plays an important role in supporting higher education and research institutions,

teachers and teacher–researchers by providing them with advice, pedagogical

content and open access tools for training and to train their students in

environmental issues and ecological transition and to use as a support or

complement to their existing teaching. These digital educational resources and e-

learning courses (MOOCs, thematic courses, etc.) are produced by scientists and

validated pedagogically and technically, thus guaranteeing their quality.

The academic world therefore has no choice but to train for this change of

model. Educating young people in the society of tomorrow means preparing them

12 L’Université Virtuelle pour l’Environnement et le Développement Durable, https://www.uved.fr/.

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 61

for the instability of the world, bringing them to a state of mind that allows them to

balance a “hard” world with a “benevolent” world. This requires the development of

new skills for trainers and a profound questioning of their profession.

In order to support this reform and accelerate access to new forms of education, a

draft law is currently being debated in the National Assembly.

4.5. The proposed 2019 law on the generalization of education on issues

related to the preservation of the environment and biological diversity

and climate change within the framework of global boundaries

At a time when young people seem to be taking the lead in mobilizing for the

climate, a draft law aims to reflect, in legislation, the desire, expressed both by the

students of the “Student Manifesto for an Ecological Awakening” and by the “Call

of Teachers and Principals”, that higher education prepares all students for the vital

challenges of the 21st Century. This is the proposal for a law on the generalization

of education on issues related to the preservation of the environment and biological

diversity and climate change within the framework of global boundaries.

In this proposal13, according to the scientific reports of the IPCC14 and IPBES15,

the climatic and ecological urgency imposes rapid and profound changes on our

model of civilization. Facing the challenges of leaving fossil fuels, preserving

biodiversity, resources and respecting global boundaries requires a population that is

not only aware of them, but also informed and trained – especially as future elected

representatives, readers, parents and professionals in all sectors (from health to

industry, culture and the civil service). It is not only a question of preparing for

so-called “green” jobs because, to varying degrees, all functions are concerned.

The success of the call “to train all higher education students in climate and

ecological issues”, published in July 2019, which has exceeded 7,400 signatories,

including 80 heads of institutions, shows that higher education takes the measure of

the issue, and is ready to act within the framework of their autonomy, with the

support and recognition of the State. The Prime Minister himself recently stated that

“ecological transition is not the sole responsibility of the Minister in charge of this

transition, but the responsibility of all members of the Government, who must place

their action within this simple but very ambitious objective”. Higher education has a

role to play. In October 2019, 80 deputies from all sides presented a bill to the

French Parliament aimed at ensuring that “higher education prepares all students for

13 http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/15/propositions/pion2263.asp.

14 https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl/.

15 https://www.ipbes.net/news/ipbes-global-assessment-summary-policymakers-pdf.

62 Circular Economy

the vital challenges of the 21st Century”, by generalizing “the teaching of issues

related to the preservation of the environment and biological diversity and climate

change”. Through 20 articles, this proposed law aims, in particular, to amend the

Education Code and other regulatory texts to include the responsibility of

institutions in terms of teaching issues related to climate change and the circular

economy.

4.6. Legislative proposals to be closely monitored

It is up to legislators to provide the impetus and define the framework for

recognizing the missions entrusted to higher education in the transmission of

knowledge about climate and ecological issues and the circular economy, which we

describe as a technique for operationalizing the transition.

The proposal to amend the Circular Economy Law 2019, put forward by the

National Institute of Circular Economy, recommends the following, in Measure 7, in

favor of education16.

Training in the circular economy from an early age. Levers: Educated and trained in

the challenges of the circular economy, aware that resources and raw materials must be

used sparingly and efficiently, the next generation will be better able to collectively

organize to find solutions to the depletion of natural resources and climate change. To

raise awareness and provide training on circular economy issues, the Institute offers:

1) teaching modules to raise awareness and awaken children to the challenges of the

circular economy from primary school onwards, 2) operational and academic training

modules on the various aspects of the circular economy in all secondary and higher

education courses and 3) vocational training to prepare them for new occupations linked

to the challenges of scarcity of resources.

Box 4.3. Proposal to amend the Circular Economy Law 2019

The resulting proposal for Law 2019 proposes that higher education institutions

systematically integrate the teaching of environmental preservation issues within the

framework of global boundaries into their courses so that all students are trained in

them, regardless of the course chosen. The circular economy appears as a filigree of

these planned educational themes.

16 https://docplayer.fr/amp/139978579-Les-10-de-l-inec-propositions-pour-la-loi-economie-

circulaire.html.

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 63

Article 1 includes, in the general principles of education, the teaching of issues

related to the preservation of the environment and biological diversity and climate

change within the framework of global boundaries.

Article 2 integrates compulsory and interdisciplinary education of these issues

into the missions of higher education, the national strategy for higher education and

the responsibilities of institutions, in an interdisciplinary approach, emphasizing the

need to build on recognized scientific findings, and to highlight the implications for

students’ future careers.

Article 3 sets out this requirement in order to ensure that it is also present in the

planning schemes and regional schemes for higher education, research and

innovation, regional plans and the map of higher education.

Article 4 stipulates that the objectives of the regional training and vocational

guidance development plan contracts include, as one of their objectives, that the

challenges related to the preservation of the environment and biological diversity

and climate change within the framework of global limits are effectively taught in

each vocational training course, as well as their impacts on each vocational field.

Article 5 extends the subject to all public schools and educational

establishments.

Article 6 specifies that students are to be taught both the scientific and societal

fundamentals of these issues, as well as the implications for the different

professional fields.

Article 7 mandates the Academic Council to ensure that the above-mentioned

issues are properly taken into account in research programs, in order to promote

their teaching by teacher–researchers.

Article 8 makes it possible to create a common service for universities to

promote interdisciplinary teaching of the above-mentioned issues.

Article 9 provides that multi-year establishment contracts shall consider national

objectives, in particular those of the National Low Carbon Strategy, and that their

activities shall contribute to achieving them.

Article 10 provides that educational projects and research programs shall

consider national objectives, in particular those of the National Low Carbon

Strategy, and that their activities shall contribute to achieving them.

Article 11 specifies that higher education must consider national objectives, in

particular those of the National Low Carbon Strategy.

64 Circular Economy

Article 12 specifies that the institution’s general policy must consider national

objectives, in particular those of the National Low Carbon Strategy, and provide that

the institution’s activities contribute to achieving them.

Article 13 provides that the university’s board of directors shall also elect a

vice-president responsible for considering ecological issues, and, in particular, for

teaching all students about them.

Article 14 provides that representatives of approved environmental protection

associations shall sit on the board.

Article 15 provides that the higher national institutes of professorship and

education shall provide training in issues related to the preservation of the

environment and biological diversity and climate change within the framework of

global boundaries.

Article 16 coordinates in the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act to ensure

that the training of the French population is consistent with national energy

transition objectives.

Article 17 replaces the notion of training in sustainable development issues with

that of issues related to the preservation of the environment and biological diversity

and climate change within the framework of global limits, in Act No. 2009-967 of

August 3, 2009, on the implementation of the Grenelle de l’environnement.

Article 18 coordinates, in Act No. 2009-967 of August 3, 2009, on the

implementation of the Grenelle de l’environnement, in order to specify the

expectations of higher education institutions in terms of training in climate, energy

and environmental issues.

Article 19 specifies the orientations of research in terms of considering

environmental issues, and provides for the alignment of the national research

strategy with the objectives of the National Low Carbon Strategy.

Article 20 provides that civil servants must be able to be trained in

environmental conservation issues.

4.7. Conclusion

Faced with the climate emergency, more and more voices are being raised and

advocating for the generalization of training for sustainable development and its

operational applications such as CSR and the circular economy, all sectors

combined, in an interdisciplinary approach. The circular economy offers a field of

The Role of Education in the Ecological and Circular Transition 65

multidisciplinary knowledge and skills, ranging from the ecodesign of the product to

its responsible production, distribution and consumption, reparability, reuse and

recycling, in an industrial ecology approach. While the current state of play shows a

delay in the educational world taking these issues into account, various initiatives,

which we have reported on in this chapter, indicate that reform is under way.

A sufficiently powerful learning process is required to achieve transitions that

require a change in values, corporate culture, lifestyle and, ultimately, a complete

overhaul of the system. But what are these skills and how can they be developed?

This research challenge can be addressed in a sustainable development context. In

addition to the technical and technological skills required, a set of soft skills must be

highlighted. Our society is not trained to cooperate, so it is a question of creating

capacities to cooperate and developing the skills associated with cooperation:

respect, welcoming diversity, openness to others, accompanying change (Faye et al.

2017) and compassion. The new educational model requires increased skills in

cooperation and adaptability. Cooperation and trust are new skills needed in today’s

markets. Companies are looking for new ways to build customer relationships.

Consumers now buy functions rather than objects. The required social learning is at

the crossroads of informal, non-formal and formal education (Wals 2011). Such a

context also includes community social learning and lifelong learning, but always in

relation to educational institutions and organizations, within a stimulating regulatory

framework and with an appropriate territorial and local base.

4.8. References

Faye, B., Domeizel, M., Delannoy E. and Richaud I. (eds) (2017). Comment l’université

peut-elle répondre aux besoins en compétences de l’économie circulaire ? In Economie

circulaire & territoires, Lazzeri, Y., Bonet Fernandez, D. and Domeizel, M. (eds). Presses

Universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence..

Jeziorski, A., Legardez, A., Floro, M. and Domeizel, M. (eds) (2015). Quelles compétences

pour l’éducation au développement durable dans l’enseignement supérieur ? Une étude

exploratoire à l’Université d’Aix-Marseille. Colloque international francophone “Former

au monde de demain”, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 2–3 April.

Lazzeri, Y., Bonet Fernandez, D. and Domeizel, M. (eds) (2017). Economie circulaire &

territoires, Presses Universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence.

Wals, A.E.J. (2011). Learning our way to sustainability. Journal of Education for Sustainable

Development, 5(2), pp. 177–186.

Wals, A.E.J., and Blewitt, J. (2010). Third wave sustainability in higher education: Some

(inter)national trends and developments. In Green Infusions: Embedding Sustainability across

the Higher Education Curriculum, Jones, P., Selby, D. and Sterling, S. (eds). Earthscan,

London.

Boosting the Circular Economy through

Proximity: The New Competences of

Local Authorities

The deployment of the circular economy on a territory depends closely on the

coordination efforts of local actors. As stated in the 2014 report of the CGEDD, the

aim of the circular economy is to promote, “cooperation between economic actors at

the relevant territorial level”. However, defining the proper or relevant territorial

scale has been consistently addressed in academic research on sustainable

development actors. The organization of flows in a circular economic process

requires an understanding of the types of actors and the proximity that brings them

together. This is one of the topics addressed by the theoretical framework of the

academic school of proximity, which for nearly 25 years has been proposing

to rethink the effects of distance on interactions between actors through a

non-geographical prism. Among the local actors, local authorities play a key if not

essential role. Indeed, in France, local authorities and, in particular, municipalities

(individually or in an urban community) have acquired a historical expertise in

the collection and recycling of waste; competences that have been reinforced by the

transfer of responsibility carried out by the State in the course of successive

territorial reforms and, in particular, those of Act III of decentralization (2013–

2015). However, in recent years, municipalities have moved from a logic of waste

disposal, in the context of maintaining hygiene and public health, to a global action

of circularization of the local economy, whether through the reuse of waste of all

kinds, a public procurement policy taking into account environmental impacts, or the

development of associative initiatives, particularly aimed at developing new

consumption practices among the population (repair cafés, disco soup events, etc.).

The municipalities have thus gradually become involved in the development of local

Chapter written by Karine FABRE and Alexis POKROVSKY.

68 Circular Economy

initiatives for a circular economy, by providing partners with their know-how and

skills. In fact, these initiatives have a positive impact on their territory, for example:

the creation of activities that cannot be relocated or a response to citizens’ concerns.

In addition, recent developments in territorial organization in France, for example: the

reinforced grouping of municipalities within intermunicipal organizations; the new

status of metropolitan areas introduced by the law on the modernization of territorial

public action and the affirmation of metropolitan areas (MAPTAM) of January 27,

2014; as well as international cooperation projects, have created a favorable

environment for sharing experience and pooling circular economy projects, beyond

the municipal framework. This chapter thus proposes to present, in light of recent

legislative advances, the growing role that local and regional authorities are

expected to play in the development of circular economy initiatives, whether in

partnership, or in support of the various actors. This chapter is structured into three

sections: first, we will present some lessons on local scale measurement supported

by academic work based on the school of proximity. Second, we will recall the

respective competences of the different territorial levels in the field of the circular

economy. Finally, in the third section, we will focus more specifically on the

different levels of action available to public actors, highlighting them with examples.

The work and debates on the draft low-waste law, during the 2019 parliamentary

session, made it possible to recall the importance of positioning local public

governance structures in the deployment of circular economy initiatives; indeed,

everyone should be able to acquire a better knowledge of public support

mechanisms at the so-called “local” level and the multiplier effect that local actors

(elected officials, administration, associations) can bring to the efforts of the sector

as a whole.

5.1. What scale for proximity?

Circular economy circuits are based on flow loops organized around appropriate

territorial scales: the positive effects obtained in the treatment or reprocessing of

materials shall not lead to additional CO2 and pollutant emissions via

long-distance transport. The proximity scale appears as the central notion, around

which the organization of flow loops is based.

Following this line of reasoning, all legislative texts have consistently stressed

the need for proximity as a principle of action in the field of the circular economy

within a territory. However, the definition of this proximity in the existing texts

remains vague, and above all, not very operational as far as the question of the

adequate scale of application is concerned: city, region, nation, world?

Boosting the Circular Economy through Proximity 69

The academic school of proximity has precisely developed a theoretical corpus

demonstrating that there is no canonical measure of proximity but, on the contrary, a

typological diversity of proximities. This theoretical current sheds light on the

complex way in which geographical, organized, social, cognitive and institutional

proximities frame the interactions between actors – whether private or public –

essentially questioning the way in which a territory is structured through these

proximity dynamics (Torre and Talbot 2018). In terms of ecology, the authors of this

trend, very early on, examined the role that proximity plays in environmental

negotiation procedures (Torre and Beuret 2012). They invited us to go beyond the

horizon of the administrative division, in which the role of local authorities is

regularly confined, in order to rethink our scales of action according to the various

modalities of proximity.

Thus, research carried out on different waste treatment sectors identified that the

effective territorial scale for waste treatment depends, first of all, on the organization

of value chains (Durand et al. 2016): to the local territory, heavy and putrescible

waste (here the municipality and intermunicipalities), to the national territory,

hazardous waste management and to the international scale, high value added waste.

The so-called extended producer responsibility or EPR channels are based on a

scope essentially determined by the industrial logic of processing.

The spatial organization of industry resources, such as the concentration aimed at

generating economies of scale, or the specialization of certain territories in high

value added activities, may explain the reasons for this tiered approach to waste

treatment on several geographical scales. Organized proximity and geographical

proximity thus complement each other in designing a spatial organization of material

flows.

An additional dimension of organized proximity completes this picture.

Organized proximity, i.e. the “capacity that an organization provides to create

interactions among its members” (Rallet and Torre 2004), mainly presents itself as a

relational capacity that promotes coordination actions. It facilitates resolution of

conflicts of environmental uses caused by imposed geographical proximity.

Conflicts arise when actors with asymmetric access to space are constrained by

geographical proximity and compete in the establishment of new forms of proximity

(Torre and Zuindeau 2009). In local circular economy projects, some inhabitants

may indeed fear environmental nuisances, generated at the local level. In this

context, the organized proximity provides collective solutions to resolve all these

conflicts. It is therefore easy to understand that in the above-mentioned case of the

national location of hazardous waste treatment, in addition to an economic

motivation, the tensions and conflicts linked to the exploitation and storage of

hazardous waste on a local territory will press the actors (municipality, region, State)

to resolve local conflicts through an organized solution, such as grouping treatment

70 Circular Economy

in specialized locations. However, as the authors (Torre and Zuindeau 2009) point

out, organized proximity can in turn also generate new types of conflicts,

particularly when it thwarts the shared values of local communities, pushing

geographically close actors to engage in forms of resistance.

It is ultimately a complex set of proximity arrangements that should be

considered here. Three major approaches are emerging in order to integrate the

territorial scale into projects involving private and public actors, around the circular

economy (Brullot et al. 2017): sharing a common vision and information base;

affirming the role of organizational and institutional innovations as well as technical

innovations; and finally, providing for an evaluation of projects to measure the

actual impact on the territory. Mention should be made here of the complementary

role of institutional proximity, which is based on the sharing of common rules and

codes, and facilitates anticipation and common behavior among stakeholders

(Zimmermann 2008). To this end, it is essential to know each other’s actions and

roles in the service of a circular economy project; the following therefore aims to

shed light on the essential functions of territorial public actors in this field, as well as

their levers for action.

5.2. Understanding the territorial levels: sharing of competences in the

context of waste management

In order to better understand the tiering of the different competences shared

between the levels of local authorities, we propose to illustrate the role of each level

in the case of waste management. Indeed, waste management, if it does not

summarize all the actions of the circular economy, represents the historical link that

made it possible to build the competence of public actors in the organization of

material flows at the scale of a territory. We will first look at how communities have

built their competence through a historical reminder. Then, we will discuss the

current role of each territorial layer in waste management.

5.2.1. Historical expertise in waste management acquired by

municipalities

Until the 19th Century, the concept of hygiene was not well developed. It was in

1870 that Louis Pasteur highlighted the link between hygiene and health. It is then in

1884 that Eugène Poubelle, Préfet de Paris, ordered the deposit of waste in special

containers equipped with a lid (subsequently called “poubelles” in French) outside

of houses, so that the waste would no longer be scattered in the street and could be

collected by the municipal services. This practice was then followed by many cities

Boosting the Circular Economy through Proximity 71

but remained underdeveloped in rural areas. As waste management was not subject

to national regulations, each municipality organized itself as it saw fit.

It was almost a century later, on July 15, 1975, that the first major law on waste

management was enacted, requiring each municipality to collect and dispose of

household waste. Communities organized themselves, some choosing incineration,

others landfill. The 1980s, due to changes in lifestyle and consumption, saw waste

quantities increasing to double in 40 years. Most of the waste was then sent to

landfill, misusing an enormous amount of raw materials and raising problems of soil

pollution.

The second structuring law on waste management was enacted on July 13, 1992.

The perspective was changing. The law provided for the prevention and reduction of

waste at source, selective sorting (mandatory from that date), recovery through

recycling and reuse. The law planned for the gradual abandonment of landfills for

classified installations and imposed the principle of extended producer responsibility

with a financial contribution, from which eco-organizations, including

eco-packaging, were created. Local authorities must now organize themselves to

eliminate illegal dumping and recover waste through recycling, composting or clean

incineration.

To this end, the Mayor holds (article L2212-2 of the General Code of Territorial

Communities) the power of municipal police in order, “to ensure good order, public

safety and health”. It is in this capacity that the Mayor intervenes in terms of

cleaning public spaces, removing bulky items, safety and convenience of passage in

the streets. The General Code of Local Authorities also establishes the responsibility

of municipalities for the disposal of household waste (Article L2224-13). This

competence and responsibility must be transferred to the public intermunicipal

cooperation body to which the municipality belongs.

5.2.2. Territorial tiering of competences

5.2.2.1. National scale

At the national scale, waste management planning has been mandatory in France

since Act No. 92-646 of July 13, 1992 on waste disposal. In response to the

requirements of the European Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, the scope of

planning has been extended. As a result, a national waste prevention plan (PNPD)

has been approved for the period 2014–2020. In addition, a national waste

management plan is being developed (public consultations in April and May 2019

followed by a provisional decree). This plan is above all an educational tool for

presenting national ambitions in a single document. It should be noted that, because

72 Circular Economy

of their degree of harmfulness or particularities of management, some categories of

waste listed by decree in State Council may require specific national prevention and

management plans (Article L541-11-1 of the Environment Code).

5.2.2.2. Regional prerogatives

Act No. 2015-991 of August 8, 2015 on the new territorial organization of the

French Republic (nouvelle organisation territoriales de la République, NOTRe),

which marked the completion of Act III of decentralization, strengthened the powers

of the regions, and those of the groups of municipalities, in the form of EPCI

(établissement public de coopération intercommunale, “public establishment for

intermunicipal cooperation”) in the field of waste management.

The regions are now responsible for drawing up regional waste prevention and

management plans with an extended scope.

Since 2004, France has committed to the development of a first five-year national

plan of actions to prevent the production of waste, based on the premise that, “the best

waste is the one that is not produced”. As a European pioneer in this field, France was one

of the first countries to move from a logic of optimizing the treatment of waste produced

to the implementation of concrete actions, aimed at reducing waste at source (i.e. during

the manufacturing, transportation and distribution stages of the product) and at the

consumer level (responsible purchase and use, repair, reuse).

The 2014–2020 Waste Reduction and Recovery Plan takes a further step by

addressing all the levers of action associated with prevention through 54 tangible, more

transversal actions covering more waste flows. The objective set by this plan was to

reduce household and similar waste by 7% by 2020 and to at least stabilize the production

of waste from economic activities and construction.

Box 5.1. France as a European pioneer in waste prevention

The law establishes a Regional Waste Prevention and Management Plan

(Plan régional de prévention et gestion des déchets, PRPGD) under the competence

of the Regional Council and intends to promote the circular economy. These

regional plans take over from the national plans that have followed one another

since 2004. The objective is to produce a shared territorial diagnosis of waste

management and anticipate its evolution over the next 6 to 12 years. These plans

also make it possible to coordinate all the actions undertaken by both public

authorities and private bodies to ensure the achievement of the objectives of the

national waste prevention and management policy, and to contribute to the transition

to a circular economy. They specify the prevention, recycling and recovery

objectives to be reached, as well as the actions, services and equipment to be

Boosting the Circular Economy through Proximity 73

deployed. They have a legal impact because decisions taken in the field of waste by

public legal entities and their concessionaires must be compatible with these plans.

Beyond these legal impacts, regional plans help in defining, leading and managing

local waste prevention and management policies.

The plans are subjected to annual monitoring and a more precise evaluation (every

six years) likely to lead to their revision, within the framework of broad consultation

via a consultative commission for the elaboration and monitoring of each plan. They

are also submitted to public inquiry before adoption by the Regional Council, and the

results of the evaluation of their implementation must be made public.

5.2.2.3. Strengthening the role of intermunicipal authorities

A major legal change impacts the competence in the collection and transfer of

household waste. While previously the competence of intermunicipal authorities was

only optional, the law now transfers it to them automatically.

In practice, for reasons of more relevant territorial scale, economies of scale and

cost rationalization, this service had, for several decades, often been transferred to

intermunicipal authorities.

Local authorities collect and treat waste on a direct basis (with their own staff

and by maintaining the management of the service), or by calling on a private

company, usually through a contract or a public service delegation, after a call for

competition in accordance with the Public Procurement Code or the General Code of

Local Authorities.

The public waste service is financed by a tax or charge that can be defined in

such a way as to encourage the reduction and sorting of waste. Indeed, the cost of

this service is important for communities. It had been estimated by ADEME in 2013

at more than 10 billion euros1, with a per capita cost varying from 57 to 110 euros

per year, depending on territorial characteristics.

The term intermunicipality refers to the different forms of communal cooperation:

municipal unions, communities of communes, communities of conurbations, urban

communities, metropolitan areas and so on. These forms of cooperation are more or less

integrated, ranging from intermunicipal management and sharing of some services (school

transport, waste, etc.) to an intermunicipal project.

Some intermunicipal entities are called own-tax entities because they generate their

own financial resources through dedicated taxes (agglomeration communities,

1 Source: https://www.ademe.fr/expertises/dechets/elements-contexte/politique-vigueur/

dossier/cadre-reglementaire/obligations-collectivites-cadre-service-public.

74 Circular Economy

communities of municipalities, etc.). Intermunicipal associations without their own

taxation (trade unions) benefit from direct budgetary contributions from their members.

Public institutions for intermunicipal cooperation (établissements publics de coopération

intercommunal, EPCI) have a deliberative body composed of elected representatives

appointed by the municipalities (EPCI without own taxation) or directly by the voters

during municipal elections. The deliberative body functions as a municipal council.

It should be noted that today more than half of the expenditure of local authorities

comes from the local level, i.e. from municipalities and bodies with their own taxation

(54% in 2016, against 36% in the departments and 15% in the regions). These figures

highlight the important role that the local level has played in economic decisions at the

territorial level. The purpose of this increase in local expenditure is to bring financial

decisions closer to a “proximity” action (Delpech and Navarre 2018).

Box 5.2. What is meant by intermunicipality?

5.3. The levers for steering the circular economy

The management of the circular economy by local authorities takes a variety of

forms, and we have discussed the role that each territorial level is called upon to

play in the orchestration of actions, with a view to deployment.

Thus, the region has acquired a pivotal role in coordinating actions between the

multiple actors in its territory with industrial ecology projects, whether they are

companies seeking outlets for their production or developing a project with a circular

economy purpose, or associations. A first avenue concerns the roll out of activity

zones that could be considered as the ideal level for an effective combination between

geographical and organized proximity (Georgeault 2017). A second approach

consists of the creation of regional knowledge bases, in collaboration with partners

such as ADEME, in order to promote initiatives on their territory and to share good

practice. Regional segmentation remains a brake that limits the diffusion and the

training effect, due, in particular, to the diversity of the solutions presented.

The municipal or intermunicipal level, through its active management of many

flows on its territory, as we have illustrated above in the case of waste, is in direct

contact with many operational decisions that can result in the increase of circular

economy projects or initiatives.

However, if there is one area that brings together all the local actors, it is that of

public procurement. The lever of public procurement is indeed a major tool for the

development of actions at local level to promote the circular economy. Indeed, as

seen in Box 5.2, more than half of public expenditure is channeled through the local

level. In terms of total public procurement (i.e. including the State and local

Boosting the Circular Economy through Proximity 75

authorities), local and regional authorities are by far the main contractors and

account for 58% of the total amount of public procurement, or more than 45 billion

euros (Public Procurement Barometer: Results 2018 – ACDF). By virtue of its basis,

this local expenditure would therefore make it possible to guide the future choices of

the local economy towards sustainable development solutions. However, it seems to

us that the mechanisms underlying it are insufficiently known and deserve to be

developed.

5.3.1. An increasingly environmentally oriented public procurement

Public procurement is intended to apply to a wide range of products and services

(collective catering services, administrative supplies and furniture, transport

services, work contracts, road cleaning, public lighting leases, etc.). The specific

rules of public procurement, compiled in the Public Procurement Code that came

into force on April 1, 2019, apply to public actors operating both at the national

(State) level and at infra levels of territorial responsibility (regions, departments,

metropolitan areas, cities, etc.). These rules aim to guarantee the proper use of public

funds by ensuring compliance with three main principles: freedom of access to

public procurement, equal treatment of candidates, and transparency of procedures.

The French and European legal framework for public procurement has been

constantly evolving over the past 15 years to promote the consideration of

sustainable development and the circular economy in public procurement. Thus, in

2006, the regulations were amended to take environmental criteria into account, in

particular with the introduction of the “best bidder” rule, which reduces the price

criterion to one criterion among others (quality, social, environment, etc.). The

criteria for choosing the best bid must be set out at the outset of the public contract

in order to comply with the principles of equal treatment of candidates, whose bids

will be judged exclusively on the basis of the objective criteria set out above, and

transparency, since these criteria are known to all in advance. Until 20 years ago, the

majority choice criterion was mainly financial. Traditional weightings consisted of

assigning a weighting of 70% on the price score (lowest price bidder) and a

maximum of 30% for technical value (quality of products and services, delivery

times, after-sales service). From now on, it is not uncommon to see qualitative

criteria equal to or more than the price. These qualitative criteria are not limited to a

purely technical value of the offer but take into account the environmental and social

impact aspects of the purchase.

It is with the European Directive 2014/24/EU that public purchasers were also

able to refer explicitly to the lifecycle of a product in the definition of the subject

matter of a contract and were entitled to introduce criteria relating to the circular

economy into the technical specifications and performance conditions of a contract.

76 Circular Economy

It then became possible to take into account all the costs generated by a product

throughout its lifecycle and to encourage candidates offering products from the

circular economy that tend to reduce the quantity of materials and energy consumed

and, downstream, that limit the costs associated with the end of life of the products

(reuse, repurposing, recycling).

Act No. 2015-992 of August 17, 2015 on the energy transition for green growth

required the State and local authorities to achieve, by 2020, the conversion of at least

70% of the materials and waste produced on road construction or maintenance sites,

for which they are the project owner.

However, these commitments have not been included in regional or departmental

waste management plans and no details have been given on how to monitor and

control compliance with these commitments. In addition, none of the above

provisions are binding. There is thus a certain difficulty for public actors to grasp

the legal tools and mechanisms intended to introduce sustainable development and

the circular economy into public procurement in France.

5.3.2. Some examples of public practices or policies: between responsible

purchasing and waste reduction at source

At the European level, there are interesting initiatives that could easily be

transposed into France. For example, in Denmark, in 2012, a purchasing group

including about 60 municipalities purchased administrative furniture made from

70% recycled or certified sustainable wood at a lower cost than the market price. In

the Netherlands, in 2015, the city of Brummen launched a call for projects for the

renovation of its city hall, as part of a full circular approach. During the purchasing

process, price and environmental criteria had the same weight in relation to the final

score, which enabled the city to build a building that was planned to last 20 years,

with several elements made of wood (load-bearing structure, facade, floors), easy

to dismantle and 95% of the materials that make it up can be reused in 20 years to

build other buildings. All this was achieved at a lower cost than a traditional

construction.

In France, projects are beginning to emerge. Thus, the City of Lyon has set up a

web platform “Achat Local Conso Rhône-Alpes” in order to create a link between

producers and buyers, as part of the public contracts related to school meals.

Since decree no. 2016-360 of March 25, 2016, buyers have finally had the

opportunity to carry out, upstream of their market, a sourcing process that allows

them to better identify the innovative companies in their territory in order to then

adapt their specifications and facilitate access to their markets for these companies.

Boosting the Circular Economy through Proximity 77

However, in practice, political constraints as well as the pace and working methods

within public organizations do not favor the mobilization of this tool.

In order to substantially increase the percentage of environmental criteria

integrated into public procurement, it is essential that guides, documents and training

be put in place to support stakeholders and help them to change their daily practices.

In addition, within local authorities, projects must be handled in a

cross-functional manner with a constructive partnership between the division in

charge of purchasing and the one dealing with environmental issues. A strong

example in this regard is the Annecy Metropolitan Area Community, which has

embarked on a proactive policy of buying less, but better, while preserving

resources. To this end, services have been trained in the introduction of

environmental clauses in contracts and specific tools have been proposed to them

(calculation of the overall cost of using a product, thematic guides, etc.).

5.4. Conclusion

In conclusion, local authorities are proving to be an important player in

the development of the circular economy in France. First of all, in terms of available

resources. Indeed, territorial tiering offers a network and scales adapted to the scope

of the different projects, or to the personality of the different actors (companies,

large projects, associations, etc.), from the region, pilot of the organization of a

global strategy, to intermunicipalities, capable of pooling local resources to achieve

a critical mass necessary for the viability of many projects. Second, local authorities

have established themselves as actors with skills: indeed, we have seen that the

historical skills acquired by local authorities in waste treatment offer know-how on

the management of material flows at the scale of a territory, both on a technical level

and through mastery of local issues and an ability to resolve potential conflicts.

Finally, the lever of public procurement is a powerful tool for initiating

economically viable projects, given the amounts involved and the political will to

move towards responsible public procurement.

5.5. References

CGEDD (2014). L’économie circulaire, état des lieux et perspectives. Report, November

2014.

Brullot, S., Junqua, G. and Zuindeau, B. (2017). Écologie industrielle et territoriale à l’heure

de la transition écologique et sociale de l’économie. Revue d’économie Régionale et

Urbaine, 5, pp. 771–796.

Delpech, C. and Navarre, F. (2018). Finances publiques locales et enjeux territoriaux. Revue

d’économie Financière, 132(4), pp. 91–106.

78 Circular Economy

Durand, M., Bahers, J. and Beraud, H. (2016). Vers une économie circulaire... de proximité ?

Une spatialité à géométrie variable. Déchets Sciences et Techniques, 71, pp. 49–63.

Georgeault, L. and Lambert, F.-M. (2016). Logistique et écologie industrielle dans la

construction d’une politique publique d’aménagement du territoire. In Économie

circulaire et territoires, Bonet, D., Domeizel, M. and Lazzeri Y. (eds). PUP and PUAM,

Aix-en-Provence.

Rallet, A. and Torre, A. (2004). Proximité et localisation. Économie Rurale, 280(1),

pp. 25–41.

Torre A. and Beuret J.-E. (2012) Proximités territoriales. Construire la gouvernance des

territoires, entre conventions, conflits et concertations. Economica, Paris.

Torre, A. and Talbot, D. (2018). Proximities: Return over 25 years of analysis. Revue

d’économie Régionale et Urbaine, 5–6, pp. 917–936.

Torre, A. and Zuindeau, B. (2009). Les apports de l’économie de la proximité aux approches

environnementales : inventaire et perspectives. Natures Sciences Sociétés, 17,

pp. 349–360.

Zimmermann, J.-B. (2008). Le territoire dans l’analyse économique. Proximité géographique

et proximité organisée. Revue française de gestion, 34(184), pp. 105–118.

PART 2

Circular Economy: A Few Tools

and Approaches

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the

Circular Economy: Cradle to Cradle

During the 20th Century, developed countries and then the major emerging

countries became involved in mass consumer society. The productive model

underlying this economic development is known as the linear model: extracting,

processing and disposing of natural resources. It is accompanied by a constant and

exponential increase in the materials and energies used.

What seemed to be an inexorable progress towards a society of abundance has

turned against itself: raw materials are not available in infinite quantities and the

pollution generated has irreversible repercussions on our health, biodiversity and

climate. We are living with climate change as one of the greatest crises humanity

faces. The call of 700 French climate scientists in September 2018 was very clear:

Only immediate changes and short-term commitments, within the

framework of clear and ambitious objectives by 2030, can enable us to

meet the climate challenge1.

In recent decades, the concept and term “sustainable development” has affirmed

the need to reduce the impact of human activities: to pollute less, consume less

energy and natural resources and recycle more. This is a first step, but not enough to

address the issues. We need to change the perspective and purpose.

Chapter written by Anne DE BÉTHENCOURT

1 Réchauffement climatique: Nous en appelons aux décideurs politiques. Libération,

September 7, 2018. Available at: https://www.liberation.fr/planete/2018/09/07/rechauffement-

climatique-nous-en-appelons-aux-decideurs-politiques_1677176.

82 Circular Economy

Figure 6.1. Towards creating a positive impact rather than reducing the negative

impact (source: Upcyclea based on MBDC2). For a color version of

this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

Changing paradigm means finding the origin of the word “economy” meaning

“the one who runs the house” and aiming for “prosperity without growth”, to use the

words of the economist Tim Jackson (2010). The aim is to decouple economic

growth from growth in natural resource extraction.

Can we reinvent forms of production and consumption in each sector of the

economy that create a positive impact and not reduce negative impacts?

6.1. The origins of Cradle to Cradle

6.1.1. Thus, Cradle to Cradle was born

In the 1990s, German chemist Mickael Braungart and architect William

McDonough created Cradle to Cradle (C2C), which is both a philosophy and

methodology for creating a healthy world and eliminating the notion of waste. This

approach is inspired by the way nature works, in which waste does not exist. The

energy used is renewable, such as solar energy. Diversity is the norm. At the end of

2 https://www.upcyclea.com/cradle-to-cradle.

POSITIVE IMPACT

Deﬁne

Grow

Innovate

Opmize

100%

REDUCTION OF THE IMPACT

Reduce

Avoid

Minimize

Foresee

Cradle to Cradle

Sustainable development

Time

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the Circular Economy 83

life, everything becomes a nutrient again. Everything is useful for something. No

one would ever think of cleaning up a forest by removing all the dead leaves. When

they fall to the ground and wither, they become, not waste, but nutrients for the

living ecosystem that benefits from them. The loop is closed and natural balance is

assured.

Cradle to Cradle therefore assumes that humanity can have a beneficial, positive

and restorative impact on the environment. Thus, rather than aiming for the

“less bad”, Cradle to Cradle proposes that we aim for the “better”.

6.1.2. The founding principle: design differently and “upcycle” to create

“positive loops”

To avoid wasting resources and polluting, it is necessary to rethink the way

resources are used and to design “material banks”. This means designing products

differently: we must be able to disassemble them, they must be repairable, non-toxic

and their materials “almost infinitely” reusable. In this way, eco-designed products

that reach the end of their useful life – and not the end of their life – will be

processed. The value of the material thus preserved will return to a new production

cycle, rather than end up in the dumpster. The intention here is to eliminate the

notion of waste and preserve the value of resources. Creating positive loops and

maintaining the value of the material is called upcycling. This is the fundamental

principle of the Cradle to Cradle philosophy.

In concrete terms, engaging in a circular economy approach with a positive

impact Cradle to Cradle methodology for the design of goods, for example, will

therefore consist of selecting non-toxic components, choosing suppliers who respect

human rights and employee health, promoting the use of renewable energy and

ensuring that the water used in the production process is not contaminated. The

materials used in different manufacturing processes will have to be able to either

return to the ground (biological cycle) or be recycled within industries (technical

cycle).

In the biological cycle, materials are broken down by microorganisms to form

new nutrients. Biodegradable products are transformed into compost, thus forming a

base of nutrients that can be used by new natural resources. All products that belong

to this cycle are called “consumer products”. In the C2C vision, clothing, footwear,

tires or any other product that wears out during use must be designed with a view to

returning to earth, only using substances that are compatible with the biological

cycle. Usually, what we call “recycling” is more like “subcycling” or “down

cycling” because it is often a source of value destruction. Indeed, the energy

recovery of organic matter results in the loss of precious nutrients. In a closed and

84 Circular Economy

positive impact cycle, a product is eco-designed from 100% biodegradable

components and can therefore return to the soil from which it is produced to be used

as compost.

Figure 6.2. Cradle to Cradle, between biological cycle and technical cycle

(source: Upcyclea from MBDC3)

The technical cycle consists of intentionally controlled material flows. The idea

is to allow mass industrial products to circulate in a closed circuit, while maintaining

a constant level of quality. The fact that the system is closed is a prerequisite for

creating optimal value. In a closed cycle, the use of toxic substances (if unavoidable,

and until substitutes are found) can be controlled. The ease of disassembly and the

care taken in choosing the materials for a product are fundamental aspects of

the design. The products and materials in this cycle are called “use products”. An

object produced by assembling elements of defined quality can, for example, be

reused to recreate the same material (closed loop) or participate in the manufacture

of other products (open loop).

The technical loop also makes it possible to save functionality. This is, for

example, the case of photocopiers where consumers do not buy the machine but use

it and pay for the number of copies made. In this approach, the equipment remains

3 https://www.upcyclea.com/cradle-to-cradle.

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the Circular Economy 85

the property of the manufacturer and is returned to the manufacturer after a defined

period of use. One of the advantages of this system is that the manufacturer has an

interest in using materials of a higher level and quality, in promoting repairability

and dismantling in order to easily recover and reuse spare parts for which they have

considered, during eco-design, the following uses, within economically resilient

ecosystems.

6.1.3. Counter false good ideas

6.1.3.1. Do not confuse recycling with the circular economy

The concept of the circular economy is often associated with recycling.

However, as our production models currently work, it is generally considered that

we must “better manage our waste” by recycling it. However, when the products

have not been designed to maintain the value of the material, recyclers cannot

perform miracles.

Recycling is the “best” way to treat waste, whereas Cradle to Cradle eliminates

the notion of waste and only deals with resources and their different uses. Recycling

is an important first step, but it faces different limitations because there is a loss of

value as the recycling process progresses.

6.1.3.2. The false good idea of energy recovery

Beyond recycling, we often talk about material recovery when we talk about

incineration. It is important to give some details here. Energy recovery means

burning materials which, although today there are no recycling channels for them,

nevertheless means losing precious and rare resources, burning wet materials such as

bio-waste and therefore using a lot of energy to create energy. It is time to change

and to design differently.

6.2. Creating resilient models

6.2.1. High-performance business models

Constituting systems capable of preserving the value and quality of the resources

used is the necessary condition to make a circular business model viable. By

designing “material banks”, the company can develop without damaging the

environment or its profitability since from now on “secondary raw materials” have

value, can be resold and are not transformed into waste.

86 Circular Economy

Digital technology has its place and hence UPCYCLEA has designed an

intelligent material library to manage material flows and avoid unnecessary storage

by detecting – upstream – the need for used material.

6.2.2. The material passport, a key factor in traceability

With recycling, waste is recovered if its composition is unknown and most of its

ingredients have not been designed for the next use and can therefore be harmful to

health and the environment. Hence, creating a “circular passport” for each product

provides reliable information that is useful in determining the potential uses of

materials. It describes for a product:

– its composition, in terms of its components and the materials constituting these

components;

– its period of use, i.e. the period beyond which the product will have

deteriorated to the point of becoming waste and losing any residual value;

– its next possible lives, whether it is reusing, repurposing, upcycling or

recycling, if it is a next technical cycle, or composting, if it is a biological cycle;

– other useful information, such as its carbon footprint, its recycled content, or

maintenance or dismantling instructions to facilitate its disassembly at the end of use.

6.2.3. Promoting the abundance of renewable energies

To be consistent, a Cradle to Cradle product and, more generally, a company

whose strategy is based on the principles of Cradle to Cradle cannot rely on fossil

fuels since their negative impact on climate change is clearly proven. Here again, let

us base our actions on the way nature works: solar energy is available, infinite and

does not emit greenhouse gases. Other renewable energies can also be used: wind

energy, biomass, etc. Without an energy source, also C2C, the products designed

will only be optimizations of the existing system.

In nature, the richer and more diverse ecosystems are, the more resilient they are

to change. The way we manufacture products must be modeled on this, with the

same genius for diversity and variety.

6.2.4. A recognized approach

The Cradle to Cradle methodology has a certification process validated by an

independent authority: C2CPII (Cradle to Cradle Product Innovation Institute). The

first feedback on C2C experience dates back to 1993.

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the Circular Economy 87

Certification allows the analysis of products designed according to certain

criteria, including:

– non-toxicity of materials;

– belonging to a biological or technological cycle, respect for water;

– compliance with social rules; or

– the principle of corporate social and environmental responsibility.

Figure 6.3. The different levels of Cradle to Cradle certification4

This certification is divided into five levels: basic, bronze, silver, gold and

platinum, which make it possible to promote the progress approach. All these levels

of certification are valid for two years, except the basic level, which remains valid

for only one year. In order for the product to be recertified at the end of this period,

the quality of the product must be maintained. If the quality of the product has been

improved, it can obtain a higher degree of certification. Today, more than 2,000

products are “Cradle to Cradle” certified. The list of C2C products is available at

www.c2ccertified.org

6.2.5. A demanding approach

Companies that engage in Cradle to Cradle certification must integrate the

advantages and disadvantages of being pioneers. First of all, carrying out extremely

detailed analyses to know the fine composition of each ingredient in its products

requires time, patience and investment. Moreover, committing to this approach

requires consistency in terms of research and development. Finally, although this

4 https://mbdc.com/how-to-get-your-product-cradle-to-cradle-certified.

88 Circular Economy

label is internationally recognized, it is not well known by buyers and consumers

and therefore does not – for the time being – constitute a marketing and commercial

argument for the general public. However, it is one of the few labels to integrate

social, environmental and even health issues with high standards, with a view to

achieving a positive impact.

6.3. Some examples of C2C certified products

6.3.1. Carpets

In a traditional method, all the components (textile and underlay) of a carpet are

glued together, making the qualitative reuse of secondary raw materials almost

impossible. Glue also has negative effects on air quality and the health of the

inhabitants. In this context, a used carpet will, at best, be recycled as road underlay,

at worst, incinerated or landfilled, but the components will never remain in a loop.

Recycling therefore delays the destruction of the material but does not eliminate it.

The loop is not closed.

To remedy this, major carpet manufacturers such as Desso/Tarkett or Interface

have been involved in a Cradle to Cradle approach for years. By designing a non-

toxic carpet with separable overlay and underlay, they can create positive loops and

reintegrate the material into their production circuit. This requires the implementation

of a new business model to recover used materials after a period of use determined

between the producer and the customer, and in terms of business model, it avoids the

purchase of new materials.

However, it should be noted that it is not because the product is compostable that it

is composted, nor that because a product can return to a technical or biological cycle

that this actually happens. This requires profound transformations at different levels.

Certainly, it is possible for local authorities to organize return and material-

processing circuits. However, companies can also change their business models by

integrating the principle of functionality economy, for example. A carpet could thus be

made available for the duration of use and contractually recovered by its manufacturer.

The eco-designed carpet can then be disassembled and the various materials returned

to their technical or biological cycle, thus becoming a secondary raw material again.

6.3.2. Buildings

According to ADEME5, buildings generate around 40 million tons of waste per

year, the vast majority of which cannot be recycled. We also know how sensitive the

5 https://www.ademe.fr/dechets-batiment-0.

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the Circular Economy 89

issues of access to materials for the building industry are becoming. By designing

“C2C Inspired” buildings, this nonsense can be avoided. It is a question of designing

places free of any toxic substances and eco-designed as material banks, i.e. able to

be dismantled or disassembled. At the end of use, each object or material

reintegrates its original circuit or a parallel circuit for a future rebirth without loss of

quality or waste of the nutrients that were used to constitute it. This principle is

called “C2C Inspired” because, in a building, it is currently impossible to use only

C2C labeled products. However, it is the approach that is taken into account.

There are many buildings in France and internationally designed on this

principle. One of the pioneers in France was the rehabilitation of the Lainière de

Roubaix. Dominique Givois, Director of the SEM Ville Renouvelée6, explains:

From its extractable foundations to its roof made of unpaved vegetable

membrane and its inflatable meeting room, the Maison du projet de la

Lainière is part of a building designed in cycles. Each element is not

only biosourced but can be dismantled and reused elsewhere and in a

different way in the future.

This allows us to move from managing future rubble to managing preserved

resources. In order to make this possible, it is necessary to create “circular building

passports” and integrate them into a C2C inspired material library. The company

UPCYCLEA has designed this material library, which allows us, thanks to artificial

intelligence, to optimize the use of used materials according to market needs. This is a

new business model that can be created. The economic value generated over the life of

the building is thus reversed from management costs to management profitability.

6.3.3. Fashion

Fashion is an illustration of the excesses of our consumer society, of the waste of

resources with what is now called “fast fashion”. Moreover, according to ADEME6,

the textile industry is one of the most polluting in the world. While the European

Union prohibits the use of substances such as lead, nickel or azo dyes, which are

particularly toxic substances, this prohibition is not in force in the rest of the world.

For several years, Greenpeace, in particular, through its DETOX7 campaign, has

denounced these practices and raised consumer awareness.

As consumer awareness grows, we see the need to act emerge in brand speeches

and strategies. Some are committed to reducing the impact of textile production:

6 https://multimedia.ademe.fr/infographies/infographie-mode-qqf.

7 https://www.greenpeace.fr/defi-detox-monde-ne-se-defiler.

90 Circular Economy

polluting less, consuming less energy and natural resources, recycling better, etc.

This is an essential first step, but can polluting less be satisfactory if we always

pollute? Should we not go further and reinvent other forms of production and

consumption whose purpose will not be to be less polluting but to be good for health

and the environment, i.e. to have a positive impact.

Engaging in a Cradle to Cradle circular economy approach to garment design

will involve selecting non-toxic components, choosing suppliers that respect the

human rights and health of their employees, promoting the use of renewable energy

and ensuring that the quality of water generated by the factory production is better

than it was when it came in.

To create “positive loops”, it is necessary to plan the next life of the garment by

organizing its recovery, recycling, even composting (for a cotton product) or

transformation. For example, tights can be transformed to recreate tights or used to

make carpets. It may also be possible to extend its life span by providing a system of

rental and sharing.

Let us look at a few examples. As early as 2013, Puma was one of the first brands

to commit to a “Bring Me Back” program with several products: lifestyle sneakers

(biodegradable), Puma jacket (recyclable), T-shirts (biodegradable), backpack

(recyclable). To close the loop, Puma proposed, to its customers, returning the

products after use in order to recycle them and create new ones. C&A, the world’s

largest consumer of organic cotton, has worked with its suppliers for several months

on non-toxic and fully recyclable products, even compostable ones, according to the

Cradle to Cradle principle. The first T-shirt was released in 2017 at a price of less

than €10. Since then, C&A regularly offers new C2C ranges. Wolford, a specialist in

tights and lingerie, has created fine, biodegradable and non-toxic lingerie. Finally, the

English designer Stella McCartney, already very committed to animal welfare, has

also committed to detoxifying her creations with the Cradle to Cradle approach.

To better work together and accelerate the evolution of the textile industry,

brands, designers and manufacturers of fibers, dyes, etc. have decided to join forces

around a “Positive Fashion” movement.

6.3.4. Cleaning products

Beyond fashion, brands of green cleaning products such as Rainett 8 or

GreenCare9, which belong to the Werner & Mertz Group or Method, have the

8 https://www.rainett.fr/fr/notre_demarche_responsable/le_groupe/index.html.

9 https://wmprof.com/fr/fr/nachhaltigkeit_1/cradle_to_cradle_3/cradle_to_cradle.html.

Example of a Pioneering Approach to the Circular Economy 91

ambition of having a positive impact. All toxic substances are gradually removed

from the products, thus avoiding water pollution. Packaging is designed to be fully

recyclable and made from recycled plastic, while still being affordable in price, and

more and more products in their ranges are C2C certified.

6.4. Conclusion

The road is sometimes long because it is demanding. The brands that commit

themselves do so on a product-by-product basis. All these actions may seem like drops

of water, but for these pioneers, it is a trend of the future and their responsibility

to contribute to it.

Everyone, at their own level, can play a role in “being part of the solution” rather

than remaining part of the problem, whether they are brands or consumers.

As consumers, we can, of course, favor organic, repairable, reusable products

and, where they exist, C2C labeled products. In France, a C2C Community has been

created, whose objective is to popularize this approach and bring together brands,

local authorities and citizens committed to the same objective, available at www.

C2Ccommunity.org.

Cradle to Cradle contributes to building a world where we manage our resources

rather than our waste, where we create and consume healthy, rather than less toxic,

products. It is a technically very successful approach and certification, but today it is

not very well known despite its pioneering nature. To become widespread, strong

communication by all Cradle to Cradle actors seems necessary. It is time. There is

still time.

6.5. References

Braungart M. and McDonough W. (2011). Cradle to Cradle : Créer et recycler à l’infini.

Gallimard, Paris.

Braungart M. and McDonough W. (2016). UPCYCLE, Au-delà de la durabilité, concevoir

pour l’abondance. Gallimard, Paris.

Jackson T. (2010). Prospérité sans croissance, la transition vers une économie durable.

De Boeck, Brussels.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial

and Territorial Ecology Approaches:

What Modes of Governance to

Ensure their Sustainability?

7.1. Introduction

Industrial and territorial ecology (ITE) is a concept strongly linked to the circular

economy (CE) (Murray et al. 2017; Fernandes and Kadio 2017). It is now firmly

established in the international, European and national landscapes in particular,

mainly through strong government action. However, the initiatives taken and led by

companies, associations and local authorities raise questions, particularly with

regard to their sustainability. The question of the future of industrial and territorial

ecology approaches within the framework of the CE thus becomes crucial. In this

chapter, we focus on identifying the modes of governance of these approaches to

ensure their development in the medium and long terms, especially when several of

them coexist on the same territory. To this end, the first section presents the

concepts as well as the levers and obstacles to the sustainability of ITE approaches.

Then, the second section identifies the different forms of governance that exist

through an exhaustive review of the approaches on the national territory. Finally, the

third section, based on empirical research – the case of three ITE approaches in the

territory of La Rochelle – allows us to question their future through their

coordination and even their common governance.

Chapter written by Valérie FERNANDES.

94 Circular Economy

7.2. Leverages and obstacles to the sustainability of ITE approaches:

findings and analysis

7.2.1. Circular economy and ITE approaches: definition and key elements

The concepts of the circular economy and industrial and territorial ecology are

intrinsically linked. They share the same fundamentals – reducing the environmental

impact of industrial and economic activities – and their borders are difficult to

identify (Murray et al. 2017; Fernandes and Kadio 2017). For Buclet (2015), “there

is no doubt that industrial ecology and circular economy describe the same reality,

refer to the same objectives and the same desire to increase the sustainability of

industrialized societies.” However, a more detailed analysis makes it possible to

identify different levels of action, objectives and tools (Table 7.1).

Circular economy Industrial and territorial ecology

A global approach at national or

European level

A local approach at the scale of a

territory

A primary legislative vocation A primarily operational vocation

An economic vision of resource

management

An economic and participatory vision of

resource management

No clearly stated methodology Industrial and territorial metabolism

focused on quantitative aspects

Table 7.1. Circular economy and industrial ecology, complementary

approaches, adapted from Buclet (2015)

This comparative approach makes it possible to affirm that ITE is today a field

that is part of the circular economy1, in that it represents a set of exchanges of flows

(materials, water, energy) between different companies located nearby on the same

territory. Its objective is to reduce the environmental impact of industrial activities

(Erkman 2004; Ehrenfeld and Getler 1997; Varlet 2012; Beaurain et al. 2017). This

approach is a major lever for the energy transition and is enshrined in the law of

August 17, 2015 on the energy transition for green growth. The latter defines ITE as

aiming, “on the basis of a quantification of resource flows, and in particular

materials, energy and water, to optimize the flows of these resources used and

produced at the scale of a relevant territory, within the framework of actions of

1 ITE is thus clearly mentioned – and repeatedly – in the circular economy roadmap published by

the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition on January 31, 2019. Available at:

https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/Feuille-de-route-Economie-circulaire-

50-mesures-pour-economie-100-circulaire.pdf.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 95

cooperation, pooling and substitution of these resource flows, thus limiting the

environmental impacts and improving the economic competitiveness and

attractiveness of the territories.”2 It is therefore a question of moving from a linear

type 1 ecosystem, where raw material resources are considered unlimited and the

environmental impact of waste is not taken into account, to a type 2 ecosystem

where waste is limited, or even a type 3 ecosystem where ultimate waste does not

exist since it is reintegrated as a raw material. These three types of ecosystems (after

Allenby 1992, cited by Gallaud and Laperche 2016) are represented in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1. Industrial ecology: different types of ecosystems

(Gallaud and Laperche 2016, after Allenby 1992)

The type 3 ecosystem is the ideal towards which ITE approaches tend to work,

knowing that total looping is impossible due to thermodynamic laws (Gallaud and

Laperche 2016).

Chertow (2007) identifies the main opportunities for resource exchange as the

reuse of by-products as a substitute for raw materials or commercial products,

2 https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/lecologie-industrielle-et-territoriale.

96 Circular Economy

the sharing of services or infrastructure and the pooling of services such as

transportation or food. There are many reasons for an ITE approach: commercial

reasons to reduce costs or increase revenues, long-term resource security through the

provision of critical resources such as water, energy or certain raw materials.

However, other benefits can also be generated, such as economic development,

pollution reduction, water and land saving or greenhouse gas reduction. Finally, the

interest of these approaches also lies in the revitalization of urban and rural sites,

growth and/or job retention and, of course, more sustainable development.

ITE therefore makes it possible to develop links between local authorities,

companies and other stakeholders in the territory in dealing with common problems.

This local level makes it possible to implement concrete actions aimed at reducing

negative externalities on the environment.

This territorialized network – like a competitiveness cluster even if the origin

and context of their birth is different – goes through different stages of development,

which often result in changes in the relationships between actors.

Today, approximately 100 ITE approaches have been identified in France

according to a study by Duret et al. (2018). However, they have different degrees of

activity: of the 84 approaches listed by the Orée association (2016), 10 are

suspended, 59 are in progress and only 15 are considered sustainable.

This is because many challenges need to be addressed with regard to the

sustainability of governance, operational sustainability and economic sustainability

of these approaches (Duret 2005; Duret et al. 2018).

7.2.2. Success factors and obstacles to the sustainability of ITE

approaches

7.2.2.1. Factors for success

The success and sustainability of industrial ecology approaches is today a crucial

issue that can be analyzed from an operational, organizational or economic

perspective (Duret et al. 2018). The various success factors are based on different

elements such as the natural resources available, the facilities and infrastructures of

the territory, the different economic sectors located in the territory, the quality of the

relations between the different actors in terms of cooperation or the strong

membership of the actors in the territory. The recognized legitimacy of the

facilitator is also a fundamental attribute in the success of these approaches. Indeed,

the latter, as an actor, has all the skills to successfully manage and sustain the

process. He/she must be able to seek synergies; take action to promote the economic

development of the territory; integrate entrepreneurial activities; train and transfer

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 97

his/her skills; communicate, evaluate and promote the results; and organize

convivial times between companies in order to create knowledge and mutual trust to

consolidate the approach. The facilitator – who can conceive himself/herself as a

third-party actor in the sense that he/she is the initiator, facilitator and guarantor of

the trust and cooperation of the different organizations involved in the process

(Geindre 2005) – must also reopen new strategies and new synergies. He/she must

diversify his/her services to be more attractive to companies (pooling of resources,

responsible purchasing, etc.). Some initiatives, such as that of AIRM (Association

d’Industriels de la Région de Meyzieu), offer its members services on waste

collection, security, management of green spaces, cleaning of industrial premises,

purchase of supplies, among others. Others offer consulting and audit services in

renovation, such as the CAVEM3 in Fréjus.

The recruitment of new members in order to find new synergies is also

an essential factor of sustainability. This is the case with the BIOTOP approach

in La Rochelle, which carries out diagnoses for each new member and updates flow

data annually in order to detect new needs and thus propose appropriate offers.

The integration of industrial ecology into training courses from secondary school

onwards, the contribution of researchers and students on projects to provide

scientific validation, the promotion of the results obtained and the integration of

industrial ecology into urban, regional and spatial planning strategies are also real

levers to enable the long-term development of ITE.

Ensuring the convergence of interests between stakeholders to effectively

operationalize synergies is another factor for sustainability, as is the association of

ITE with the solidarity economy. Indeed, these two approaches are complementary,

in particular through the principle of cooperation, networking and information

sharing, as well as the search for the creation of activities and jobs.

Finally, integrating an ITE approach into a territorial sustainable development

project can make it possible to mobilize economic actors, and in particular

companies, more effectively.

7.2.2.2. Obstacles to the sustainability of industrial and territorial ecology

approaches

The most recurrent obstacle to the sustainability of industrial ecology initiatives

is the responsibility of the companies that are operational players in these initiatives.

Duret et al. (2018) point out that the decentralization of major groups’

decision-making centers, followed by a high rate of renewal of managers, prevents

3 VAR-ESTEREL – Méditérranée urban community.

98 Circular Economy

companies from becoming territorially based over time and can then compromise

their involvement in decision-making on the approach. Moreover, the priority of

companies is the short-term return on investment and if no concrete results are

achieved in the first few years, their involvement in the process is compromised

(Duret et al. 2007).

Although the plurality of actors is important for the governance of ITE

approaches, it can also be a source of blockage to their sustainability due to

diverging interests. As Ehlinger et al. (2007) point out, a network under different

forces can become complex and difficult to govern because of the large number of

participants. Political authorities and the public defend environmental interests while

companies defend economic interests. It is then necessary to find the right measure

to reconcile these different interests (Beaurain et al. 2017).

In a situation of shared governance, conflicts of responsibility can arise as well

as difficulties in making joint decisions between companies and communities. This

can lead to poor collaboration and can compromise the sustainability of

the approaches (Duret et al. 2018). Politics, image, usage and value conflicts

that have existed or exist between individuals or organizations can also violate

the sustainability of the approaches (Gobert and Brullot 2015).

In addition, the increase in the costs of animation, the change of animator or

even the change of participating organizations can also negatively influence the

sustainability of the processes (Duret et al. 2018). The provision of human resources

from local authorities may then be necessary (Duret et al. 2007).

Obtaining financial resources to ensure the sustainability of industrial and

territorial ecology initiatives is a real challenge. Significant sums are injected at their

start-up and then in their operationalization phase. However, finding the means to

ensure their continuity is a real problem. Indeed, ITE procedures receive 70 to 90%

public subsidies (from ADEME in particular) for calls for expressions of interest

over a defined period. This raises the question of their sustainability beyond two or

three years, knowing that the level of maturity is reached after a cycle of four to six

years. It sometimes happens that during the process of building the approach,

funding stops. Stakeholders close to the approaches must then find different sources

to ensure development (Duret et al. 2018).

To this end, various means of raising private or public funds are used. Some

approaches opt for public funds such as “project” financing (region, ADEME,

BPI, State services, FEDER, for example) and operating grants (local authorities

attached to the project: community of municipalities, urban community, city,

department, region). This is the case of the Montauban Tarn-et-Garonne Chamber of

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 99

Commerce, which mobilizes co-financing4 for carrying out diagnoses, developing

shared employment, promoting bio-waste and leading the process. Others choose

private funds such as contributions, membership, service and sponsorship.

7.3. The modes of governance of ITE approaches

7.3.1. Key elements

Like a territorialized network, ITE approaches require good governance to

ensure their sustainability, especially when network actors are in competition with

each other to retain resources that are not transferable from the territory (Mendez

and Mercier 2006). The management, regulation and governance of the

territorialized network are therefore essential to avoid the refusal of actors to

participate in exchanges by compartmentalizing their resources, isolating themselves

and even leaving the network, which can weaken it or even lead to its disappearance

(Ehlinger et al. 2007). The formalization of governance is a central element for this

network to develop its own internal dynamics and in relation to external

stakeholders. Individual actors (company managers) as well as collective actors then

decide to delegate to the governance body a certain decision-making power, while

having a right of control over the latter.

The governance of an ITE approach therefore depends on the development of

cooperation between public administrations and private companies, highlighting

new forms of partnership between socio-economic and political-administrative

actors. It implies a collective behavior that aims to take better account of ecological

constraints, through shared objectives, the implementation of concrete actions and

even the sharing of data.

Five types of territorial governance can be distinguished: private governance,

collective private governance, public governance, mixed governance and associative

governance (Colletis et al. 1999). Private governance is a self-organized system

whose coordination and resource creation mechanisms are managed by the dominant

private actors to appropriate the local productive space. This mode of governance

has no formal organization. Collective private governance, on the other hand, is a

formal private institution bringing together private operators such as chambers of

commerce, professional unions and private business clubs that promote the

coordination of their strategies. Public governance applies to local public institutions

that manage resources through the production of collective goods and services that

can be used by all actors without rivalry or exclusion. These public institutions may

be the State, local authorities or public research centers. Mixed governance consists

4 Ademe-DIRECCTE-SIRTOMAD – Communities of the municipalities of the Deux Rives.

100 Circular Economy

of the association of the different types of governance mentioned above but with a

predominance of public or private governance. Finally, associative governance is

illustrated by the fact that the members of the network feel like they are part of a

community of solidarity because of geographical proximity. The steering function is

then distributed among members who all have equal decision-making power with

exchanges based on trust and solidarity. This mode of governance is successful

thanks to an institutional framework that manages regulatory mechanisms by

intervening in the implementation of collective rules.

An analysis of ITE approaches present in France shows that the vast majority of

them – particularly the oldest – have chosen governance by third-party actors with

associative status. Indeed, the 1901 law association seems to be the most flexible

configuration in that it allows for better multi-partner governance.

Table 7.2 illustrates the variety of governance modes through seven examples:

ECOPAL, SYNEO, AIRM, PIICTO, CEIA, FE2I and CLES. Four criteria are used

in the comparative analysis: the start date, the project leader, the type of actions

supported by the approach and finally the governance model adopted.

7.3.2. The modes of governance of ITE approaches

The governance of ITE approaches is very crucial to their success and to the

coordination between actors. The latter are identified according to their power

(ability to impose their will on others), their legitimacy (recognition of a political or

social order as an authority) and their interest (economic, environmental or political

advantage that the results of the process can bring). This governance therefore

requires a plurality and variety of actors, important principles for balancing

decisions.

Two modes of governance are used in the management of industrial and

territorial ecology approaches: shared governance and traditional governance

(Duret et al. 2018).

Shared governance is based on the principle of co-responsibility and

self-organization of participants, and more generally on collective intelligence. This

shared governance approach is emerging in France.

Conventional governance is characterized by the establishment of committees,

boards and general assemblies where participants vote by a show of hands on

decisions taken by one or a group of people. This traditional mode of governance

can reduce collective participation for a better evolution of ITE approaches. It is

therefore a more “directive” governance than shared governance.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 101

Start

date

Project leader Type of actions Governance model

ECOPAL/Dunkirk 2001 ECOPAL association Various pooling, flow study, substitution Multi-actor via the

general assembly and the

steering committee

SYNEO/Valenciennes 2007 Pôle Synéo

association

Pooling of energy supply General Assembly and

Board of Directors

AIRM/Meyzieu 2012 AIRM association Pooling of services, sustainable development, energy, mobility,

maintenance of green spaces, collection of industrial waste

Multi-actor via the

general assembly and the

steering committee

PIICTO/port area Fos-sur-

MER

2013 PIICTO Association Consolidation of the existing industrial fabric and improvement

of the attractiveness of the port area

Multi-actor via the

general assembly and the

steering committee

CEIA/Aube 2003 CEIA Organization of a network of exchanges, information and

incentives for the implementation of innovative industrial and

territorial ecology projects. Creation of a shared logistics

platform for fresh products or the use of recycled materials for

the construction of a road section

Multi-actor via the

general assembly and the

steering committee

FE2I/Florange 2013 VALO & SCOP

Ecota Conseil

Increase the competitiveness of companies, produce professional

integration through the creation of solidarity-based jobs and

optimize the environmental impacts of industrial activity

Board of Directors

Organization via a

dedicated association

CLES/Strasbourg 2013 GUP (Groupement

des Usagers du port

de Strasbourg)

The CLES approach aims to reconcile the economic

development of the port area of Strasbourg (the port being the

largest economic area in Alsace), the environment and its

urbanization objectives

Several steering bodies:

Strategic Committee,

Technical Committee,

Works Council, Advisory

Committee

Table 7.2. Some examples of ITE with an associated mode of operation

102 Circular Economy

In parallel with these two modes of governance, two others can be mobilized

depending on the situation: operational governance and political governance.

Operational governance occurs when conflicts arise between the companies

involved in the process, which do not affect the continuation of relationships in the

network. This type of governance ensures that established rules are respected,

transactions and exchanges run smoothly and are based on the trust that stakeholders

have in each other. For persistent conflicts, the problem goes up the hierarchy,

which finds solutions through coordination tools, commissions, reviews and audits.

Political governance can be mobilized in the event of a major conflict of great

importance. The use of external political powers that have sufficient legitimacy and

power to resolve the conflict is then necessary.

In conclusion, there is no single and perfect model of governance that can be

applied to all approaches, as each territory has its own characteristics.

7.4. Articulation of ITE approaches on the same territory: the example

of the La Rochelle territory

This empirical research is based on a qualitative methodology based on

semi-directive interviews and document review. It was carried out as part of a

research contract financed by the La Rochelle Territoire 0 carbone consortium in

20405. Two groups of actors were asked to participate: ITE activities 6 on the

territory of La Rochelle, on the one hand, and institutional actors or those working

within the scope of ITE, on the other hand7.

A total of 10 interviews were conducted. They were recorded, transcribed and

analyzed using the thematic analysis method.

7.4.1. Presentation of the three approaches

Three ITE approaches coexist on the territory of La Rochelle (extended to

Rochefort, a city about 30 kilometers away) and have their own specific

5 This consortium is composed of the La Rochelle Urban Community, the Grand Port

Maritime, the University of La Rochelle and Atlantech.

6 BIOTOP, MER, CIRCUL’R.

7 ADEME, Grand Port Maritime de La Rochelle, La Rochelle Urban Community, Pôle

Eco-industries, Union Maritime, Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 103

characteristics. These are BIOTOP, MER and CIRCUL’R. They all benefit from

traditional governance and have an associative structure.

BIOTOP is the most mature approach. Created in 2010, following group

purchasing actions within the Périgny business club, the SPHERE association was

created, BIOTOP being the brand8. In order to start its activity, BIOTOP benefited

from the financing of the region and the eco-industry cluster, then of the CDA

(Communauté d’agglomération de La Rochelle) and the ADEME. Today, BIOTOP

has found its business model, self-financing about 80% of its activity, the only

public subsidies received today being those from CDA. Two major activities

structure the approach: training and waste management, in the sense of pooling

flows and substitution synergies. For example, the waste from a roaster (jute bags) is

now being reused as a substrate for the neighboring nursery grower. More than 60

flows have been identified by BIOTOP. There are 112 members, the majority of

whom are located in the Périgny area.

Matière Energie Rochelaise (MER) started at the beginning of 2016, with the

recruitment of a facilitator in May of the same year. This ITE approach is an

emanation of Port Atlantique La Rochelle, which responded in 2015 to a call for

expressions of interest from ADEME and the Poitou Charentes region. Located on

the port square, it has 40 companies involved (or at least identified). Governance

was provided by the Grand Port Maritime de La Rochelle (GPMLR) and steering by

a committee composed of the financiers (Région Nouvelle Aquitaine, ADEME),

CDA, the Maritime Union and EXCELIA Group until 2019. Since then, MER has

become independent, with a legal structure of the association type under the 1901

law. Today, the companies involved in the process are required to pay a

contribution. ADEME and the region finance 70% of the post in the first year, 60%

in the second year and 50% in the third year. These seed funds therefore expired at

the end of the third year, in May 2019. The specificity of MER is its port nature, as

well as the fact that it “goes on all possible flows”: energy, water, waste, services

and even a methanisator project.

Although its application was not accepted by ADEME during the call for

expressions of interest launched in 2015, CIRCUL’R was created in July 2016, in

the form of an association under the 1901 law. However, ADEME allocates funds

for carrying out the diagnoses. CIRCUL’R then calls on two AMOs (project

management assistance): the Rochefort Chamber of Commerce via a dedicated

project manager and BIOTOP. A total of 40 companies were identified, each of

which contributed financially to the diagnosis. At the end of 2018, CIRCUL’R

successfully responded to a new call for expressions of interest from ADEME and

the New Aquitaine Region in order to finance a facilitator.

8 For ease of reading, we will continue to use the name BIOTOP.

104 Circular Economy

7.4.2. Challenges, risks and opportunities

7.4.2.1. Specific ecosystems

The representation of the ecosystems of the three approaches highlights their

degree of proximity to each other and to other stakeholders, particularly institutional

stakeholders. Thus, BIOTOP and CIRCUL’R are very close, not only because of the

relationships established but also because of the very structure of their business

model, while MER is perceived as specific, because of its port positioning. With a

few rare exceptions, the participation of companies in one of the three approaches is

exclusive. Indeed, it should be noted that the typology of companies varies

according to the approach: those of BIOTOP or CIRCUL’R are more VSEs and

SMEs while MER has more large structures and the land belongs to the GPMLR.

While the main institutional partners are part of the ecosystems of each

approach, they are not involved to the same degree.

ADEME is thus naturally more present in the approaches it currently finances,

namely MER (year 2 of financing, presence in the steering committee) and

CIRCUL’R (via the financing of part of the audits until 2018 and the seed fund at

the end of 2019). It is less so for BIOTOP, since its financing was spread over

the period 2010–2013.

The eco-industries cluster (pôle éco-industries, PEI)9 has been involved since

the start of BIOTOP. Thus, over the first three years of BIOTOP, the IAP provided

the equivalent of 0.3 FTE (full-time equivalent) per year. While in 2010 it had

prerogatives in terms of funding, this is no longer the case. However, it continues to

have ongoing relationships with BIOTOP. The same applies to MER, where the IAP

followed the structuring of the process and provided technical assistance. Relations

with CIRCUL’R are more relaxed due to the lack of regular meetings.

The Communauté d’agglomération de La Rochelle is historically very close to

BIOTOP, the first ITE approach on the territory. It has been supporting it financially

since 2013 (approximately 30% of BIOTOP’s total budget). It is also present at

MER, in that it participates in the steering committee and more broadly through the

financial support it provides to the port area. However, it has no link with

CIRCUL’R.

9 The eco-industry cluster was created in 2005 at the initiative of the Poitou-Charentes region

to support, accompany and promote the development of the eco-industrial sector. Its mission

is also to create innovative companies that reflect the values of the circular economy and

energy transition.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 105

7.4.2.2. An institutional environment that raises questions

It should be noted that the various institutional actors mentioned above are all

questioning the future of ITE in general and of certain funding methods in particular.

More specifically, they question the articulation they consider desirable between the

different ITE approaches in the same territory, in order to overcome the anticipated

risks. These questions all stem from a repositioning of the actors on their fields of

action: who can finance what, who will finance what, according to what

expectations?

The CDA, ADEME, PEI and the New Aquitaine region are all part of this

reflective process. While the angles of analysis may differ, the same opinion is

generally shared: the roles of the various actors must be clarified, and the three ITE

approaches must be articulated. The objective is to ensure the sustainability of the

initiatives and to establish La Rochelle (extended to Rochefort) as a territory of

excellence in this field.

Thus, both ADEME and the region would like to develop a real “regional ITE

center”. As one of the interviewees put it: “I see these three approaches as an entire

entity but there are interactions to imagine between the three.” Because the territory

of La Rochelle is truly atypical, with three approaches: “few territories at the

national level that can pride themselves on having such successful and ambitious

approaches and with a vocation for sustainability.” It seems that in the short term

there is a need to clarify each other’s missions in order to identify bridges between

the approaches. In the background, we can also identify within the various bodies

interrogating the willingness to encourage these approaches to collaborate with each

other in order to reduce the risk that could weigh on their sustainability in the event

of a decrease in public subsidies. The legislative context has thus led CDA to sign an

agreement with the New Aquitaine region to continue to finance BIOTOP, in

accordance with the NOTRe law, which reinforces the region’s role in economic

development and restricts the economic intervention of municipalities or

communities of municipalities. There is therefore no guarantee that this agreement

will be renewed in the same way in the future. In addition, the CDA, which is seeing

the evolution of ITE approaches and the development of initiatives, is ultimately

questioning the relevance of funding only one structure with regard to the other two.

This is all the more so as the Economic Development Department is well aware of

the challenges of ITE development in terms of innovation and job creation. This

raises the question of the political line and strategy that CDA will adopt in this area

in the coming years. Perceived competition between local approaches is therefore to

be avoided at all costs.

Another risk is that of a divergent perception of the ITE, leading funding actors

to contradictory actions, which could jeopardize the long-term sustainability of ITE

106 Circular Economy

approaches. More precisely, two visions are opposed. The first is to adopt a

minimalist and pragmatic viewpoint, which focuses mainly on dyadic actions

between companies. In this context, the sustainability of relations between the two

companies is far from being guaranteed because there is no common and territorial

project bringing together several economic actors. The second vision is based on the

creation of an eco-network of local companies, which then share a project for the

future on the same territory. These two visions are contradictory in terms of both

methodological tools and financing methods. There is a risk that two funders will

each adopt one of the two visions.

In addition, the robustness of business models varies according to the approaches

studied. The degree of maturity is the major explanatory factor. But so is the

development of financial resources. MER has just changed, with external financial

resources having to be found to compensate for the end of the ADEME seed fund:

these resources must come from both companies and local authorities (including

ports). More broadly, while it is indisputable that ITE approaches must develop

private resources, it is very important to maintain public funding, or else they risk

endangering their sustainability. Indeed, maintaining private financing over a

medium term is extremely delicate if the latter are linked to high ROI actions, but

ultimately it is not very ambitious in terms of environmental protection.

Finally, a final risk is identified: that of a distance between the BIOTOP and

CIRCUL’R approaches to the MER approach, due to a very strong organizational

and cognitive proximity between the first two approaches, hindering a substantial

rapprochement with the third.

7.4.2.2.1. Strong challenges for the territory

The challenges and projects currently underway in the La Rochelle region

concern the achievement of the 0 carbon objective in 2040, via the 0 carbon territory

approach in 2040. It is also a question of weighing up against the regional capital in

order to obtain funding, especially since ambitious initiatives are being taken in

Bordeaux, as well as – above all – that the regions see their role in leading,

structuring collective actions and funding strengthened. In other words, how can

communities of municipalities, such as CDA in particular, obtain the support of the

region to develop ITE actions on their territory? The need to structure approaches

and initiatives is therefore becoming increasingly urgent. “It is the ability of the

agglomeration to understand that these approaches are a territorial project that is part

of economic development.” CDA must be able to define a strategy in this area. And

to do this, a number of questions are asked: what evaluation of the approaches? On

the basis of which indicators (e.g. recycled waste, jobs created)? Should ITE be

extended (and if so, how?) to the other business areas of the La Rochelle

agglomeration (12 in total)? How can we encourage the creation of new sectors? Is

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 107

there a need for a global structure to coordinate the three existing and possible future

approaches?

7.4.2.2.2. A convergence of governance modes

In view of the challenges raised above, the minimum development of a common

approach between BIOTOP, MER and CIRCUL’R is not debated by the various

stakeholders interviewed. However, the question arises as to the content of this

approach, its form, its mode of governance and organization as well as the

objectives pursued. The sustainability of this approach is based on the creation of a

network, governance and a territorial project.

A merger of the three approaches will enable ITE in La Rochelle to be

recognized at the regional and national levels, thus encouraging public subsidies,

such as labels, to be obtained. Through synergies and pooling actions to be

identified, it will be necessary to strengthen innovation (through new sectors for

example) and job creation. Finally, such a rapprochement can only serve and be

consistent with La Rochelle Territoire 0 carbone 2040.

Two approaches are being studied: the networking of the three ITE approaches

and the creation of a cluster, to eventually allow a spin-off on the territory.

Networking is now in place, with BIOTOP and MER initiatives having increased

their exchanges. Through a better knowledge of existing synergies, identified and

processed flows, it is a question of identifying the skills and needs of each one in

order to implement possible cooperation (feed flows, development of new synergies

in other territories, etc.).

The creation of a cluster is not a topical issue but would make it possible to

structure this initiative in order to guarantee its sustainability and development. It

would be a question of creating an “innovative” cluster in ITE, according to models

already existing in other sectors10. The objective is to make it possible, through an

official structure (but with collegial governance), not only to identify an ITE entity

in La Rochelle but also to generate public funds in order to allow a real development

of innovative sectors in this field.

To our knowledge, only one cluster in France is positioned in this field. This

is the “Circular Economy and Recyclable Materials Recovery” Cluster

(Lot et Garonne), which brings together 20 organizations (companies and

public bodies).

10 Examples of innovative clusters: Silicon Valley, Sofia-Antipolis, Futuroscope.

108 Circular Economy

7.5. Conclusion

ITE approaches, rooted in the circular economy, are nowadays essential in the

face of the environmental and climate challenges we face. They are unique in that

they make it possible to achieve objectives quickly through the networking of

companies and organizations in the same territory, requiring both geographical and

organizational proximities. As exciting objects of study and research, ITE

approaches are not at the very least fragile, as they are based on an unstable dynamic

between public and necessary private funding and on sometimes contradictory

objectives. Their future is crucial to achieving the CO2 emission targets that France

and Europe agreed in the Paris Agreements in 2015. The mode of governance is

therefore an essential question, which arises even more saliently when it appears

necessary to coordinate different ITE approaches in the same territory, as a

condition for their development. While these concerns in this area may seem quite

new, it is likely that the short-term future will see a proliferation of initiatives

similar to those of La Rochelle.

7.6. References

Beaurain, C., Maillefert, M. and Varlet, D.L. (eds) (2017). La proximité au cœur des

synergies éco-industrielles dunkerquoises. Flux, 3(109–110), pp. 23–35.

Buclet, N. (2015). Écologie industrielle et économie circulaire : définitions et principes.

Économie circulaire et écosystèmes portuaires. Éditions EMS, Caen, pp. 27–41.

Chertow, M.R. (2007). “Uncovering” industrial symbiosis. Journal of Industrial Ecology,

11(1), pp. 11–30.

Colletis, G., Gilly, J.P., Leroux, I., Perrat, J., Rychen, F., Zimmermann, J.B. and Pecqueur, B.

(eds) (1999). Construction territoriale et dynamiques productives. Science de la société,

48, pp. 25–47.

Duret, B. V.C., Mat, N., Bonard, A., Dastrevigne, E. and Lafragette, A. (eds) (2007). Ecologie

territoriale : une aide à la définition d’une politique énergétique. Comprendre l’économie

physique du territoire. Les annales de la recherche urbaine, 103, pp. 73–78.

Duret, B.V.C, Des Gayets, M. and Dain. A. (eds) (2018). Pérennité des démarches d’écologie

industrielle et territoriale en France : constats, enjeux, et recommandations. Report,

Auxilia, Pôle Eco-industrie, Médiane.

Ehlinger, S., Perret, V. and Chabaud, D. (eds) (2007). Quelle gouvernance pour les réseaux

territorialisés d’organisations ? Revue française de gestion, 170(1), pp. 155–171.

Ehrenfeld, J. and Gertler, N. (1997). Industrial ecology in practice: The evolution of

interdependence at Kalundborg. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 1(1), pp. 67–79.

Erkman, S. (2001). L’écologie industrielle, une stratégie de développement. Le débat, 1(113),

pp. 106–121.

From the Circular Economy to Industrial and Territorial Ecology Approaches 109

Fernandes, V. and Kadio, C. (2017). Impact de l’économie circulaire dans le management de

la supply chain : une étude exploratoire. Logistique & Management, 25(4), pp. 15–25.

Gallaud, D. and Laperche, B. (2016). Circular Economy, Industrial Ecology and Short Supply

Chain. ISTE Ltd, London, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.

Geindre, S. (2005). Le rôle de l’acteur tiers dans la construction d’un réseau stratégique.

Revue française de gestion, 154(1), pp. 75–91.

Gobert, J. and Brullot, S. (2015). L’écologie industrielle et territoriale : une nouvelle logique

d’organisation des acteurs et de mobilisation des territoires. Lucrările Seminarului

Geografic Dimitrie Cantemir, 38, pp. 39–54.

Mendez, A. and Mercier, D. (2006). Compétences clés de territoires – le rôle des relations

interorganisationnelles. Revue française de gestion, 164, pp. 253–275.

Murray, A., Skene, K. and Haynes, K. (eds) (2017). The circular economy: An

interdisciplinary exploration of the concept and application in a global context. Journal of

Business Ethics, 140, pp. 369–380.

Orée (2016). Le recueil des démarches d’écologie industrielle et territoriale. Report, Orée.

Valet, D. (2012). Enjeux, potentialités et contraintes de l’écologie industrielle : le cas de

Dunkerque. PhD thesis, University of the Littoral Opal Coast, Dunkirk.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force

of the Circular Economy?

8.1. Introduction

After stating that we are what we own, Russell Belk (1988) now argues that we

are what we share (2014a): in more than 20 years, Web 2.0 has radically changed

our consumption practices. Bartering, exchange, sharing, co-production, co-creation

and shared goods are realities once reserved for interactions between relatives, and are

now widespread between strangers connected via platforms. Possession is gradually

replaced by use in a new paradigm of the economy of functionality, which can be

summarized as “the substitution of the sale of the use of the property for the sale

of the property itself” (Burg and Buclet, 2005, p. 29). Why own a drill when studies

show that it is used less than one hour a year when it can be lent, rented or shared?

While some uses of this new so-called sharing economy make it possible to

optimize the use of goods, they can go hand in hand with profits and do not

necessarily imply that they are free of charge or environmentally friendly. This

sharing economy is linked to the circular economy (as defined in Chapters 1 and 2),

which aims, from the design stage, to make better use of natural resources and

preserve the environment. The sharing economy and the circular economy

sometimes overlap marginally. Currently, mainly due to consumers convinced by

the ecological urgency, the circular economy has not yet spread massively. It is

facing Moore’s chasm (1991), which it is struggling to cross. The purpose of this

chapter is to provide a clear picture of new consumer practices and the motivations

and barriers that motivate consumers who have converted to the shared economy to

explore the potential leverage that these practices provide for the circular economy.

The managerial implications for industrial players and public authorities will follow.

Chapter written by Catherine LEJEALLE.

112 Circular Economy

8.2. Web 2.0 disrupts consumption practices

8.2.1. Arguments over definitions

Web 2.0 provides features to connect Internet users, to create or share

content (e.g. Wikipedia) or exchange goods (e.g. LeBonCoin) or information (e.g.

TripAdvisor) (Carroll and Romano, 2011). In comparison, Web 1.0 only allowed

one-way connections such as from an information site to subscribers, without the

latter being able to interact with each other or even respond to the information site.

Many companies were created to exploit the unprecedented potential of Web

2.0: AirBnB, BlaBlaCar, Youtube, Flickr, etc. Some make profits, others do not. The

term “sharing economy” was very quickly coined, but according to the authors, the

definitions vary. Acquier et al. (2016) compare about 10 definitions to conclude that

it is an umbrella concept that covers a wide range of practices and business models.

Some authors include gifts and bartering in the sharing economy, while others

exclude them. In addition to the lack of a consensus on the definition, the concept is

widely contested because in the end, sharing is non-existent or reduced. Belk

(2014b) speaks of semantic confusion.

While for most authors, such as the Directorate of Competition, Consumer

Affairs and Fraud Control1, sharing economy and collaborative economy are

synonymous, Belk (2014a) sees a difference. According to him, the collaborative

economy consists, for some people, of coordinating online the acquisition and

distribution of a resource for an amount or against compensation. If there is no

compensation, he describes it as a sharing economy, but not a collaborative

economy. It includes non-financial compensation, so that it considers gifts, bartering

and exchanges as part of the collaborative economy. However, he specifically

excludes CouchSurfing, the site where Internet users invite others to stay on their

couch without financial compensation or any commitment to reciprocity.

Concerning the sharing economy, Belk (2014a) distinguishes true sharing from

four forms of pseudo-sharing. The differences are related to financial motivation

(profit or not), the expectation of reciprocity and the existence of a community. He

thus theorized different forms of sharing.

Belk (2007, 2010) also defines the sharing economy in comparison to the

traditional economy based on monetary exchange.

1 https://www.economie.gouv.fr/dgccrf/Publications/Vie-pratique/Fiches-pratiques/economie-

collaborative.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 113

The main characteristics that oppose them are:

– reciprocity: if not systematic, it can exist in the sharing economy. It is totally

absent in traditional economics, which is based on a financial transaction with

payment;

– money: money, necessary for traditional purchasing, can be replaced by free,

donated, exchanged services or bartering in sharing;

– social bond: sharing can create a social bond, but not necessarily, if it is done

through a platform that respects anonymity;

– shared ownership: responsibility can be shared when users share a good;

– dependency: sharing induces dependency between users to set a schedule for

the availability of the shared good, which does not exist during a pure purchase,

where the owner is unique.

He thus describes a continuum of practices that range from pure sharing

(a mother’s care for her child) to commercial exchange (buying bread at the bakery).

Figure 8.1, adapted from Belk, presents this continuum.

Figure 8.1. Continuum between pure sharing and pure exchange

Platforms where sharing is based on shared ownership, free access and a social

link, such as CouchSurfing, are close to pure sharing. Platforms like AirBnB that

have a balance between sharing and exchange characteristics are in the middle.

Platforms like Zipcar with a dominant exchange characteristic are close to it. Habibi

et al. (2017) define a scale to assign a score to each sharing solution in order to

situate it on this continuum between pure sharing and commercial exchange.

114 Circular Economy

8.2.2. Mapping the sharing economy

In order to better understand what it covers, Acquier et al. (2017) propose a

model that organizes the sharing economy into three pillars, with intersections.

These three pillars are: the access economy, the platform economy and the

community-based economy. Each one offers different promises and leads to tensions

and paradoxes.

The access economy consists of sharing goods and resources that would

otherwise be underutilized in order to optimize their use. In contrast to the sale of

property that involves a transfer of ownership, this involves a company or individual

charging for the use of property and services, of which they retain ownership. Thus,

Michelin Tire Manufacturer no longer sells tires, but miles driven, to trucks.

Clarlight’s company is offering to buy light, not fixtures. And, since 2006 and 2007,

respectively, Spotify and Deezer have been marketing music subscriptions and not

music media. This is also the case for carpooling with Autolib in France or Zipcar in

the United States, Canada and Turkey, but it also applies to housing and swimming

pools, luxury clothing and accessories, gardening and DIY tools

or household equipment (drills, chainsaws, washing machines, etc.). It leads to

a post-possession society where use takes precedence over possession and brings

a benefit to the environment.

If the Agency for Environment and Energy Control retains it as one of the seven

points defining the circular economy (see Chapter 2) and if the Ministry of

Ecological and Solidarity Transition considers that the economy of functionality is a

first step towards the circular economy2, the researcher Tukker (2004) expresses

reservations by indicating that there are tensions between economic and

environmental incentives. Not being owners of the good, in the absence of social

control of a community and a lack of reciprocity, consumers do not take as much

care of the goods as if they were their own, or even make often inappropriate use of

them. Establishing effective control mechanisms is costly and often prohibitive. In

the end, the life span of the assets is shorter and the environmental benefit

questionable, or at least complex to assess. Indeed, a shared electric scooter offered

by operators such as Lime, Dott or Bird has a life span of about three months,

compared to the personal scooter that its owner takes care of, which can last for

years. However, the shared scooter may have been used for many more hours than

the scooter used by its sole owner. If this argues in favor of sharing, we must also

take into account the trucks that move the scooters from accumulation points to

where they are missing, and realize that the balance may not be so favorable to

sharing. Finally, the quality of scooters is not comparable: one is manufactured in

large series in Chinese factories to gain market share by being present everywhere,

2 https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/leconomie-fonctionnalite.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 115

the other is of superior quality. This example clearly shows that the overall impact

of use is more complex to understand than it seems.

Moreover, the Jevons paradox (1865) concerning the environment applies

perfectly to this case. In the 19th Century, Jevons noted that technological advances

and efficiency gains in steam engines did not lead to a reduction in coal

consumption but, on the contrary, to an increase in consumption, due to an increase

in demand. At a lower cost, coal becomes more accessible. Also known as the

rebound effect, the paradox calls into question the environmental benefits: by

reaching new consumers who until then could not consume for economic reasons,

there is an increase in overall consumption.

The second pillar, known as the platform economy, is based on the creation of a

platform that allows Internet users who did not know each other before but whose

expectations meet. The platform opens up a new meeting of supply and demand.

These platforms disrupt the economy by competing with existing players. The case

of AirBnB, which puts individuals in contact with each other to rent housing,

illustrates this. Critics accuse them of making profits without really sharing anything

or creating a community, while exploiting their employees (Carboni, 2016).

The third pillar is the community-based economy. It refers to non-contractual, non-

hierarchical, non-monetized initiatives of interactions within the framework of a

project, a task to be performed or relational exchanges. The objective is not to

optimize the use of a property but to create social cohesion, promote values and

accomplish a mission. Missions often have a political or ideological significance.

Linux and Wikipedia illustrate this pillar. Despite an egalitarian vision and a professed

openness, critics believe that they are finally recreating an unequal hierarchical

organization and producing social closure between people who share the same

convictions (Bradley and Pargman, 2017). Wikipedia responds that there is a need for

an entity that validates the knowledge spontaneously written by Internet users. This is

a paradox of openness and equality because the facts undermine official discourses.

8.3. The circular economy in Moore’s chasm

8.3.1. The pillars of the circular economy and the role of consumption

The circular economy is a new model that combines economy and respect for the

environment in a global societal approach. Better consumption will contribute to

economic, environmental and social performance (Bonet Fernadez et al., 2014). This

process of networking the actors of a territory will transform them and will also

modify employment (Maillefert and Robert, 2014). However, the link between the

circular economy and consumption practices is not addressed in the definitions. On

116 Circular Economy

the contrary, it seems important to approach the circular economy also from the

point of view of consumer behavior. They have a role to play in the dissemination of

virtuous practices.

8.3.2. Adoption of the circular economy: consumer behavior

Even if the circular economy is based on industrial ecology, which, from its

conception and intention, regenerates the goods consumed, consumer behavior is

fundamental. The adoption or rejection of the circular economy passes through

them, as a relay or incentive for industrialists and public authorities. Considering

the impact of consumers on brands, whether it is boycotting brands or changing the

composition of products, it is impossible not to be interested in their point of view.

Circular economic practices are measured by large state agencies. Thus, the

analysis of the characteristics of household consumption allows the Centre

de recherche pour l’étude et l’observation des conditions de vie (Research Center

for the Study and Observation of Living Conditions) (Siounandan et al. 2013) to

distinguish “constrained frugality” from “voluntary simplicity”. While the former is

the result of economic constraints, the latter is chosen, claimed and often militant.

Siounandan et al. thus draw up a typology of households in five categories,

according to their behavioral profiles and consumption strategies. There are:

– the basics (18% of the population), that are not interested in consumption in

general;

– the wealthy (20% of the population), indifferent to possible consumption

strategies;

– the thrifty consumers (22% of the population), in search of a good deal;

– the strategists (21% of the population), clever at finding good deals;

– the constrained (14% of the population), economically vulnerable;

– the engaged consumers (14% of the population), who use bartering,

opportunity, borrowing and generally choose frugal lifestyles.

Concerning the engaged consumers, households with two children are

over-represented. Siounandan et al. note that they have not adopted a consumer

behavior in response to the economic situation but in search of meaning. This survey

shows that only 14% of the population is reported to be deliberately adopting

behavior favorable to the circular economy. In addition, the household business

survey3 shows that, in 2014, one in two people declare that they pay attention to the

3 Figures and statistics no. 505, INSEE – SoeS, March 2014.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 117

origin of the products or the quantity of waste produced, i.e. a significant increase in

vigilance, but only 13% make it a systematic choice criterion. Parisians, rural people

and the elderly are more concerned about environmental issues, by sorting and

reducing waste.

8.3.3. Moore’s chasm to cross

In terms of adoption of innovations, Rogers (2003, first edition published in

1962) divides the population into five segments, according to their propensity to

adopt an innovation. Innovators (2.5% of the population) are the first to adopt,

followed by early adopters (13.5%), the first majority (34%), the late majority (34%)

and then the laggards (16%). Over time, following an S-shaped curve, the different

segments adopt innovation. Concerning hi-tech products and disruptive uses, Moore

(1991) observes that once the first two segments have been converted (16% of the

population), innovation collapses. There is a gap in sales or the number of

downloads. While the first two segments are fond of novelty and easy to attract, the

same cannot be said for the following segments, which, cautiously, require proof of

the additional benefit provided. In addition, this segment does not communicate with

the previous ones. Crossing the chasm and ensuring the diffusion of innovation

requires identifying niches for which innovation brings a perceived relative

advantage and then communicating specifically towards each niche. Percolation

between segments will follow.

The above figures on the uses of the circular economy show that its spread is

before the chasm, with 14% of the population convinced. The relative advantage for

activists is the preservation of natural resources, but this alone is not enough to

convince other consumers. We have to find more. Regarding obstacles, theories on

innovation show that the complexity of use has a discouraging effect. This is

corroborated by qualitative interviews conducted between June and September 2019

with a sample of convenience: adopting circular economic practices “makes life

more complicated”. Some sites like WAG4 clearly state this: “I don’t want it to be

difficult! I don’t know where to start!” In addition to this lack of knowledge of real

uses, there is also a lack of knowledge of applications: alongside some highly

mediatized applications such as Yuka, those such as TooGoodToGo, avoiding

waste, must be better known. The cost of a press relations strategy is not within the

reach of all start-ups.

4 https://www.wwf.fr/agir-au-quotidien/we-act-for-good.

118 Circular Economy

8.4. The uses of the sharing economy

8.4.1. Motivations

The authors cited above show that a possible contribution of the uses of the

sharing economy can be the ecological impact. Car-sharing (BlaBlaCar) optimizes

vehicle filling, while carpooling (CarTravel) optimizes vehicle use between drivers.

However, neither carpooling nor car-sharing is considered to be part of the circular

economy. On the other hand, they are practices of the sharing economy. The other

two motivations for using the sharing economy are financial (a more economical

solution) and social (creation of a link by belonging to a community).

A study of the motivations of the 900,000 members of Zipcar, a car-sharing

company with 10,000 vehicles, shows that, contrary to the ideals and values of the

platform, members have no desire to belong to a community and no desire to share

activities. Their motivation is purely financial (Bardhi and Eckhardt, 2012). Despite

Zipcar’s efforts to promote a new, more ecological and social lifestyle, users

have other motivations. This study suggests that the motivations are irrelevant, if, in

the end, the practices lead to a positive impact on the environment.

Interviews with BlaBlaCar users in France confirm these results. An occasional

driver on BlaBlaCar, Jean-François (telecom executive, 48 years old, 2 adult

children), explains: “It was my children who enrolled me because I had to drive

back alone from Lyon to Paris. An hour later, I had two passengers. I do it

occasionally if I’m alone, between Paris and La Grande-Motte for example this

summer. I loved meeting people who were very different from those around me. It

also prevents me from falling asleep at the wheel with company and it also

reimburses me for a portion of the gas.” Chantal (nurse, 50 years old, 3 adult

children) is sometimes a passenger: “I used to go to see my parents in Metz and the

train from Aix les Bains is not practical. My boys signed me up and I thought it was

very nice.” The younger ones are more interested in the price. Joaquim (student,

22 years old) says it all: “It’s unbeatable in terms of price, offers last-minute

flexibility that the train doesn’t have.” Axel (student, 21 years old) concludes:

“I travel more because it is much cheaper than a train or a plane. I’ve been able to go

to music festivals because of it.” This last verbatim quote illustrates the Jevons

paradox mentioned above. BlaBlaCar encourages this young person to travel more,

whereas the real ecological attitude would be to reduce travel. However, there is

some argument that the driver would have made this trip by car anyway; it adds

nothing. However, this leads to the emptying of trains, which then run when they are

less full. Again, the overall impact is complex to assess.

The interview with the founders of the sharing economy platforms confirms the

three possible motivations (financial, social and ecological). The founder of the

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 119

platform for the exchange of services and goods between neighbors, AlloVoisins,

Edouard Dumortier, says that his motivation when creating it was to create social

links and optimize the planet’s resources. The white paper5 he published sets out this

vision, but in practice, three motivations coexist:

“Is it really necessary to own or buy new products to consume? After

all, this drill you need so badly (to make only one small hole a year),

does it really have to be yours alone? What about the Rraclette

machine? In short, for all our daily needs, we prefer the occasional use

to ownership. It is cheaper, less restrictive and more responsible. In a

word: it makes sense! Neighborhood support is the future! But in

reality, some people want to enhance their hedge trimmer, which is

never used, and earn some money. Others want to meet neighbors to

share a meal or an outing. Still others are clearly motivated by

the environment. It doesn’t matter. The environmental impact almost

always results from this, even if it is not explicitly intended by

the neighbors.”

Braineet is a company with an ideation platform, open to all, to meet the challenges

posed by companies. A challenge for the BHV is to think of a friendly place where

customers can meet and exchange ideas. Jean-Philippe Lorinquer, its General

Manager, describes the motivations of participants who submit ideas online:

“The Braineet community is active through new and ongoing

challenges but the motivation to earn is limited. For example, one year

of shaving products. Participants are committed to sharing their

innovative ideas, reacting to those of others and feeling useful.”

The Yoyo start-up is an example of a strategy to accelerate participatory waste

collection. A total of 25,000 families have already registered to collect plastic bottles

by filling bags that they give away for a reward (cinema ticket, free transport, etc.)

to volunteer leaders (building managers). Its founder Eric Brac de la Perrière

explains:

“Collaborative collection is effective – the rate is 90% versus 20%

usually – because it creates social cohesion.”

Reward and social connection are two motivations that are put forward rather than

trying to convince with an activist discourse on ecology.

5 https://www.allovoisins.com/page/consommation-collaborative.

120 Circular Economy

8.4.2. Percolation of uses

Because it brings direct benefits to consumers, the shared economy is booming

(Habibi et al. 2017). The DGCCRF6 indicates that, in 2015, 9 out of 10 French

people declare that they have already carried out a collaborative consumption

practice at least once, which makes the French the European consumers who have

the largest appetite for the shared economy. As shown by the verbatim reports of

users of carpooling or car-sharing platforms, the use of resources (car, petrol, roads,

etc.) is optimized. These uses, which are based on the economy of functionality, can

serve as a lever for the circular economy. Highlighting the relative financial

(cheaper) or social (meeting new people, belonging to a community) benefits of

these solutions promotes the circular economy, and works for the environment. In

parallel with the many avenues proposed by ADEME to develop the circular

economy, this other angle of attack is interesting: changing habits by insisting on

two relative advantages other than ecology. The ecological conviction will come

later or never, but in the meantime, the environmental impact will be real. The

percolation of these uses of sharing economy will make it possible to cross Moore’s

chasm.

Table 8.1 suggests examples of communication aimed at consumers whose

motivation is financial (the economic and strategic segments identified above by

Siounandan et al.) or social.

Current communication Communication with

financial motivation

Communication with

social motivation

TooGoodToGo

https://toogoodtogo.fr/fr

Fight against waste

Treat yourself to a cake

for six people at the

Pâtisserie des rêves by

Philippe Conticini, one

of the best pastry chefs

for €16, which is 2.5

times cheaper than in a

store!

Are you watching The

Best Pastry Chef? Do

you love Philippe

Conticini? His sweet

creations are now for

you! Join the sweet

tooth community that is

enjoying itself!

Wag (We Act For Good)

https://www.wwf.fr/agir-au-

quotidien/we-act-for-good

Act on a daily basis

For the same price,

consume organic or

Label Rouge. All the

merchants near you.

Take up challenges and

participate in the

consumer community!

Join us by offering your

recipes and tutorials!

Come to our events

near you!

6 https://www.economie.gouv.fr/dgccrf/Publications/Vie-pratique/Fiches-pratiques/economie-

collaborative.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 121

Phenix Together, let’s avoid waste

Get a basket of 3 kilos

of fruit and vegetables

for only €5! Eat beyond

your means!

Get behind the scenes

of your local

merchants!

Frigo Magic

https://www.frigomagic.com/

A quick and easy recipe idea to

prepare an economical meal in

your kitchen

Do you have two eggs

and corn flakes left?

Enjoy a magic tortilla.

Easy recipes in 30

minutes max from what

you have left in the

fridge. How to enjoy

and save!

Amaze your friends

with easy recipes every

day and join the

community to share

your favorites and

gourmet tips!

Table 8.1. Examples of new communication

The managerial implications for companies, particularly start-ups, are twofold.

On the one hand, on the substance, they would benefit from modifying their

communication to highlight a relative advantage that may affect consumers who are

not affected by militant discourse on waste. The relative benefits highlighted in this

research are financial and social. On the other hand, in terms of communication

channels, this communication should also extend beyond the company’s website,

application and social networks or blogs. It could be relayed in the media,

particularly the women’s press or morning television programs for housewives and

pensioners as part of a press relations strategy. Lifestyle, cooking, travel or good tips

influencers could promote it on their Instagram accounts or YouTube channels.

These new prescribers would make it possible to reach a younger target group that

abandons the traditional media (TV, press, radio, etc.) and places its trust in

influencers. The implications for public authorities and associations supporting the

circular economy also concern the promotion of new platforms and applications.

A plan to help set up a press relations strategy, which is often costly for start-ups,

would be useful. Finally, highlighting the other two relative advantages (financial,

social) as a hook to change consumer behaviour, at least in the transition period, to

cross Moore’s chasm would be beneficial.

8.5. Conclusion

The sharing economy is exploding and now affects 90% of the French

population. Airbnb, BlaBlaCar or Flickr are practices that are widely integrated into

everyone’s daily life, in all spheres of private life (travel, transport, food, etc.). On

the other hand, the circular economy is struggling to develop and is stagnating with

13% of consumers engaged. The adoption of these disruptive practices cannot be

based solely on ecological motivations. Two other motivations (financial, social) can

122 Circular Economy

help convince the rest of consumers to take the plunge, to adopt new behaviors that

they often find complicated. By promoting a lower cost or an experience that is

otherwise financially inaccessible, thrifty consumers and strategists, or 43% of the

French population according to Siounandan et al., can be sensitive to these

discourses. Others will be more attracted by the social character, belonging to a

community, the exchange of ideas or a playful experience that these new

consumption patterns allow. Linking the circular economy to the driving force of the

sharing economy seems a good idea, at least in the medium term. Finally,

highlighting the fun nature of these applications with scavenger hunts, video

tutorials, contests, events and customized solutions is also interesting for reaching

the youngest. They are discouraged by the overly serious tone of the anti-waste

discourse. Depending on age and economic situation, appropriate communication

must be deployed. This opens up a wide range of possibilities for a hot topic of

current and urgent interest.

An approach over a long period of several millennia makes it possible to be

optimistic. In his 1923 essay on giving and the forms and reasons for exchange in

archaic societies, sociologist Marcel Mauss argues that the market economy is very

recent on a human scale. “It is our Western societies who have recently made man

an ‘economic animal’. But we are not yet all creatures of this genus. [...] Homo

oeconomicus is not behind us, but lies ahead” (1968). The natural form is not the

market exchange of the market society but exchange-giving, which inscribes the two

parties in a gift-for-gift logic which implies not two individuals but a larger group

(e.g. tribe). Economic phenomena cannot be limited to pure interest calculations but

are total facts. They involve politics, symbolism and aesthetics, even religion. They

induce rites, exchanges of politeness, symbolic goods, as illustrated by the potlach

and kula. “The underlying reason for the exchange-giving is more about being than

having.” Will we see a paradigm shift with a return to these total exchanges far from

pure utilitarianism? What if Homo oeconomicus is behind us?

8.6. References

Acquier, A., Daugigeos, T. and Pinkse, J. (2017). Promises and paradoxes of the sharing

economy: An organizing framework. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, vol. 125,

pp. 1–10.

Bardhi, F. and Eckhardt, G. (2012). Access based consumption: The case of car sharing.

Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 39, pp. 881–898.

Belk, R. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research,

vol. 15, pp. 139–168.

Belk, R. (2007). Why not share rather than own? The Annals of the American Academy of

Political and Social Science, vol. 611, no. 1, pp. 126–140.

Sharing Economy, a Driving Force of the Circular Economy? 123

Belk, R. (2010). Sharing. Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 715–734.

Belk, R. (2014a). Sharing versus pseudo-sharing in web 2.0. The Anthropologist, vol. 18,

no. 1, pp. 7–23.

Belk, R. (2014b). You are what you can access: Sharing and collaborative consumption

online. Journal of Business Research, vol. 67, pp. 1595–1600.

Bonet Fernandez, D., Petit, I. and Lancini, A. (2014). L’économie circulaire : quelles mesures

de la performance économique, environnementale et sociale ? Revue Française de

Gestion Industrielle, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 1–25.

Bourg, D. and Buclet, N. (2005). L’économie de la fonctionnalité. Futuribles, no. 313,

pp. 27–38.

Bradley, K. and Pargman, D. (2017). The sharing economy as the commons of the 21st

century. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, vol. 10, no. 2,

pp. 231–247.

Carboni, M. (2016). A new class of worker for the sharing economy. Richmond J.Law

Technol, vol. 22, no. 4, p. 11.

Caroll, E. and Romano, J. (2011). Your digital afterlife: When Facebook, Flickr and Twitter

are your estate, what’s your legacy? New Riders, Berkeley.

Habibi, M.R., Davidson, A. and Laroche, M. (2017). What managers should know about the

sharing economy. Business Horizons, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 113–121.

Jevons, W.S. (1865). The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation,

and the Probable Exhaustion of the Coal Mines. MacMillan, London.

Maillefert, M. and Robert, I. (2014). Ecologie industrielle, économie de la fonctionnalité,

entreprises et territoires : vers de nouveaux modèles productifs et organisationnels ?

Développement durable et territoires, vol. 5, no. 1.

Mauss, M. (1968). Essai sur le don : Forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés

archaïques, 4th edition. PUF, Paris.

Moore, G.A. (1991). Crossing the Chasm. Harper Business, New York.

Rogers, E. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations, 5th edition. The Free Press, New York.

Siounandan, N., Hébel, P. and Colin, J. (2013). Va-t-on vers une frugalité choisie ? Cahier de

recherche du CREDOC, no. 302.

Tukker, A. (2004). Eight types of product-service system: eights ways to sustainability?

Experiences from SusProNet. Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 13, no. 4,

pp. 246–260.

The Circular Economy from the

Perspective of Voluntary Standardization

The circular economy covers a set of concepts whose definitions, modalities and

impacts seem to differ from one country to another, from one company to another,

from one consumer to another. Some wrongly consider it from the point of view of

recycling only, others from the point of view of waste reduction, the pooling of

resources or the eco-design of their products or services. In order to respond to this

profusion of definitions and to help economic actors find their way around, the

Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) published its first document in

October 2018: the XP X30-901 standard.

AFNOR brings together experts, economic actors of all types (companies of all

sectors, government representatives, local authorities, NGOs, consumer associations)

to produce working tools, definitions and guides to facilitate exchanges between

actors. Having a framework that is shared and approved by as many people as possible

is a good way to move collectively towards more sustainable economic models.

9.1. Why and how has voluntary standardization appropriated the

concept of the circular economy?

9.1.1. A need expressed by economic actors

9.1.1.1. The interest of a standard

The concept of a circular economy dates back some 30 years. It first appeared in

1990 in Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment (Pearce and Turner

1990), but it was in the 2000s that initiatives multiplied. Awareness of the increasing

Chapter written by Anne BENADY, Melodie MERENDA and Mérylle AUBRUN.

126 Circular Economy

scarcity of our non-renewable natural resources (Meadows et al. 1970), climate

change caused by the overexploitation of fossil fuels and the massive release of

greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, mass production of waste and its impact on

the environment (the 7th continent to name only one, “discovered” in 1997 by

Charles Moore) are all elements that have motivated this profusion of initiatives:

eco-design, Cradle to Cradle®, incentives for waste sorting and recycling, etc.

As recognized reference frameworks, voluntary standards are essentially

intended to represent the consensual positioning of all actors (public or private) on a

technical, organizational or methodological subject, etc. Clarifying and sharing

became essential in view of the challenges raised by the circular economy. The

standard and its mark – NF in France, EN in Europe and ISO internationally –

ensure legitimacy that extends beyond borders and aims at a strong principle of

continuous improvement. As early as 2016, the X30M1 standardization commission,

initially in charge of waste-related issues, initiated an inventory of existing standards

in the field. It appeared that several subjects relating to the circular economy were

already well “equipped” (this includes responsible purchasing, eco-design,

environmental labeling), but that there was no framework to align all these

approaches towards the same goal: reducing the impact on natural resources and

effectively serving the three challenges of sustainable development: environmental,

societal and economic.

Within this commission, a group of experts was created to prepare a first

document: the XP X30-901 standard: “Economie circulaire – Système de

management de projet d’économie circulaire – Exigences et lignes directrices”.

Among the experts who contributed to this document, we can mention: the Ministry

of Ecological and Solidarity Transition, ADEME, the Suez Group, Tarkett,

Italpollina, the Envie Federation, the European Institute for the Economics of

Functionality and Cooperation, the Orée Association, the Institut National de

l’Economie circulaire, etc.

The work was quick. The XP X30-901 standard was published in October 2018

after eight months of work. It has the particularity of being an experimental

standard, which means that, given the extremely innovative nature of the subject it

deals with, its lifetime is limited to three years. These three years are an opportunity

to experiment “in the field” with the recommendations it makes. If the latter prove to

be entirely relevant and beneficial for the actors, it will be approved as a French NF

Standard.

1 Acronym referring to standards covering all environmental approaches.

The Circular Economy from the Perspective of Voluntary Standardization 127

XP X30-901 or how to demystify the codifications of normative documents

Standards have code names that may seem mysterious at first glance. Here is part of

the mystery revealed:

XP = experimental standard. This means that it has not followed the complete process

to become an official standard: it is not yet approved and therefore does not carry the

prefix NF (for norme française, French Standard). It is therefore in a “trial period” for

three years. At the end of these three years, the members of the commission that drafted it

may decide to modify the document, renew its trial period or have it approved after

having submitted it to a public inquiry.

In this case, as standardization work on the subject is ongoing at ISO (International

Standards Organization), it is possible that the initial document will be replaced by a

document with the prefix NF ISO.

X30 = the code name of the commission that produced the document (its full code is

X30M). More specifically, this group of experts is part of a larger committee working on

environmental management and social responsibility.

901 = the document code, among all the normative documents produced by the X30M

commission. The 1 at the end of the code means that it is a management system standard,

such as ISO 9001 (quality management system), ISO 14001 (environmental management

system) or ISO 37001 (management system for sustainable development within territorial

communities).

Box 9.1. Codifications demystified

9.1.1.2. An operational standard

Nearly 50 actors contributed to the work, each with its own vision, its own

specific challenge, but the same motivation. This motivation was based on common

definitions but, above all, identified the need to build a practical and operational

translation of the concept to support and guide all those wishing to implement this

paradigm shift. The aim was not so much to make a certified standard as a standard

framed by a management system that could easily be integrated into a conventional

system. The maturity of the approach can thus be validated thanks to the

requirements of the reference framework but above all to the measurement of the

achievement of objectives in the monitoring of the project.

128 Circular Economy

To achieve this, several principles guided the discussions:

– exploit all the wealth of initiatives implemented by public and private actors

already engaged in the transition of their economic model and go beyond the simple

“collection of good examples”;

– start from concrete projects to propose an operational project management tool;

– take into account the entire value chain to build this common framework for

dialogue between stakeholders;

– be part of a sustainable development perspective.

9.1.2. Towards an ISO standard

France is obviously not the only country to identify that a change in economic

model is inevitable. In 2015, the European Commission adopted an action plan to

accelerate the European transition to the circular economy (54 measures) and in June

2018, the circular economy package was published in JOUE. As for China,

becoming aware of its rapid development and the resulting consequences on the

environment, it has been able to invest in projects aimed at reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, creating eco-parks and eco-cities, etc., since 2013. A law promoting the

circular economy proposes, even in 2013, more than 80 macroeconomic monitoring

indicators for the circular economy.

AFNOR therefore proposed to take this subject to the international level, which

was approved by more than 40 countries. A technical committee, TC 3232, has been

created within the ISO (International Standards Organization) to produce not one,

but many reference documents on the subject of the circular economy. Indeed, the

needs are multiple: principles, reference framework, terminology, management

system, evaluation tools and indicators, territorial approach, etc., all subjects on

which the members of this new technical committee will work in the coming years.

TC 323 met for the first time in May 2019 to establish the roadmap for the work.

Four working groups have been defined and bridges established with other ISO

committees to ensure that all the work supports the transition to a circular economy.

Among these committees, we can mention:

– quality management and quality assurance (ISO TC 176);

– environmental management, and, in particular, the subcommittee 5 which

works on lifecycle assessment (ISO TC 207);

2 TC for Technical Committee.

The Circular Economy from the Perspective of Voluntary Standardization 129

– sustainable cities and communities (ISO TC 268);

– economics of sharing (ISO TC 324).

To date, TC 323 members are present on all five continents. More specifically,

55 countries are participating and 13 countries are observer 3 members. Both

developing and developed countries are represented on the committee. The

participation of so many countries reflects an awareness of the urgency of a

transition to a circular economy.

Through its proactive action within ISO, and its desire to defend a clearly

defined vision of the circular economy for sustainable development, AFNOR has

enabled France to establish its leadership and influence on the international scene.

9.2. The main principles of the XP X30-901 standard

The experimental standard, “XP X30-901 – Circular economy project

management system” is one of the operational tools for conducting any type of

circular economy project. It clearly positions the circular economy as part of a

sustainable development perspective.

The circular economy is defined as: “An economic system of trade and

production which, at all stages of the lifecycle of products (goods and services),

aims to increase the efficiency of resource use, reduce the impact on the

environment while allowing the well-being of individuals, where the value of

products, materials and resources is maintained in the economy as long as possible

and waste production is reduced to a minimum.”

The circular economy therefore leads to an interest in the entire lifecycle of the

product or service, and all impacts and/or transfers of impacts between seven

identified areas of action:

– sustainable procurement;

– eco-design;

– industrial symbiosis;

– economy of functionality;

– responsible consumption;

3 Observer members participate in meetings but do not have the right to vote. They are in a

standby position but can become an active member depending on the progress of the work.

130 Circular Economy

– extension of the duration of use;

– effective management of end-of-life materials or products.

The notion of a circular economy project refers both to an activity (providing

products or services) and to all the activities of an organization. The standard,

although a management system standard, can also be applied to the construction or

reinforcement of the strategy of the company that has chosen to invest in the circular

economy. The objective is to develop the traditional model in order to make it more

efficient and with as little environmental and social impact as possible. Some

examples of projects include: redefining a company’s business strategy, modifying a

logistics, design or procurement process, etc.

Based on the High Level Structure (HLS) – the universal structure of

management system standards – this standard follows the principle of continuous

improvement.

It is divided into 10 sections and has the particularity of containing requirements,

in other words, action and compliance obligations as well as recommendations to

help understanding and implementation. The existence of requirements thus makes it

possible to declare conformity with the standard if they are fully met. But the main

objective is to enable each organization to apply the challenges of the circular

economy to its activity or activities.

9.2.1. Structure and content of the reference framework

9.2.1.1. The context of the organization and the 3X7 matrix

A standard always applies to an organizational context, especially in the area of

sustainable development. Clarifying the organization’s context therefore consists of

defining the scope of application of the standard, by taking into account the

company’s sustainable development issues in terms of both activities and

geographical locations. We will discuss internal and external issues.

Diagnostic methods such as the one proposed in the standard on social

responsibility (NF X30-029) can be used to identify and prioritize these issues.

The need to meet the challenges related to sustainable development and the seven

defined areas of action allows the organization to identify the objectives and goals

necessary for the implementation of a circular economy project. The standard proposes

a so-called “3X7” matrix for this purpose, shown in Figure 9.1. It also provides some

examples of its use. A real project management tool, the 3X7 questioning matrix is a

methodology for identifying the priority actions to be implemented. It also allows a

follow-up over time of the project which contributes to its continuous improvement.

The Circular Economy from the Perspective of Voluntary Standardization 131

While the standard requires systematic consideration of the three dimensions of

sustainable development and its possible transfers of impacts, it recommends the use

of the 3X7 matrix to achieve this. We therefore have a combination of purpose

requirements and a methodological recommendation. However, the use of the matrix

is required when building its objectives and associated action plan.

Figure 9.1. The 3X7 matrix, a schematic representation of the project management

system contributing to a circular economy (extracted from the XP X30-901 standard).

For a color version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

9.2.1.2. The place of leadership, politics and management system in circular

economy project management

Like all management system standards, it is necessary to build your circular

economy project on the strong involvement of the organization’s management. This

involvement can be measured by taking into account the written policy shared by all,

the objectives defined according to the challenges, the context and the

methodological analysis specific to the circular economy, but also according to the

human, technical and financial resources made available. All objectives must be able

to be integrated into the various existing processes and comply with the principle of

continuous improvement. The circular economy management system put in place

will therefore naturally complement the systems already implemented within the

company.

132 Circular Economy

Figure 9.2. Schematic representation of the project management system and

its articulation with the standard. For a color version of this figure,

see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

To optimize the choice of priority objectives and targets, a diagnosis

characterizing the organization’s initial situation, in relation to the circular economy

project, is required. Based on the 3X7 matrix, the latter will also integrate the

regulatory requirements applicable to the organization, such as the constraints

related to the signing of a Regional Natural Park charter, for example, or those

related to ICPE regulations.

Compliance with sustainable development principles, such as transparency and

accountability, should enable stakeholders to be involved in the development of

strategy and objectives. This standard therefore positions itself at the interface

between the organization’s strategy and an approach that may initially prove to be

experimental on a product, project and/or company service related to the circular

economy project.

To monitor the circular economy project identified by the company, the latter will

have to set up a series of key indicators to measure the effectiveness of the approach

and its contribution to the seven areas of the circular economy, avoid the transfer of

possible impacts, and guarantee the principle of continuous improvement. From an

The Circular Economy from the Perspective of Voluntary Standardization 133

organizational point of view, the Management Review is an opportunity to review at

regular intervals, in order to identify opportunities for continuous improvement.

Each step of the project and its follow-up are documented and must be able to be

used as evidence of compliance with the requirements of the experimental standard.

9.3. The circular economy project management standard, a suitable

tool for evaluating, enhancing and improving projects

9.3.1. Towards a “Circular Economic Assessment”

To support organizations in their circular economy project, AFNOR Certification

has developed “L’évaluation économie circulaire”, a complementary tool to the

standard that evaluates the integration of its recommendations. It is an effective tool

for changing production and consumption patterns.

Based on the 3X7 matrix, the circular economic assessment allows organizations

(regardless of size), business sectors and legal structures to (re)question their actions

and responsibilities:

– on their value chain upstream of product production (sustainable supply);

– within their production process, manufacturing, R&D and support functions

(eco-design, extension of the service life, responsible consumption);

– on the supply side (economy of functionality, reparability, reuse);

– at the level of the territory and exchanges with local economic and

non-economic actors (industrial and territorial ecology);

– at the end of the life of the product placed on the market, in order to ensure the

health and safety of all consumers (effective management of materials or products at

the end of their life).

The benefits of a circular economic evaluation based on the experimental

standard are transversal:

– prioritization of circular economy actions in order to identify urgent actions to

be carried out internally as well as with external stakeholders, within the company’s

territory;

– optimization of the control of economic, social, societal and environmental

risks;

– improvement of the control of the project development process;

134 Circular Economy

– development of the capacity for anticipation and resilience;

– emergence of new modes of consumption and production, even new economic

models (functional economy, social and solidarity economy, collaborative economy,

etc.);

– better acceptance of activities, especially industrial activities;

– strengthening the mobilization of internal stakeholders around company

projects (from employees to members of the management committee);

– improving consistency and convergence between organizational management

system standards (ISO 9001 on quality, ISO 14001 on environment, ISO 50001 on

energy, ISO 45001 on occupational health and safety) and standards of guidelines,

and good practice for sustainable development (ISO 26000 on social responsibility,

ISO 20400 on responsible purchasing, ISO 37101 on sustainable development in the

territories, etc.);

– continuous improvement of actions and objectives.

9.3.2. First feedback from users

The first companies evaluated by AFNOR Certification on the basis of the

experimental standard appreciate its adequacy with the QSE4 management systems

(potentially) already in place: indeed, having an integrated management system

promotes the planning, implementation and completion of circular economy

projects.

However, how did these companies identify the project to be evaluated?

To date, two approaches can be distinguished: on the one hand, a global

approach, for companies that consider that the circular economy is already their core

business and that have the company’s global strategy evaluated. On the other hand, a

more iterative approach, starting from a more “modest” product or range

development project, leading to the involvement of all the actors of the organization

around this development (purchasing, conception/R&D, marketing, customers or

users, etc.).

Finally, the evaluation of the circular economy on the basis of the standard

makes it possible to challenge one’s circular economy project against the

requirements of management systems and guidelines, which is then more in line

with a project maturity evaluation perspective.

4 QSE: Quality, Safety and Environment, also known as Integrated.

The Circular Economy from the Perspective of Voluntary Standardization 135

9.4. References

Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J. and Behrens, W.W. (eds) (1972). Halte à la

croissance? Fayard, Paris.

Pearce, D.W. and Turner, R.K. (1989). Economics of Natural Resources and the

Environment. Johns Hopkins University Press, London.

ISO 37101 (2016). Développement durable au sein des communautés territoriales — Système

de management pour le développement durable — Exigences et lignes directrices pour

son utilisation. ISO.

XP X30-901 (2018). Economie circulaire — système de management de projet d’économie

circulaire — Exigences et lignes directrices. AFNOR

PART 3

Activity Sectors through the

Prism of the Circular Economy

Circular Economy and Construction

10.1. Introduction

This chapter focuses on the application of the concept of a circular economy to

construction. The latter is understood in the sense of an economic sector and,

according to Vincent (1985), comprises five main segments: building materials,

distribution-trading, construction and public works, designers and project managers,

and contracting authorities. To these five segments, we think it is appropriate to add

construction and demolition waste managers.

This chapter consists of four sections. The environmental issues related to

construction are first briefly presented. Then, sixteen elements of definition of a

circular economy applied to construction that were found in the literature are

studied. In the third section, a brief overview of policies, research and development

projects and construction and urban development projects are provided. Finally, four

main limitations to these definitions, policies and projects are discussed.

10.2. Global environmental issues related to construction

Construction generates significant material flows from the extraction of natural

resources, the production of materials and their use on construction sites, to waste

management. Construction materials are the first materials consumed by humankind

after water (IRP 2018). Among construction materials, non-metallic minerals and in

particular aggregates (sand and gravel) are the most commonly used (Krausmann

et al. 2009). Aggregates are used in concrete, asphalt mixes and road pavement

sub-bases. They are also used as backfill.

Chapter written by Vincent AUGISEAU.

140 Circular Economy

The construction, maintenance, repair and demolition of buildings and networks,

as well as certain civil engineering works such as site leveling, generate outgoing

flows of materials commonly known as construction and demolition waste. The

latter constitute by their mass the first solid waste generated by humankind

(Krausmann et al. 2017). They are composed of non-metallic minerals from

concrete, stone or brick structures, as well as metals, wood, plastics and bituminous

materials. They also consist of excavated materials, i.e. soil and minerals removed

from a site during excavations.

On a global scale, only one-third of the mass of waste excluding excavated

materials is recycled as construction materials (ibid.). Recycled materials represent

only one-tenth of all the construction materials consumed (ibid.). Moreover, they are

mainly used for purposes that are unsuited to their quality. For instance, recycled

aggregates are predominantly used as backfill and for road construction, uses which are

the least demanding in terms of quality (see Hashimoto et al. 2007; Augiseau 2017).

Material and waste flows are a source of environmental impacts and land-use

conflicts. The production of materials generates a significant extraction of natural

resources. The latter are largely non-renewable and sometimes in a situation of

scarcity: on a global scale, such as copper (Gordon et al. 2006), or on a local scale,

such as sand (Peduzzi 2014). In addition, mining activities, as well as the expansion of

the built environment and the management of construction and demolition waste,

generate land use that temporarily or permanently reduces the possibility of producing

or extracting both renewable and non-renewable resources (Bringezu 2002).

In addition to contributing to the depletion of non-renewable resources,

construction generates pressures on natural environments and harmful effects on

human health. Mineral extraction transforms landscapes and impacts aquatic

environments, fauna and flora. This is particularly the case for the extraction of

marine aggregates, which generates conflicts of use with fishing activity, as well as

risks in terms of biodiversity, fisheries resources and coastal erosion (Peduzzi 2014).

The production of materials also generates emissions into the air. Producing

cement generates 5 to 6% of the world’s anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

(Mishra and Siddiqui 2014). In addition, on a local scale, air emissions from some

cement plants cause respiratory diseases (ibid.). In addition, energy flows that are

also sources of environmental impacts are associated with material flows generated

by construction (Pullen 2000).

World population growth combined with an increase in the proportion of the

population living in cities will lead to the development of built-up areas, which will

accentuate the environmental challenges associated with construction. According to

Elmqvist et al. (2013), 60% of the built space that will be needed by the world’s

Circular Economy and Construction 141

population in 2050 has not yet been built. Krausmann et al. (2017) estimate that the

mass of materials accumulated in buildings and networks will quadruple by 2050.

Global material consumption, which increased 10-fold from 1950 to 2005

(Krausmann et al. 2009), could therefore double by 2060 compared to 2011 (OECD

2018). The generation of construction site waste, which increased sixfold from 1950

to 2005, will also continue to grow (Krausmann et al. 2017).

Figure 10.1 schematically shows the material, energy and emission flows

generated by the construction industry, as well as the environmental impacts and

land-use conflicts. According to Krausmann et al. (2017), approximately one-third

of construction and demolition waste excluding excavated materials is considered to

be recycled for construction, regardless of the form of recycling. In the absence of

an estimation source, excavated materials and emissions flows are not represented in

proportion to other materials flows.

Figure 10.1. Schematic representation of flows, environmental impacts and

land-use conflicts generated by the construction industry, For a color

version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

10.3. Sixteen elements of definition

Applying the concept of a circular economy to construction could be a response

to the environmental issues presented above. Economic and social benefits could

also result from this (European Commission 2019). However, the concept of a

circular economy applied to construction is not currently the subject of a consensual

and shared definition. Thus, the different existing definitions are studied here from a

142 Circular Economy

review of technical and scientific literature. Thirteen documents presenting sixteen

elements of definition are selected.

Construction Building Built environment

Three principles of

a circular economy

according to the Ellen

MacArthur Foundation

Athanassiadis (2017) (strategies) EMF (2017)

(principles)

Six levers for a

transition to the circular

economy according to

the Ellen MacArthur

Foundation

ARUP (2016)

(actions or

elements);

BAM et al. (2016)

(elements)

Strategies similar to an

R scale

Circle Economy et al.

(2018) (principles);

Geldermans (2016)

(steps);

Gemeente Amsterdam et

al. (2019) (principles);

Sommer and Guldager

(2016)

According to the stages

of a building’s lifecycle

Adams et al. (2017) (aspects);

French Ministry of Ecological and

Solidarity Transition et al. (2017)

(levers);

CSTC (2017) (axes)

UKGBC (2019)

(principles)

Definitions close to that

of sustainable

development

Circular

Economy

Programme

cited by Circle

Economy

et al. (2018)

Circle Economy et al.

(2018) (impact areas);

Gemeente Amsterdam

et al. (2019)

(characteristics or

themes)

Pomponi and

Moncaster (2017)

(dimensions)

Table 10.1. Sixteen elements of the definition a of circular economy applied to

construction, building and the built environment, classified into five groups

The scope of the review does not fully cover the construction sector as defined in

the introduction. Indeed, some documents adopt an object-based approach and deal

Circular Economy and Construction 143

with the building or built environment1. However, they provide definitions that are

relevant to our study.

Five main sets of definitions, presented in Table 10.1, can be distinguished.

Several documents, although they refer to the construction sector or industry, are

located between construction and building. In addition, definitions

are formulated in a wide variety of forms. Also, the terms used by the authors are

specified in brackets in the table.

10.3.1. Three principles of the circular economy according to the Ellen

MacArthur Foundation

Three principles of a circular economy have been proposed by the Ellen

MacArthur Foundation (EMF): “preserve and enhance natural capital by controlling

finite stocks and balancing renewable resource flows”; “optimize resource yields by

circulating products, components, and materials in use at the highest utility at all

times in both technical and biological cycles” and “Foster system effectiveness by

revealing and designing out negative externalities” (EMF 2015, p. 23).

Two documents use these principles. First, a definition of the circular-built

environment based on these principles is proposed by EMF (2017, p. 7):

“A built environment that is designed in a modular and flexible

manner, sourcing healthy materials that improve the life quality of the

residents, and minimize the use of virgin materials. It will be built

using efficient construction techniques, and will be highly utilized

thanks to shared, flexible and modular office spaces and housing.

Components of buildings will be maintained and renewed when

needed.”

In addition, the strategies constituting the model for the construction sector

within the Brussels region are derived from the three EMF principles (Athanassiadis

2017). The construction sector defined by the author excludes the construction and

demolition of infrastructure. The model highlights several sets of loops: “care,

repair, maintenance; reuse, repurposing; upcycling, remanufacturing, reconditioning;

recycling, composting” (ibid., p. 38, author’s translation). The author recommends

“promoting the tightest loops of the model [as] recycling should be minimized and

the elimination of building materials […] should be prohibited” (ibid., p. 37,

author’s translation). The current model of the construction sector in Brussels is

compared with the theoretical model developed by the EMF “in order to understand

1 The built environment, which includes buildings and networks, is an intermediate scale

between the building and the city.

144 Circular Economy

the transition needed to move from one to the other” (ibid., p. 36, author’s

translation).

10.3.2. Definitions from the six levers for a transition to a circular

economy according to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation

In addition to the three principles presented above, the EMF (2015, p. 26)

defines a framework composed of six levers which “offer companies a tool for

generating circular strategies and growth initiatives”. These levers are formulated in

the form of verbs constituting the acronym RESOLVE: REgenerate, Share,

Optimize, Loop, Virtualize and Exchange (ibid.).

Two documents are based on these levers. A census of projects representative of a

circular economy for the built environment published by the EMF (BAM et al. 2016)

presents examples of actions for each of the levers. The first three include regenerating

and restoring soils by building on wasteland; sharing housing, offices or infrastructure;

and optimizing construction through prefabrication, optimizing the use of space

through the use of vacant plots and dense urban growth. The next three measures

involve in particular optimizing the end of life of buildings and materials, modularity

of buildings and refurbishment of materials, virtualization of products and processes

and, finally, an exchange using more efficient materials and technologies.

A second document is based on the levers to illustrate how a circular economy

can be applied to the built environment (ARUP 2016). It also cross-references the

levers with an adaptation of the concept of building in “layers”, designed by

architect Frank Duffy (1990) and developed by Stewart Brand (1994). According to

this model, buildings are made up of six separate and interconnected layers, each

with a different life span. According to the authors, the application of this concept

would allow a better separation and removal of each element and thus facilitate

reuse and recycling. It would also allow each element to be repaired, replaced,

changed or adapted without affecting the building or infrastructure as a whole,

thereby reducing obsolescence and increasing flexibility and service life.

To the six formulated layers defined by Brand (1994) is added a so-called system

layer with the longest life span which, according to the authors, allows them to apply

their proposed circular economy approach to a neighborhood or city. In order of

maximum lifetime, the seven layers are: system (urban structures and services

including transport, energy and water networks); structure (foundation and load-

bearing elements); skin (façade and exterior); site (location of the building); services

(pipes, wires, energy and heating systems); space (walls and floors); and

miscellaneous stuff (furniture, lighting and information and communication

Circular Economy and Construction 145

technologies) (ARUP 2016). Actions for the 42 elements formed by the crossing of

the six levers and seven layers are proposed.

10.3.3. Definitions according to a strategy similar to an R scale

According to Reike et al. (2018, pp. 249–250), “in [a circular economy], the

distinction of various preservation stages of resource value using hierarchical

‘R-ladders’ or imperatives, is an essential operationalization principle.” A variety of

R scales are identified by the authors, the most shared scale being reduce, reuse and

recycle. Three documents on the application of the concept of a circular economy to

buildings present strategies similar to an R scale.

Some Dutch authors proposed four building design strategies: “reduce,

synergize, supply and manage” (Circle Economy et al. 2018, p. 15). These strategies

are prioritized. The aim is to reduce the demand for resources, then when the

demand for resources and the associated impacts have been reduced to a minimum,

one identifies local synergies that can satisfy these demands. When the opportunities

for sourcing from synergies have been exploited, requests are covered by clean,

renewable, recycled or low-impact sources.

A fairly similar scale of imperatives is proposed by Geldermans (2016).

The author uses the New Stepped Strategy, defined by van den Dobbelsteen (2008)

based on Cradle to Cradle concepts, which consists of reducing demand, reusing and

recycling and then meeting the remaining demand in a sustainable way by only

releasing emissions with no environmental impact. Geldermans (2016) proposes a

six-step strategy. In the first step, “the added value of the intended functions and

their materialization” is evaluated, which means the need for a new construction is

questioned. Step 2 aims to explore “current and future vacant buildings with regard

to availability and usability” (ibid.). Step 3 is about integrating “change in a new

adaptable design”, and step 4 is about applying “intelligent dimensioning” (ibid.).

The two last steps consist of exploring “the availability and usability of existing

materials” and integrating “high-quality future reuse” (ibid.).

Finally, although it is only partially similar to an R scale, the definition of the

circular building proposed by Sommer and Guldager (2016) highlights

the requirements related to the reuse and recycling of waste. Indeed, according

to the authors, “a circular building is a temporary aggregation of components,

elements, and materials with a documented identity, recording their origin and

possible future repurposing, assembled in a certain form, which accommodates a

function for an established period of time” (ibid., p. 132).

146 Circular Economy

10.3.4. Definitions according to the stages of a building’s lifecycle

Four documents propose elements for defining the application of a circular

economy to construction or building using a lifecycle approach. CSTC (2017)

proposes an “approach” and “concrete themes of the circular economy for the

construction sector” (ibid., p. 6, author’s translation) structured around three axes:

“The adaptability of construction, the choice of materials and

assemblies as well as the minimization of waste production […]; at

the end of life, selective deconstruction, reuse, remanufacturing and

recycling […]; new economic models of the circular economy such as

lifetime extension, sharing economy and functionality economy.”

(ibid., p. 108, author’s translation)

The document also refers to Stuart’s (1994) layers model.

A second document proposes a “framework for defining a circular economy […]

for buildings […] in order to support the actors and facilitate its operational

implementation in the construction sector” (Ministère de la transition écologique et

solidaire et al. 2017, p. 6, author’s translation). According to the authors, the

framework makes “the link with the reference framework for sustainable building”

(ibid., author’s translation) that they have previously formulated. This framework

consists of 15 levers grouped into five groups: territorial optimization of flows,

sobriety, lifetime extension, resources production so as to limit waste and

stakeholder management. In this context, some pillars of the circular economy,

according to ADEME (2014), can be found: sustainable procurement, eco-design,

functional economy, lifetime extension, recycling.

An article by researchers at Loughborough University in the UK provides a list

of key aspects for the application of a circular economy over the lifetime of a

building (Adams et al. 2017): design, manufacture and supply, construction, in use

and refurbishment and end of life. At the design stage, some concepts already

mentioned above are indicated: design for disassembly, design for adaptability and

flexibility, design for standardization, designing out waste, designing in modularity

(ibid.). For all stages, the authors recommend the management of information.

A guide published by UKGBC (2019) defines five sets of principles partly

organized around the stages of a building’s lifecycle. These principles are: reuse;

design buildings for optimization; standardization or modularization; servitization

and leasing; and responsible design and construction. The actions proposed for the

application of these principles are similar to the aspects of Adams et al. (2017). In

addition, as well as ARUP (2016), the guide refers to Stewart Brand’s (1994) layers

building model and proposes strategies for each layer.

Circular Economy and Construction 147

10.3.5. Definitions of the circular economy close to that of sustainable

development

Two sets of documents propose definitions of a circular economy applied to the

built environment or building close to definitions of sustainable development.

Pomponi and Moncaster (2017), in an article which aims to define a framework for

research on the circular economy applied to the built environment, propose six

dimensions for the latter: economic, environmental, technological, societal,

governmental and behavioral. The authors refer to the three pillars of sustainable

development. They also propose a definition of a circular building: “a building that

is designed, planned, built, operated, maintained, and deconstructed in a manner

consistent with [circular economy] principles” (ibid., p. 711). If these principles are

not clearly explained, the authors refer to the six dimensions mentioned above.

Circle Economy et al. (2018) also propose elements of a definition similar to that

of sustainable development. The latter are based on the Circular Economy

Programme defined by the Dutch government, which includes the objective of:

“the development, use and reuse of buildings, areas and infrastructure,

without avoidable depletion of natural resources, pollution of the

environment or negatively impacting ecosystems. Construction which

is economically responsible and contributes to the wellbeing of

humans and animals, now and in the future.” (cited in Circle Economy

et al. 2018, p. 11)

The authors also refer to the work of the EMF, as well as Gladek (2017), which

“considers the circular economy from a broader sustainability perspective” (Circle

Economy et al. 2018, p. 8). An adaptation of the Dutch government’s definition for

a building is proposed:

“A building that is developed, used and reused without unnecessary

resource depletion, environmental pollution and ecosystem

degradation. It is constructed in an economically responsible way and

contributes to the wellbeing of people and other inhabitants of this

Earth. Here and there, now and later. Technical elements are

demountable and reusable, and biological elements can also be

brought back into the biological cycle.” (ibid., pp. 11–12)

Seven impact areas are defined: materials and energy; water; biodiversity and

ecosystems; human culture and society; health and well-being; and multiple forms of

value (ibid.). These areas are cross-referenced with the four building design strategies

presented above. Similar elements of definition are formulated by some of the authors

in a document for the city of Amsterdam (Gemeente Amsterdam et al. 2019).

148 Circular Economy

10.3.6. Cross-referenced analysis of definitions

Common points and differences can be observed between the elements of

definition. First of all, we can note some common references to a large number of

the documents: the texts published by the EMF and the concepts of Cradle to Cradle

from McDonough and Braungart (2002), which themselves strongly influenced EMF.

At the building level, Brand’s (1994) layers model is frequently used, as are

the concepts of design for disassembly, design for adaptability or flexibility or design

in modularity. All the definitions emphasize, in a more or less marked (pronounced)

and exclusive way, the importance of recycling construction and demolition

waste, generally by anticipating future waste flows at the design stage.

The review shows that few documents cover all segments of the construction

industry as defined in the introduction. Indeed, a majority of studies focus on

buildings and, in particular, the new construction of buildings, the only modality

taken into account by some authors when considering the application of the concept

of the circular economy. In addition, the definitions use very different terms. Most

of them define principles or strategies, as well as aspects, axes, characteristics,

dimensions, impact areas, elements, stages, levers or themes. The majority of

authors favor the means to be used to achieve a circular economy, while others favor

the purpose of the latter.

The recommendations are generally not prioritized. This is the case for the three

principles and six levers proposed by the EMF. However, several authors formulate

hierarchical strategies that highlight the importance of reducing materials and waste

flows and their associated environmental impacts. Finally, we can observe more or

less broad thematic scopes, some authors focusing only on the material aspect of the

circular economy, while others integrate all or part of the themes usually related to

sustainable development. Before returning to some of the analytical points briefly

introduced here, we propose to draw up a brief table of policies and projects.

10.4. Policies and projects aiming to apply the concept of the circular

economy to construction

10.4.1. Policies

While the variety of definitions that can be observed seems to reflect a lack of

stability in the concept of the circular economy applied to construction, the latter is

nevertheless the subject of policies and projects: European, national or local

policies; research and development projects leading to the creation of tools; and

construction and urban development projects.

Circular Economy and Construction 149

Construction and demolition is one of the five priority sectors defined by the

European Commission for the European Action Plan for a Circular Economy and for

which the Union “should […] continue to support research, innovation and

investment” (European Commission 2019, p. 12). The same document identifies the

built environment as one of the “many other sectors with high environmental impact

and strong potential for circularity” (ibid.).

Several European Union member countries have defined circular economy

policies for construction. This is particularly the case in the Netherlands, where the

definition from the Circular Economy Programme was presented earlier. This is also

the case in France where several measures of the roadmap towards a circular

economy published in 2018 deal with the construction sector and aim in particular at

promoting the recycling of construction and demolition waste (Ministère de la

transition écologique et solidaire and Ministère de l’économie et des finances 2018).

Construction is also a key sector for 11 of the 12 strategies for the circular

economy supported by cities observed by the European Economic and Social

Committee (2019). Of the 210 local circular economy strategies studied by

Petit-Boix and Leipold (2018), 9% focus on the recycling of construction and

demolition waste or the eco-design of buildings. As well as the circular economy

policies for construction initiated by the city of Amsterdam and the Brussels region

mentioned above, approaches are being developed in France. This is particularly the

case for the roadmap towards a circular economy of Paris, the first three actions of

which concern construction and urban development (Mairie de Paris 2017).

10.4.2. Research and development projects

The application of the concept of the circular economy to construction has led to

research and development projects in Europe and France, resulting in the creation of

tools. Level(s), “the first framework of indicators for measuring sustainability in the

sector” according to the European Commission (2019, p. 9), is being tested by 130

projects in Europe in 2019. The second objective is to “optimize the building design,

engineering and form in order to support lean and circular flows, extend long-term

material utility and reduce significant environmental impacts” (European

Commission Joint Research Centre 2017, p. 10).

The European research project Horizon 2020 Buildings as Material Banks

(BAMB) carried out from 2015 to 2019 led to the development of the evaluation

tool, the Circular Building Assessment (Hobbs 2019). The latter aims to evaluate the

difference between a standard building design scenario and a so-called circular

scenario. It is based in particular on Brand’s (1994) layers model.

A relatively similar tool, the CE Meter, was developed by Geraedts and Prins

150 Circular Economy

(2015). Leising et al. (2018) propose a tool to facilitate the organization of a project

and in particular to enhance collaboration in the building sector.

Two calls for research and development projects from ADEME in 2012 and

2014 focus on circular economy for construction. The vast majority of these projects

aimed at developing the recycling of construction and demolition waste, with only

two of the 18 projects dealing with waste prevention. The OVALEC project,

financed by ADEME under another call for projects, resulted in the development of

an evaluation tool composed of four sets of indicators about the supply and use of

aggregates and waste management (CSTB et al. 2018). Four so-called circularity

indicators have also been defined in order to integrate criteria related to the circular

economy into Haute Qualité Environmentale (HQR – a standard for green building)

certification (Oury 2019). This work on indicators is being pursued as part of a

project launched in 2018 by the Fondation Bâtiment Energie (2018).

10.4.3. Construction and urban development projects

Examples of projects illustrating the application of the concept of circular

economy to construction are provided in the documents reviewed. ARUP (2016)

presents 41 case studies that “exemplify elements of circularity [while] few of them

are perfectly circular” (ibid., p. 18). Indeed, according to the authors, “circular

practices tend to occur at the individual component or asset level. They include

modular, prefabricated and off-site construction, design for disassembly, materials

reuse and recycling, and designing out waste” (ibid., p. 43). Therefore, “the prospect

of linking all aspects of the built environment through a fully inclusive and

comprehensive circular economy remains a challenge” (ibid.). BAM et al. (2016)

present 12 examples including research projects such as BAMB.

Two documents by van den Dobbelsteen (2008) and Leising et al. (2018) present

the example of the Park20|20 business park in Hoofddorp in the Netherlands. The

concept of Cradle to Cradle was used in the design of this neighborhood

by McDonough and his associates. Six innovative business models are identified by

Leising et al. (2018, p. 981): “Create value from waste […]; Deliver functionality

without ownership […]; Optimize material efficiency […]; Substitute with

renewables […]; Repurpose for society by designing buildings with a healthy indoor

climate […]; Inclusive value creation, via alternative solutions for ownership.”

10.5. Four main limitations

In our view, the definitions given to the concept of the circular economy applied

to construction and the policies and projects aiming at this application have four

Circular Economy and Construction 151

main limitations: an uncertain delimitation of the scope of the circular economy, a

low consideration of the territorial context, a scale for the application of the circular

economy concept that is often too narrow, and an insufficient articulation between

the circular economy and spatial planning.

10.5.1. An uncertain delimitation of the scope of the circular economy

between waste management and sustainable development

The first limit that can be identified concerns the extent of the scope of the

concept of the circular economy applied to construction. A focus on the recycling of

construction and demolition waste, including reuse, can be observed. This focus is

even more pronounced in policies and projects, particularly in research and

development. Emphasis on the recycling of construction and demolition waste is

entirely relevant given that the issues related to this waste have only recently been

addressed, in particular by strengthening regulatory objectives. However, the risk is

to lock the circular economy into a curative or end-of-pipe approach and to

reproduce some of the limitations identified for the application of the concept of

industrial ecology (O’Rourke et al. 1996). Narrowing the circular economy by

relating it to waste management only is a limit observed by Ghisellini et al. (2016)

for activities other than construction.

Moreover, it seems to us that this risk is more pronounced when the principles or

strategies defined for the application of a circular economy to construction

(and sometimes for all activities) are not prioritized. This is particularly the case for

the three principles and six levers in EMF (2015). While the absence of a hierarchy

makes it easier to adapt the recommended principles and strategies to different

situations, it has the counterpart of putting on the same level the benefits that can be

expected from waste recyling on the one hand and from the reduction of materials

and waste flows on the other hand.

However, research shows that even if the recycling rates of construction and

demolition waste increase, secondary resources can only partially replace primary

resources. In Vienna, if all construction and demolition waste was treated in a

recycling center, the consumption of primary resources would only be reduced by

7% (Obernosterer et al. 1998). In Orléans (France), recycling 70% of mineral

waste would only cover a quarter of aggregates consumption from 2005 to 2030

(Serrand et al. 2013). In 27 European Union countries, this recycling rate would

only meet half of the required consumption by 2020 (Wiedenhofer et al. 2015).

Therefore, a circular economy model for construction cannot be achieved solely

by a change, however strong it may be, in the practices of recycling construction and

demolition waste. An absolute reduction in inflows (as well as outflows), as

152 Circular Economy

advocated by the transformationist school of the circular economy identified by

Reike et al. (2018), is necessary to address the challenges associated with the

depletion of materials resources. It should also be noted, as Gemeente Amsterdam

et al. (2019) point out, that energy resources also present strong constraints and

limit, in particular, the possibilities of recycling waste.

However, extending the limits of the scope of the circular economy to confuse its

limits with those of sustainable development, as proposed by Pomponi and

Moncaster (2017), presents the risk of removing the operational characteristic of the

circular economy, which is one of the main strengths of this concept (Geissdoerfer

et al. 2017). As such, a balance must be found between an operational concept

aiming at responding to the material and energy challenges facing human societies

by reintegrating the activities of these societies within the limits of the biosphere and

sustainable development, which has broader purposes.

10.5.2. Low consideration of the territorial context

The second limitation that can be identified is the universality of many

of the definitions of the circular economy for construction and of the tools for its

application. Indeed, very few definitions refer to local construction issues, and in

particular to issues related to the availability of resources for construction. In addition,

some tools aiming at taking into account the local context are largely based on data

from national average values, as well as in CSTB et al. (2018) and Oury (2019).

However, the availability of natural resources (known as primary resources) on

the one hand and anthropogenic resources (known as secondary resources)

consisting of waste resulting from the renewal or demolition of built works on the

other hand varies greatly according to the territories. The same is true of the

potential for the substitution of primary resources by secondary resources. Brunner

(2011) considers in particular that three phases of urban development must

be distinguished: availability and potential are lower for fast-growing cities; they

are higher for shrinking cities experiencing demographic decline, while mature

urbanized areas undergoing high renewal are in an intermediate situation.

Among the documents studied, the recommendations for the Brussels region by

Athanassiadis (2017) are an exception as they relate the current situation of the

region to the desired situation. These recommendations are based on the analysis of

flows and stocks of materials and energy, an observation also known as the study of

metabolism and using methods developed in the scientific fields of industrial and

territorial ecology. The operational concept of the circular economy could be better

linked to the analytical concept of the metabolism to define strategies that take

better account of the territorial context.

Circular Economy and Construction 153

10.5.3. A scale for the application of the circular economy concept that

is too narrow

The third limitation that can be observed is the scale defined to apply the concept

of the circular economy. A majority of the definitions studied, as well as a large

proportion of policies and projects, are limited to the scale of the construction site.

Targeting new construction may be relevant in the case of fast-growing cities.

However, in already urbanized areas, the buildings resulting from new construction

represent relatively small surfaces compared to the existing buildings. As noted by

Pomponi and Moncaster (2017), more than three-quarters of the built stocks

currently present in developed countries will still be present in 2050. In these

territories, the scale of the individual building must be exceeded in order to

transform the entire existing built area.

In addition, the barriers to the implementation of circular economy strategies for

construction take place at multiple scales, from the construction site or project to the

city, region, country, European Union or even a larger international scale. This is

particularly the case for the barriers to the use of secondary resources in construction

in France, which fall within the insurance and regulatory framework (Augiseau

2020). Acting only at the scale of the construction site will not remove these

constraints. As ARUP (2016) observes, a circular economy can only be achieved if

strategies integrate different scales in a coherent way.

10.5.4. Insufficient coordination between the circular economy and

spatial planning

The fourth limitation that can be observed is the lack of spatialization of the

strategies implemented and their weak coordination with spatial planning. This low

spatialization is related to the two previous limitations. It also results from the

transposition of ideas originally formulated to improve the production of

manufactured goods (Obersteg et al. 2019). The lack of coordination between

circular economic strategies led by cities and spatial planning is observed by

Petit-Boix and Leipold (2018). Obersteg et al. (2019) make the same observation for

the six regional strategies in Europe they analyzed.

While an “urban plan or project also has a volume […], mass and energy

content” (Barles 2015, author’s translation), the impact of urban plans and projects

on materials consumption and waste generation is rarely a decision-making criterion

for urban actors (Kennedy et al. 2011). However, the work led by the International

Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme (IRP 2018)

recommends reducing materials flows by influencing urbanization processes. This

work highlights in particular the risk of high urban sprawl in developing countries.

154 Circular Economy

Reducing materials flows “requires rethinking the shape of urban agglomerations to

minimize infrastructure stocks [and] reducing resource consumption induced by the

structure and spread of the urban fabric” (Erkman 2004, p. 182, author’s translation).

Urban planning can also ensure that the waste flows resulting from demolition are

limited by giving priority to the refurbishment of buildings.

Local authorities can also promote the use of secondary resources by linking

urban planning with stocks and materials flows planning. The creation of a

spatialized database or cadastre of secondary resources (Brunner 2011) can provide

a basis for coordinating urban projects in order to promote flow exchanges between

sites. The Plaine Commune Urban Metabolism project (Bellastock et al. 2018), as

well as the Est Ensemble project (Augiseau 2020), aim to build such bases. Urban

planning and urban development are means of action on urban metabolism and can

lead to reducing materials flows. Circular economy policies and projects could be

strengthened by integrating spatial planning into their scope of action.

10.6. Conclusion

The literature review on the concept of the circular economy applied to

construction identified sixteen elements of definition. A great heterogeneity can be

observed among these elements, but the recommendations to anticipate and apply

the recycling of construction and demolition waste at the building scale dominate.

While this heterogeneity seems to reflect a lack of stability in the concept of the

circular economy for construction, a proliferation of policies, research and

development projects as well as construction and urban development projects is

nevertheless observed. The circular economy strategies that were reviewed could be

a response to the tough challenges that the construction industry faces, but they

should overcome four limitations observed in the definitions, policies and projects:

the uncertain delimitation of the scope of the circular economy, the low

consideration of the territorial context when defining strategies, the too narrow scale

for the application of the circular economy concept, and the lack of coordination

between the circular economy and spatial planning.

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Understanding the Concept of

Waste to Avoid its Production

11.1. Introduction

Even if the rhetoric of the circular economy is based on the reference to the

“new”, let us not forget the genesis of “zero waste” in light of the mythical “zeros”

of the “Japanese moment” and the ideology of Toyotism, with reference to the five

“zeros”: “Zero defect”, “Zero paper”, “Zero weakening”, “Zero stock” and “Zero

delay” (De Rozario and Pesqueux, 2018), an ideology of perfection in some way.

If the aim of the circular economy is to achieve a waste-free

socio-economic functioning, then it is essential to ask the question of an ontology of

waste, without which it would not be possible to establish the ontology of a circular

economy, except in a formal way.

The ontology discussed in this chapter assumes that waste is what crosses a

boundary, thus making it possible to characterize the area from which it comes, as

well as the area where it goes, both being in duality.

It is possible to consider waste as one of the analyzers of how a society functions

insofar as it is representative of social relations, class differences, gender duality

(male waste can be substantially different from female waste), cultural differences

between societies (see the archaeology of Paleolithic waste, which allows us to try to

understand them in the absence of any written trace) or conceptions of hygiene that

form the basis for the difference between clean and dirty; the dirty being the first

step in a kind of waste lifecycle, this lifecycle being the descriptor used to define

waste (its epistemology).

Chapter written by Yvon PESQUEUX.

160 Circular Economy

From an etymological point of view, the French word for waste, “déchet”,

derived from the verb déchoir, meaning decay, meant, from the Middle Ages

onwards, the part that was lost. At the beginning of the 19th Century, the word also

characterized a degenerate person. Anecdotally, let us note how the Japanese

housewife describes her spouse reaching retirement age as dai gomi (big waste) – a

sign of his loss of utility and social status and fear of seeing him too present at

home!

In the tradition of Serres (1990), let us recall the book by Montsaingeon (2017)

which notes that waste is an indelible sign of our presence on Earth as much as the

symptoms of the current world crisis, hence the injunction to reduce, reuse and

recycle it. At a time when reference is being made to the circular economy, this

utopia of a non-decaying mode is reminiscent of the Chagga tribe’s lie, evoked by

Douglas (1966): adult men of this tribe claim never to defecate. Montsaingeon’s

book highlights the quest for purity, built on the utopia of a technical mastery of

waste. So, utopia or dystopia? It tells how Homo detritus constitutes the dual face of

Homo economicus building the belief in a world that could be saved by throwing

away properly insofar as the circular economy would replace NIMBY

(not in my backyard).

And yet, when the human being is considered as a resource (through their skills

and labor force), they can also end up as waste. This is traditionally true for certain

professions and sectors of the economy, as well as for age, health status, etc. With

regard to the notion of “human capital”, it is a question of return on investment,

depreciation and therefore their passage to a relegation zone (less important duties,

marginal roles, etc.) or directly to waste status (early retirement, etc.). For example,

there is talk of “refreshing the age pyramid” in multinational companies. The

organizational agent can therefore be perceived as a “potential waste” with regard to

two references: their productivity and their “recycling” potential. This externality

is also managed differently according to the company (for example, with

pre-retirement status in France or the return of dependent children).

The relationship with waste can be a challenge for institutional construction

(1975 in France with the emergence of the Ministry of the Environment). It raised

the question of the relationship between biological society (the universe of the

family and its domestic waste), civil society (in its economic dimension with

industrial waste, non-economic with the debate on the place of NGOs in the theme

of waste) and political society (existence of a Ministry in charge of the issue,

public policies expressed in terms of subsidies, incentives and the alternative

between collection and what happens afterwards, in terms of environmental

protection).

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 161

As a descriptor, waste is representative of the inequalities at work within a

society. In line with the “fuzzy and ambiguous” dimension of sustainable

development (Pesqueux 2011), we find, with waste, this double aspect: why and

when does a good become waste? The ontology of waste would then be metonymic

with that of society, where waste is considered as an essential residue of its

functioning, and also as an “object” that gives rise to the construction of a political

discourse (what is the attitude towards the waste that is most often to be discarded,

given the whole issue of the efficiency of disposal) and moral (waste is not good and

it is in this sense that it is called garbage, a concept with negative connotations). The

reference to waste is a prism which allows us to enter into the dual dimension of

balance and harmony in a society.

The text is therefore based on two arguments: waste is what crosses a boundary

(its ontology) and waste is defined by a lifecycle (its epistemology), the

passage from its ontology to its epistemology being carried out in light of its

ambiguity, whose fresco of institutional definitions tends to build a Prévert

inventory1.

11.2. Waste defined as that which crosses a boundary

How can we define what waste is? When does an object become waste? While a

product is an “object” for some, isn’t it already “waste” for others? Through the

literature, waste does not seem to be the subject of an accepted definition, except for

institutional purposes. It is possible to hypothesize that our perception of and

relationship to waste depends on the social, economic and cultural context. In

addition, waste is linked to the means put in place at a given place and time to get

rid of it.

In mass consumer societies, waste is generally perceived as normal production. It

is in this context that the logic of waste recovery has developed with regard to the

notion of sustainable development, even if the link is not as obvious as it seems. In

developing countries, waste is often considered as a resource and a means of

obtaining an income for those who collect it. “Everything has a value, a use and man

still controls the cycle of materials” (Chalmin and Gaillochet, 2009). The European

Union proposes the following definition: “any substance or object which the holder

1 Jacques Prévert was a 20th-Century French poet. He was famous for accumulating words at

random in his poems, and hence the expression “a Prévert inventory” is used, in which we

may find very different things gathered at random.

162 Circular Economy

discards or intends or is required to discard”2, and in which the criterion of

“uselessness” or “utility” is decisive (a first boundary).

It is this crossing that now forms the basis for the transition from a status of free

private property to a public good that can be valued (the world upside down!)

(a second boundary), which forms the basis of the trilogy “recover–recycle–

valorize”. Once considered by its owner as useless, the good that has become private

waste becomes, by rejection, a public good. It is then most often placed within the

public domain and remains there until the ad hoc services or time and the elements

take it to another destination. In the context of individual property, “public space

functions as a periphery of the habitat, receives the waste and causes it to fade away,

under the influence of rain or traffic” (Botta et al., 2002).

First, the notion of waste, to be valid, is based on the existence of an interior and

an exterior (a third boundary), waste being what crosses the boundary from the

interior to the exterior as if it were a return to nature. By crossing this boundary, it

ceases to be the property of the person who rejects it.

This process of passage feeds the “willing-guilt” duality (a fourth boundary),

unwillingness when it comes to rejecting without any other form of trial, willingness

when it comes to sorting, to conditioning, although it is a rejection. This notion is

implicitly proprietarist with regard to the usus – which has led to its term, the fructus

– which has been removed from use and abuse – materialized by the rejection.

Ownership is the way this boundary is constructed, waste being what crosses the

private boundary (as a result of a structured approach) to go to the public stage

(where it becomes unstructured). It is the passage between these two universes that

forms the basis of its genesis it and induces the waste lifecycle.

For Bertolini (1990), waste is “nomadic”, its status as waste being only

temporary (a fifth boundary), the status of waste excluding it from the universe of

sustainable to send it into that of unsustainable. For example, with recycling, it

evolves, changes in nature and status: a plastic bottle is reincarnated into a polar

garment, a tetra pack of milk as a handbag or organic waste as fertilizer in the

garden. The recovery process is built on a transition from the temporary state of

waste, to a sustainable state of resource. Recycling is at the “boundary of which

waste is no longer” (Chalmin and Gaillochet, 2009).

2 Article 3.1 Directive 2008/98 EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of

November 2008 on waste.

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 163

11.3. The ambiguity of waste

Far from the eyes of the beholder, its future is of little concern to them. It is only

in light of local legislative progress and normative work, of the type initiated by the

OECD on extended producer responsibility (EPR), that it is a question of

restoring private responsibility (to the waste producer) by extending the

“polluter-pays” type of legislation that has developed for industrial and agricultural

activities. We could even describe this EPR as a sign of tension between defeatism

(we have to “do with” waste) and struggle. Conversely, when it is recovered in

landfill by a reclaimer or through a formal recovery cycle, can the recycled waste

therefore return to the private sphere (a privatization), a kind of archetype of the

circular economy?

With regard to the previous argument, it should be noted that there is a duality in

the value judgment for waste: in the duality of those of EPR, there are those in the

shadows with degassing, the release of hazardous materials. This duality is also a

sign of the overdose of a contaminated society.

Hence, waste for some people is not necessarily waste for others. Waste

therefore depends on social class, and in an omission, we could say that class waste

is also a founding act of waste class(ification). We then understand very well that

the “picking up – collection” of waste from the rich is more valuable than that of the

poor (“tell me what you throw away, I will tell you who you are”). But

is the economic value enough to support a class analysis on this subject?

Waste involves “picking up – collection”, i.e. a process of the type, “collection

by loading – discharge by dumping”. It is this process that now underlies the idea of

the transition from collection (the process of taking waste and which will be

fundamentally linked to its nature) to collection, this second name containing seeds

of the idea of recovery. It is with the collection process that we talk about

technology that links garbage cans, monstrous, bulky objects, “green” or vegetable

waste, toxic waste and the method of collection, landfill and incineration.

Waste is an object considered dirty and should be disposed of and removed from

the clean private space and thus purified (Botta et al. 2002). It is in response to this

that companies and public authorities have realized its usefulness and potential.

They summarize this ambiguity as follows:

“We will need to take waste into account in a new way, and take a

greater interest in it to resolve this contradiction, the tension that exists

between the desire to reject this troublemaker and the realization that

the blind rejection of garbage is a serious risk factor for our

164 Circular Economy

environment and our development; whose sustainability is no longer

obvious” (pp. 11–12).

Waste is not only the excreta that is essential and is treated as such. The notion is

also valid with that of scum, the other form of waste marked by the idea that we no

longer want it, that we must get rid of it. It is on this basis that the themes of

recovery, reuse and recycling attempt to build a return from the outside to the inside.

There is much less question, in these logics, of reducing them.

It is at the heart of this process that economic redemption lies with the notion of

“waste value”, which will depend on several factors: the scarcity of the raw material

from which the waste is derived, the profit that the people involved in the chain can

make (Wilson et al. 2006, p. 801), the standard of living of the individuals involved

in the chain (here we come back to the idea that waste can be a resource for some,

waste for others), the costs associated with its recovery or disposal and the level of

sorting (the more waste is sorted, the more economically valuable it is) (Hoornweg

and Bada-Tata 2009, p. 801).

Chalmain and Gaillochet (2009) distinguish two types of waste: waste whose

exchange value is negative and does not represent any economic interest,

particularly if its recovery involves a cost greater than the cost of disposal, a

negative externality then, and waste whose use and exchange value is positive and

which can be transformed into matter or energy according to its recoverable content.

The valuation process is used to create added value for a product that has no

original value. At each stage of the value chain, waste becomes a resource whose

price is increasingly negotiable.

11.4. Institutional definitions of waste

The fresco of definitions, functionalist in nature, lies at the limit of a Prévert

inventory between:

– waste defined by the Basel Convention3 on the Control of Transboundary

Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, is “substances or objects that

are disposed of, intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of under

the provisions of national law”;

3 Basel Convention, Article 2, paragraph 1,

https://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/text/BaselConventionText-e.pdf.

Adopted by the Plenipotentiary Conference on March 22, 1989, it entered into force on

May 5, 1992.

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 165

– solid waste is defined by the United Nations Agenda 214 as “all domestic refuse

and non-hazardous waste such as commercial and institutional waste, street

sweepings and construction debris”;

– the definition of the French Environmental Code (Title IV of Book

V – Prevention of pollution, risks and nuisances), which defines waste as “any

substance or object, or more generally any item, of which the holder is disposing or

of which he has the intention or the obligation to dispose” (Article L 541-1-1)5;

– waste recovery is defined by Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament

and of the European Council of November 19, 2008, on waste as “any operation the

principle result of which is waste serving a useful purpose by replacing other

materials which would otherwise have been used to fulfil a particular function, or

waste being prepared to fulfil that function, in a factory or in the wider economy”.

More specifically, the French organization ADEME (Agence de l’environnement

et de la maîtrise de l’énergie) presents waste recovery as “a generic term covering

the reuse, repurposing, regeneration, recycling, organic recovery or energy recovery

of waste”6;

– household waste concerns all individuals, in their different aspects as citizens,

inhabitants and consumers; the French Environmental Code defines it, in article

R 541-8, as “any waste, hazardous or non-hazardous, the producer of which is a

household”7.

Within household waste, we distinguish between:

– household waste: waste resulting from the domestic activity of households and

which can be sorted (selective collection) or not (we refer here to residual household

waste);

4 Agenda 21, Section 21.3,

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf.

5 Environmental Code resulting from Ordinance No. 2000-914 of September 18, 2000, on the

legislative section of the Environmental Code. Books I, III, IV and V of the regulatory section

of the Environmental Code were published by Decree No. 2005-935 of August 2, 2005, on the

regulatory section of the Environmental Code and Books II and VI were published by Decree

No. 2007-397 of March 22, 2007.

6 www2.ademe.fr.

7 INSEE, Definition, method and quality, “In general, a household, in the statistical sense of

the term, refers to all the occupants of the same dwelling without these persons necessarily

being related to each other (in the case of cohabitation, for example). A household can be

composed of only one person”: http://www.insee.fr/fr/methodes/default.asp?page=

definitions/menage.htm, accessed on 15/07/19.

166 Circular Economy

– bulky objects: domestic waste which, because of its volume or weight, cannot

be taken into account by the usual collection of household waste and requires a

specific management method;

– special waste: this is domestic hazardous waste (paints, solvents, batteries, etc.)

that requires a specific management method8;

– “household waste” (HW) is relatively similar to and often associated with

“household and similar waste” (HSW), which includes assimilated waste

(or garbage).

The functional typology of waste is as follows:

– municipal solid waste, which includes household and similar waste, special

household waste, waste from roads, markets and public places, green waste from

public spaces, agricultural waste, wood waste and ordinary industrial waste. They

can be classified as putrescible waste (food waste, leftovers, garden waste), paper,

cardboard, glass, plastics, textiles, wood and metals, scrap metal, copper pieces,

aluminum scrap, etc.;

– special household waste is mainly composed of batteries, light bulbs, solvents,

paint, varnish, glues, batteries, toner cartridges for printers, fluorescent tubes,

cleaning products, aerosols and plant protection products;

– toxic waste in dispersed quantity is the same as the above waste but is held by

industries. Products containing organic and metallic micro-pollutants are then added

to the previous list. With special household waste, they have a potential risk because

they are heterogeneous, sources of disparate hazards and are subject to specific

selective sorting policies, specific collection and treatment processes;

– non-hazardous waste from economic activities comes from industrial

production and is assimilated, to the nearest scale, to household waste;

– electrical and electronic equipment waste (or e-waste for the electronic part).

The issue of waste is part of different levels of international thinking. It has been

incorporated into the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted at the Summit

on Sustainable Development (September 25, 2015) by UN Member States9 with

regard to three objectives: to halve the amount of food waste per capita globally by

2030; to achieve environmentally sound management of chemicals and all waste

8 ADEME, Report “Déchets - Edition 2015”.

http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/chiffres-cles- waste-201507_8500.pdf.

9 United Nations Development Program, SDG, Goal 12, “Ensure sustainable consumption

and production patterns”.

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 167

throughout their lifecycle and to significantly reduce waste generation through

prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse by 2030.

At the European level, the development and implementation of waste

management legislation and policies is carried out within the framework of several

European policies and programs such as the EU’s “7th Environment Action

Programme (EAP)”10, the “Europe 2020 Strategy” or the “Roadmap to a Resource

Efficient Europe”11. In December 2015, a new legislative package “Circular

Economy”12 was proposed and presented to the European Parliament in June 2016.

The Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC is the subject of most of the

amendments tabled, as this Directive is directly linked to all the others (Directive

94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste, Directive 1999/31/EC on landfill

waste, Directive 2000/53/EC on end-of-life vehicles, Directive 2006/66/EC on

batteries and accumulators and Directive 2012/19/EC on waste electrical and

electronic equipment).

In France, waste management is also part of several programs and levels

of obligation. The Programme national de prévention des déchets 2014–2020

(French National Waste Prevention Program 2014–2020) aims to gradually break

the link between economic growth and waste production, by extending previous

prevention actions and setting new targets such as a 7% reduction in DMAs

compared to 2010 and the stabilization of business waste. In addition to this

program, the Plan de reduction et de valorisation des déchets 2014–2020 (French

Waste Reduction and Recovery Plan 2014–2020)13 reinforces the role of waste

policy in the transition to a circular economy with targets for 2020: a 10% reduction

in DMA produced per capita (compared to 2010), the recovery of non-inert

hazardous waste materials by 55% in 2020 and 60% in 2025 and a 30% reduction in

landfill tonnage by 2020 and 50% by 2025. The Loi relative à la Transition

Energétique pour la Croissance Verte (French Law on Energy Transition for Green

Growth) (Law No. 2015-992 of August 17, 201514), in its Title IV, “Combating

waste and promoting the circular economy: From product design to recycling”, sets

10 European Commission, eea.europa.eu/policy-documents/7th-environmental-action-programme.

11 European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/resource_efficiency/about/

roadmap/index_en.htm.

12 European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy.

13 French Ministry of Environment, Energy and Sea, “Plan de réduction et de valorisation

des déchets 2014–2020”, http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/14201_RV-

plan-dechet-gd-public_BATlight-2.pdf.

14 Legifrance, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT0000310

44385&categorieLien=id5.

168 Circular Economy

the objective of going beyond the linear economic model and affirms the essential

role of national waste prevention and management policy in achieving this.

The organization of waste management is based on the principle of extended

producer responsibility (EPR). Promoted by the Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD) in the 1990s, the producer of a product is

responsible for the product throughout its lifecycle. One of the objectives is to

internalize environmental costs in the price of new products, including collection,

recycling and treatment costs. It should also encourage the producer to take

environmental aspects into account from the product design stage, in order to

prevent waste generation at source and to facilitate recycling15. There are currently

14 mandatory EPR programs. Seven of them are imposed by a European directive or

in response to a European directive or a Community regulation (batteries and

accumulators, electrical and electronic equipment – DEEE, cars, lubricants,

household packaging, fluorinated refrigerants and medicines). The other seven are

imposed by national regulations (tires, graphic papers, textiles/homeware and

footwear, furniture, chemicals, infectious risk care activities and gas bottles). In

addition to the EPR programs imposed by regulations, voluntary agreements have

been set up between economic actors and public authorities (plastic packaging for

agricultural supplies, printing cartridges and mobile homes). Producers are

responsible for the collection and treatment of their products at the end of their

lifecycle, and, faced with diffuse and composite volumes, they have joined forces to

set up organizations – eco-organizations – to which they delegate these

responsibilities and which occupy a central place in the EPR programs with a dual

mission: a political mission of general interest for the collection and treatment of

waste in compliance with national and European regulations, and an economic and

managerial mission focused on seeking efficiency, reducing costs and optimizing

resources. There are two types of eco-organizations: eco-organizations whose

actions consist of collecting the eco-contributions due by the marketers and of

paying financial support to certain actors, such as local authorities (this is the case

for packaging and graphic papers), and so-called operational eco-organizations if the

producer’s responsibility they assume concerns the collection and treatment of used

products. In this case, they use service providers selected by invitation to tender

(e.g. tires, batteries and accumulators or DEEE16).

15 Ministère de l’Environnement, de l’Energie et de la Mer, “Principe de Responsabilité

élargie du producteur”, http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Le-principe-de-la-

responsabilite,12046.html.

16 Cottel and Chevrollier, (2013) “La gestion des déchets dans le cadre des filières à

responsabilité élargie des producteurs”, Assemblée Nationale, http://www.assemblee-

nationale.fr/14/rap-info/i1347.asp.

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 169

11.5. Lifecycle analysis

This is based on a phased decomposition:

– pre-collection, which is all the operations organizing the disposal of waste

from the place of its production to its acceptance by an approved municipal or

private service;

– recovery that is carried out between pre-collection and collection and

corresponds to all the operations organized for recovery. It is carried out through

two channels: direct collection from households and industry or from collection

points, recovery from landfill, etc.;

– collection, which includes all organized waste collection action by any natural

or legal person authorized for this purpose. The European directive17 defines

collection as “the gathering of waste, including the preliminary sorting and

preliminary storage of waste for the purposes of transport to a waste treatment

facility”. The idea of sorting is present here. Collection activity depends on the

topography of the areas covered, population density, the nature of the issuers

(households, companies due to quantities) and the condition of the infrastructure. It

is based on two main rationales: fixed-point collection (agents voluntarily deposit

waste there, collection takes place at regular intervals to take its contents to sorting

and/or treatment centers) and door-to-door collection, which involves the direct

transfer of waste inside collection vehicles;

– reuse, which is defined as the use of waste by another entity and/or for

a different use (plastic bags which then serve as a garbage bag). The flea market is a

method of organizing reuse. It consists of re-injecting objects that have already been

used into the market at prices much lower than those of equivalent materials. This is

also referred to as “second hand”. The flea market offers a double advantage: an

additional income for the entities that sell them and an affordable price for those that

buy them;

– recycling, which is the “recovery operation by which waste materials are

reprocessed into products, materials or substances whether for the original or other

purposes”18. Some materials are more easily recyclable than others. Recycling is

generally the result of a “refining” process leading to a homogeneous raw material,

refining also inducing waste and pollution. It is also about upcycling, which is a

reuse to make something else;

17 European Directive, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0098.

18 European Directive, ibid.

170 Circular Economy

– transformation of the material based on prior preparation of the waste for

another use. The two most common logics are methanization and composting and

the main uses are the production of energy, heat or use as an input in agriculture.

Unlike recycling, the issue is not the homogeneity of the material resulting from the

process but its possible use in relation to the three main uses mentioned above.

ADEME defines composting as “a process of aerobic fermentation of fermentable

materials under controlled conditions. It makes it possible to obtain a stabilized

fertilizing material rich in wet compounds, which can be used, if of sufficient

quality, as an organic amendment improving soil structure and fertility”. It is a

traditional form of recovery mainly targeting organic waste with two constraints:

sufficient regularity of the process and non-toxicity of inputs. Methanization is

“a treatment of waste or fermentable organic matter in the absence of oxygen in an

anaerobic environment in tanks called digesters”19. Methanization has a double

recovery in terms of organic matter (the “digestate”) mainly used in agriculture and

energy (biogas), which will in turn be recycled to produce energy and/or heat. This

second aspect raises high expectations as an important element in reducing the

ecological footprint. Cogeneration is defined as the use of by-products of a

production process as fuel;

– final disposal, which is defined as “any operation which is not recovery even

when the operation has as a secondary consequence the reclamation of substances or

energy”20. This is the ultimate fate of waste. These are mainly landfill, burying or

incineration. Landfills can be controlled, semi-controlled or so-called “wild”.

Landfilling requires the existence of natural and/or artificial cavities and raises the

question of their control. Incineration raises the question of associated pollution.

The “reuse–recycling–transformation” (RRT) set is part of a waste hierarchy.

Waste recovery raises several questions: that of harmonizing the modalities

of the socio-technical recovery chain, that of “legislation–regulation”, that of

implementing a circular economy and that of involving agents “in” and “around” the

recovery chain. The reference to principles is then made: the principle of prevention

(of waste production), the precautionary principle (anticipation of the negative

effects associated with waste), the principle of coordination (of the elements of the

recovery chain), the principle of coherence between the links, of collaboration,

the principle of cooperation between the agents concerned “by” and “around” the

recovery chain, the principle of hierarchical waste recovery, the principle of

19 Ministère du Développement Durable, de l’Ecologie et de l’Energie, www.developpement-

durable.gouv.fr.

20 Directive 2008/98 of the European Parliament and of the Council of Europe of 19 November

2008, on waste.

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 171

producer responsibility of the “polluter pays” type, the principle of proximity

(of waste treatment in relation to its place of production) and the principle of social

and cultural inclusion of members of society.

11.6. Conclusion: arguing about boundaries

Conceptualizing waste means arguing about boundaries:

– “life–death”: from an anthropological point of view, and in a first symbolic

dimension, waste, when it crosses the boundary of the person who gets rid of it,

constitutes a form of death, that of the product that we no longer want;

– “clean–dirty”: from an anthropological point of view, waste is what marks the

boundary of what is no longer considered clean, therefore of what becomes dirty. It

is in this respect that a cultural definition of waste is possible, thus marking the

possibility of comparing (and not being able to compare) the issue of waste in space

and time. In the same vein, we will find the “fresh–worn out” tension of a

chronological order, that of the “keep–throw away” of an anthropological order with

all the symbolism of the rubbish that will then be attached to the waste from which it

becomes necessary to get rid of;

– “inside–outside” of a methodological nature: when do we move from the inside

to the outside?

– “waste-free society–waste society” of a socio-economic nature. This tension is

at least representative of the “nature–culture” relationship as well as of the socio-

technical trajectories followed. The theme of waste management is representative of

a concept of a return to nature that will be found at the heart of the “linear –circular”

tension. With regard to the relationship between waste and nature, we will also find

the tension between “solid waste and organic waste”, the two types of waste leading

to a different approach to their management. The circular economy stricto sensu

refers to an economic organization that takes into account the consumption of water,

raw materials and energy sources. The aim is to close the lifecycle of products with

regard to the objective of “zero waste”;

– “active–passive” of an ontological nature depending on whether the waste is

considered manageable or inevitable;

– “high–low” of a socio-political nature (where we find the ellipse “waste of

class–class of waste”);

– “formal–informal” of an epistemological nature, the crossing of the boundary

tends to give waste an informal dimension (and we are then in the socio-political

universe). It is the formal dimension that makes it possible to build a problem- solving

172 Circular Economy

approach, the informal one leading to an inductive approach (how to deal with it). It is

also the institution that formalizes the formal dimension of waste, opening the field of

what happens between the formal and the informal and allowing the logic of

experimentation in the way of dealing with waste. It is also this tension that will

make it possible to fix the cursor between the two dimensions, which are those of

protection (of the environment of waste, for example) and conservation

(of an area by refusing the entry of waste and by installing a systematic waste exit

system).

– “private good–public good” of a political nature: when waste crosses the

boundary of the private to become public, it is transformed from private good, it

becomes public good;

– “flow–stock” of a kinematic nature, leading to the design of waste as a

co-production or an externality that would then have to be dealt with, a question that

is considered from an economic point of view. This boundary intersects with

another, the one that is valid with the “temporary–permanent” duality of a

chronological order. It is important to highlight here the existence of permanent

global waste (see nuclear waste);

– “supply–demand” of an economic nature, that refers to the question of the

existence of an economic opportunity for valorization. This boundary is the one that

validates value chain reasoning from the industrial economy. The

“supply–demand” tension also opens the door to the development of a waste trading

activity. It is the value chain reasoning that will make it possible to specify steps that

will link a collector and a pre-collection and/or collection activity, under the prism

of recovery. The waste is then considered a convertible resource from the loss of

value to a gain of value and we then cross-reference it with the tension, “useless–not

useful–useful”;

– “linear–circular”, of a topological nature, the linear is an economy that

considers the chain that operates between entry and exit, waste then being a

co-product, a linked product or a “fatal product” resulting from the functioning of

the chain and which is then reducible only with regard to the socio-technical

dimension of the chain (see the theme of “zero waste” or that of “residue”). The

circular economy emphasizes the movement that raises the question of opportunity

throughout the circuit’s operation. The “integration–disintegration” tension is related

to the previous one, the integration of waste being representative of a circular

design, while the disintegration of waste is related to a linear design;

– “elimination–recovery”, of a practical nature, a tension that is in the shadow of

the previous one and which is also of an economic nature. It is also an outcome of

the relationship established between these two dimensions by public policies insofar

Understanding the Concept of Waste to Avoid its Production 173

as elimination (or not) as well as the trajectory of elimination is the issue of what is

necessary or what is being discussed (and therefore what is at risk);

– “north–south”, of a geographical nature, the movement of waste being marked

by the trajectories of the flows. Their nature differs according to whether they are

“south–south”, “south–north”, “north–south” or “north–north” circulations. Wasn’t

there a question of financing development from funding associated with waste

transfers from north to south? This representation of flows is based on a geopolitical

approach. The inhabitants of Dakar describe furniture and objects from Europe as

“coming”, bought and transported by containers to be resold on the spot. The

inhabitants of Abidjan describe as “France, goodbye” vehicles of respectable age,

whether they are cars, trucks or buses that have been recovered in Europe as part of

“scrapping premiums” or because they have not passed the anti-pollution tests and

are then sent to Africa;

– “urban–rural” of a human geography nature: urban waste is not the same as

rural waste, its nature and reuse operating according to different logics both in terms

of recovery (urban waste is a more complex technical and social process than rural

waste, which can be just as dangerous as industrial waste – see pesticides) and

distance (we hope for a closer and faster reuse of rural waste).

However, it is also important to highlight two aspects: waste is an element

which, in the social modalities of its recovery, is a stigma of poverty as well as an

important place for the development of the informal economy; it is also an element

around which organized crime appears to proliferate, probably because society does

not like to look at its waste, so it leaves it. It is also interesting to recall the theme of

the Anthropocene, i.e. what qualifies the current age when human activity changes

the state of the planet and is not characterized by extractivism. In this register, it is

also referred to as “ultimate waste”, which is the waste that is buried under the

Earth’s crust until technological progress makes it possible (or not!) to deal with it.

11.7. References

Bertolini, G. (1990). Le marché des ordures : économie et gestion des déchets ménagers.

L’Harmattan, Paris.

Botta, H., Berdier, C. and Deleuil, J.-M. (2002). Enjeux de la propreté urbaine. Presses

Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne.

Chalmin, P. and Gaillochet, C. (2009). From Waste to Resource. Economica, Paris.

Douglas, M. (1966). Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo.

Praeger, New York.

174 Circular Economy

Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a waste: A global review of solid waste

management. Urban development series, knowledge papers, no. 15. World Bank,

Washington, D.C.

Montsaingeon, B. (2017). Homo Detritus : critique de la société du déchet. Le Seuil, Paris.

Pesqueux, Y. (2011). Sustainable development: a vague and ambiguous “theory”. In

Environmental Scanning and Sustainable Development, Lesca, N. (ed.). pp. 25–48, ISTE

Ltd, London and John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Monaco, A. and Prouzet, P. (2014). Complexité du système océanique. ISTE Editions,

London.

de Rozario, P. and Pesqueux, Y. (2018). Théorie des organisations. Pearson, Paris.

Serres, M. (1990). Le contrat naturel. François Bourin, Paris.

Serres, M. (2008). Le Mal propre : polluer pour s’approprier ? Le Pommier, Paris.

Wilson, D., Velis, C. and Cheesman, C. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste

management in developing countries. Habitat international, vol. 30, issue 4, pp. 797–808.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt

a Circular Economy

12.1. Introduction

The ecological balance of the textile sector is a disaster. It creates emissions

equivalent to 1.2 billion tons of CO2, more than all emissions from international

maritime and air transport1. Another striking comparison is that each textile article

can contribute 20 times its weight to greenhouse gases2.

The textile industry has many environmental impacts (Bostrom and Micheletti

2016) at all stages of a product’s lifecycle: raw material extraction, production,

distribution, use and end-of-life (including recycling) (Box 12.1).

What is the environmental impact of a simple T-shirt sold for less than $6 in the

United States? This is the question that Pietra Rivoli asks herself in her book The Travels

of a T-shirt in the Global Economy (2005). These environmental impacts are numerous.

The production of raw materials, even natural ones, such as cotton, can be water-intensive

and fertilizer-intensive and releases pesticides into the soil. Automated harvesting requires

oil, as well as the transformation of the fiber into yarn, its cleaning and then its meshing.

Dyeing uses polluting products such as heavy metals, which are then found in water, as

well as in finishes applied to textiles. Cutting, making and printing patterns, wrapping the

T-shirt in plastic and then cardboard, shelving and selling it involve energy costs. The

simple use of a T-shirt involving repeated washing has an impact in terms of phosphates

Chapter written by Bénédicte BOURCIER-BÉQUAERT, Karen DELCHET-COCHET and

Valérie FERNANDES.

1 https:///www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/a-new-textiles-economy-

redesigning-fashions-future, last accessed October 2019.

2 http://www.huffingtonpost.fr/2015/11/29/impact-textile-environnem_n_8663002.html.

176 Circular Economy

polluting water. Finally, the end of the T-shirt’s life is polluting, the degree of which

depending on whether the product is buried, incinerated or recycled. In addition to these

stages, transport also generates energy consumption at all stages. Thus, an ordinary T-

shirt can follow the following geographical route: it leaves Texas where cotton is

produced, then sent to China to be spun and garments shaped, then back to the United

States, it is printed and sold. Once its buyer is tired, it is thrown away and then recovered

to be redirected, most often to Africa, where it will be thrown away and then buried or

incinerated.

Box 12.1. Environmental impact of an ordinary textile (according to Rivoli 2007)

Multiplying the environmental impacts, the quantity of clothing produced has

doubled in 15 years (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). However, 70% of clothes

are not worn (or no longer worn), and each French person throws away an average

of 12 kg of clothes per year3. This quantity of discarded clothing has increased by

8% in 1 year4, as fashion too quickly condemns clothing that is still in good

condition to waste (Joung 2013).

The situation is not only disastrous and absurd from an ecological point of view,

it is becoming an economic challenge for the actors of the textile sector. Indeed, the

textile industry is part of a context of increasing scarcity of natural resources and

energy, exacerbated by overconsumption and the explosion of waste that needs to be

managed.

A relatively recent phenomenon is that brands selling textile items (H&M,

Intimissimi, Calzedonia, etc.), encourage consumers to bring back their old clothes

(Bourcier-Béquaert et al. 2016). These initiatives are part of a specific regulatory

framework in France: the management of textile waste has been promoted by the

public authorities since 2009, in particular through the Extended Producer

Responsibility (EPR). These regulations require manufacturers and distributors to

collect and recycle as much of their end-of-life products as possible under

environmentally friendly conditions. Another binding element for the textile

industry in France is the draft law “La loi anti-gaspillage pour une économie

circulaire” (Law against waste for a circular economy), which prohibits the

destruction of unsold textiles by brands. However, beyond the question of the waste

produced and the organization of recycling channels, should we not avoid producing

waste and therefore consider the issue more broadly in a circular economy model? Is

the regulatory and legislative arsenal a way to initiate circular practices within

3 www.ecogeste.fr.

4 Les Echos, June 23, 2017, La filière textile donne une seconde vie aux vêtements.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 177

companies beyond waste management? Are these emerging practices expanding to

other stages of the product lifecycle?

There is little research on textile recycling in a national ecosystem involving

public actors, companies and consumers (Ekström and Salomonson 2014). This

chapter proposes to focus on companies and their difficulties in implementing the

circular economy, i.e. going beyond recycling practices alone. For this purpose, four

brands, particularly those involved in the collection of used clothing, are studied.

12.2. State of play

12.2.1. The circular economy: main principles and application in

companies

The principles of the circular economy

The CE (Circular Economy) is a rich reflection but still under construction.

Prieto-Sandoval et al. (2018) reviewed no less than 162 academic articles on this

subject. There is currently no shared definition (Khoronen et al. 2018; Murray et al.

2015). Behind the wide variety of definitions highlighted by Kirchherr et al. (2017),

there is some convergence. The 4Rs seem to have a consensus: repair, reuse,

repurposing and recycling:

– repair consists of extending the life of the product by making a part functional

again, after the loss of its functionality;

– reuse aims to use a product second-hand by reintroducing it into the economic

circuit;

– repurposing an object consists of its use for a purpose other than that for which

it was intended from the beginning;

– finally, recycling is based on the use of parts or components of a product at the

end of its life to manufacture others.

This foundation of the 4Rs of the circular economy must be complemented by

three major points: the idea of a hierarchy in the levers used, the importance of

eco-design thinking and the global nature of the CE.

First of all, some Rs have higher priority than others. The French law of August

17, 2015 on the energy transition for green growth (Transition énergétique pour la

croissance verte) specifies that priority must be given to the reuse of products, then

to their repurpose, then to their recycling and, ultimately, to their recovery.

178 Circular Economy

Secondly, the CE integrates the way in which the product has been designed,

conceived and produced through an eco-design approach. However, how do you

repair a product that has not been designed to be repairable? How do you recycle

non-recyclable materials? Eco-design thus seems to be the prerequisite for a

successful circular economy approach.

Finally, the CE is a global approach. It implies low production and consumption

of fossil energy and non-renewable raw materials. It requires the involvement of all

stakeholders, particularly within a given territory. The CE set up by the

organizations should therefore be able to address all these levers. This is a high

target, and companies must start a real revolution in their production and marketing

systems to achieve it.

Implementation of the circular economy by companies: a revolution to be

achieved at all levels of the company

The transition from theory to enterprise implementation is particularly complex

in CE. Indeed, the CE revolutionizes logistics flows within a company. Instead of

being traditionally thought of in a linear way, via upstream and downstream flow

management, circularity introduces the idea of a “closed loop supply chain” or

“closed circuit” (Fulconis et al. 2016). As a result, in reverse logistics, flows flow back

from consumers to manufacturers, creating a loop between the origin and

the point of consumption of the product. In this approach, recycling takes an important

place alongside unsold goods flows and repairs. The question of the point of sale

is also important, as traditional and reverse logistics flows are closely related to it.

Circularity also implies a change in marketing approach. Indeed, since

companies offer themselves as resource collection actors, customers/consumers also

become their suppliers. The performance of the system depends on

the consumer and their ability to take on a new role as a logistician, sorting

what needs to be recycled or not, storing waste at home for a period of time

and finally bringing it to the collection center (Anderson and Brodin 2005).

Beyond their ability to sort and store clothes at home, consumers are central players

because they decide between repair or replacement, they throw away, give away or

return the product.

In companies, CE and its associated practices are therefore profoundly changing

the design, supply chain (Fernandes and Kadio 2017), production, marketing and use

and management of the end-of-life of the product. The transformation that the

circular economy implies thus affects the forms of cooperation between actors

(Lazzeri et al. 2017): consumers, customers and ordering companies and also

suppliers, companies in the same sector of activity or located in the same territories

and, finally, associative partners.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 179

Which strategic issues within companies?

Faced with the revolution required by the implementation of the CE, companies

are forced to ask themselves several questions. The first concerns the degree of

implementation of the CE. Indeed, the CE is a goal to be achieved by organizations,

but, in most cases, they do not succeed in activating all of its levers. Thus, there

would be different degrees of implementation of the CE by companies. These levels

of practice have not so far been studied extensively. Nevertheless, many questions

arise. Does deploying an eco-design approach mean being in a circular economy

perspective? Is recycling your waste enough? Will reselling second-hand products

solve the problems? If all these actions can be carried out from a circular economy

perspective, it is necessary to conduct a global and systemic reflection. This is the

difficulty, for the time being, of these steps to establish the CE, each company itself

defining the nature and scope of its CE actions.

The second question concerns the local nature of CE in a global industry. If the

CE is considered as a model with no net environmental impact, restoring any

damage related to the acquisition of the resource and parsimonious in terms of

resources throughout the production process and product lifecycle, is this model

compatible with a multinational’s management methods? The course of Rivoli’s

T-shirt (2007) described in Box 12.1 raises doubts about this. The energy costs

induced by the transport of goods and components should be controlled (Maillefert

and Robert 2014). This is also true for the transport of used products for recycling.

Companies involved in a CE approach should limit the geographical extension of

sourcing and sales. This observation points to the likely difficulties of implementing

the CE in a globalized context. Will companies restrict themselves geographically

and return to more premises or will they adapt the CE to the context of a highly

globalized world?

12.2.2. CE in textile companies in France: a waste-based approach

Textile companies in France

The textile industry in France is a significant sector. It includes about 2,400

companies in various fields such as the manufacture of yarns, fabrics and textiles for

clothing, furniture or technical use. It represents more than 58,000 jobs and

generated 13 billion euros in turnover in 2016 (Directorate General for Enterprise

2016; Union of Textile Industries 2017).

While there is no in-depth study on the circular economy within textile

companies, in various respects, the textile sector appears specific (Belin-Munier and

Moncef 2013). First of all, production is complex due to the very short lifecycle of

products, which require a high degree of renewal. Distribution is strongly impacted

by the limited capacity of the sales areas compared to the very wide range.

180 Circular Economy

In addition, the entire supply chain appears to be globalized: production sites are far

from sales outlets, resulting in import and export flows of both raw materials and

finished products. The research by Belin-Munier and Moncef (2013) mentions few

specific points concerning the sector in its post-consumer phase. These are returns

for private sales, factory outlets, Internet sales or sales. The part relating to used

products brought back by the consumer is not covered, nor is the recycling/

re-employment/reuse of such products. This leaves the field open for exploratory

investigations.

Context of textile EPR

Textile companies must orchestrate their circular practices in a specific context

in France, at least as far as waste management is concerned. EPR (which is not

European) has been in place since 2007. There is an eco-organization responsible for

promoting CE in the textiles, household linen and footwear sector called ECO-TLC

(the French words for textiles, household linen and footwear being “textiles”, “linge

de maison” and “chaussures”, hence the acronym TLC). Created in 2009, its goal

is the development of practices that promote the use of used or unsold products.

ECO-TLC brings together many players, including marketers, citizens, collection

operators (42,000 voluntary collection points in France), sorting operators (there are

about 50 sorting centers in France) and recyclers. The latter restore value to used

TLCs that cannot be used in their current state by transforming them into secondary

materials that will be used for the manufacture of new products (wiping cloths, etc.).

Three types of loops have been defined by ECO-TLC (2016):

– a first short loop starts from the voluntary supply points (textile bins), then

transport takes place to a sorting center which will identify products to be used as

they are, which will then be put back into the loop when they are used. This is reuse.

It concerns TLCs in good condition and that can be “used again for the same

purpose for which they were designed” (according to the European Commission

directive 2008/98/CE, Article 3);

– the second loop concerns the recycling and recovery of TLCs reinserted into

the supply chain (closed loop);

– the third loop deals with recycling and recovery feeding raw material to other

sectors (open loop). This is referred to as reuse when the materials can be used as

rags or recycling for insulation in the building, for example.

In France, 62% of the textiles collected are reused, 31% are recycled, and the rest

are sent for fuel and final disposal.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 181

What difficulties do companies have in implementing the CE?

EPR encourages companies to collect used products, but to go further in the

CE’s approach, certain difficulties must be overcome.

The first difficulty lies in the necessary involvement of the consumer. They are

responsible for the return of products to stores or collection points, as well as for the

purchase of second-hand products (Hvass 2014).

Another more technical point: it is very complex to manufacture new clothes

from used materials (Franco 2017). Indeed, recycling used textiles must make it

possible to maintain the quality of the fibers, which is a real challenge. Modern

textiles contain a lot of mixed fibers, so it is difficult to transform them back.

Operators opt for “down-cycling”, i.e. transformation into carpets or rags. This

remark highlights the need to produce eco-designed clothing to make it easier to

manage their end-of-life and to conduct research to preserve the quality of recycled

fibers. Recycling and recovery actions benefit from these recent years of research

and development, involving private actors, university research centers and

associations. An example is the partnership between the H&M Foundation and the

Hong Kong Textile and Clothing Research Institute (HKRITA), which has resulted

in a technical solution for recycling mixed textiles.

Finally, the issue of suppliers and their involvement in CE practices is discussed

by Lion et al. (2016). For example, the reuse of clothing leads sorting companies to

export the least useful clothing in France to developing countries. Taking the case of

Senegal, Bredeloup (2016) studies this outlet for collecting organizations, such as Le

Relais, which has opened a sorting center near Dakar, for example. The author also

questions the ethical aspects of these trade flows, in the sense that

20–30% of the clothes arriving in Africa are, in fact, not usable and become waste,

not recycled and, therefore, polluting.

In short, the CE, proposing an ambitious approach, is difficult to implement in

companies and requires a complete review of their operations. Textiles are no

exception. Brands are engaged through an EPR in the collection phase. We still

know little about their CE practices. Ekstrom and Salomon (2014) have shown the

role of shops in the sector but do not study the sectors used by used textiles in more

detail. We propose drawing up a table of company practices. The idea is to

investigate whether the collection of old clothes in the shop is accompanied by

other, less visible, CE devices. What role does it play in the CE systems of textile

companies?

182 Circular Economy

12.3. Methodology

In this exploratory study, we analyze the circular economy practices of four ready-

to-wear brands that initiate collections of used textiles at the point of sale. Our study is

being conducted in France, a country in which the CE approach is still emerging but is

recognized as strategic. The EPR on textiles was implemented in 2009. Six years later,

in 2015, the collection rate was only 33% and textile recycling was less than 30%5.

The French law on the energy transition for green growth (Transition énergétique pour

la croissance verte), promulgated on August 17, 2015 (article IV), highlights the CE.

In December 2015, the European Commission, by voting for the “circular economy

package”, decided to allocate 650 million euros under the Horizon 2020 program and

5.5 billion euros under the French Strategic Investment Fund (FSI). Since then,

practices have been on the rise (+8% in terms of collection in 2017) but remain far

behind other countries, such as Germany and Sweden.

The selected brands are known and have collected used textiles over the past 12

months. We have chosen four brands that are well established in France: Zara,

H&M, Cyrillus and Camaieu. These brands have different characteristics with

regard to several key collection criteria (Table 12.1):

– different degrees of internationalization: H&M and Zara are totally globalized

brands and Cyrillus and Camaieu are less international;

– the size of their distribution network: the distribution of Cyrillus and Camaieu

products is less significant;

– the implementation date of the collection systems: this was spread between

2013 (H&M) and 2017 (Zara) and is not at the same level of maturity and

deployment in all companies.

5 http://www.ecotlc.fr/ressources/RA_Eco_TLC_2015_web.pdf.

H&M ZARA CYRILLUS CAMAIEU

Characteristics of the brand

Nationality Swedish Spanish French French

Degree of

internationalization

(high vs. low)

High (4700

stores in

70 countries)

High (1900

stores in

89 countries)

Low (52 stores

in France and

7 abroad)

Low (650 stores in

France and 250 in 15

countries)

Characteristics of the collection

Name of the

program

Bring

it/Conscious Join life Je recycle

(I recycle)

Et si on recyclait vos

vêtements? (And if we

recycle our clothes?)

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 183

Table 12.1. Presentation of the brands studied

Our analysis is based on data available at the point of sale, on the brands’

websites and through their communication. Annual reports were reviewed when

available. In-store observations and simulations of customers wishing to deposit

used textiles were carried out. Quick interviews were conducted with sales staff to

verify the information collected online. The CSR managers were contacted, and we

were able to conduct an in-depth interview with the H&M manager in October 2017.

Finally, reading press articles helped us to supplement these data.

The objective is to identify, for each brand practicing the collections, 1) the

methods of collection (organization, systematic nature, globalized scale or not),

2) the characterization of the loop, including this waste management, and 3) the

inclusion of this practice in a business strategy.

12.4. Results

12.4.1. There is a collector and a collector

First of all, the collection operations observed reflect a significant investment by

the company through the marking of the collection store, its layout via furniture and

the training of salespeople in this type of operation.

These collection operations show different degrees of sustainability. Some

companies have set up operations on a permanent basis (Zara, H&M, Cyrillus).

Their purpose is to cover all their shops. Thus, H&M deploys its collection

worldwide. Zara is currently deploying the scheme: not all stores are yet collecting.

On the other hand, Camaieu only carries out an annual operation of 10 days

(Table 12.2). To guarantee a large collection, several private labels, except Zara,

offer the consumer a reward when returning their old clothes (a discount or discount

voucher to be used on a future purchase). The conditions for benefiting from these

rewards are not very restrictive: they exclude few items, do not place conditions on

the brands collected and set very accessible thresholds for benefiting from the

discount (three items reported).

Starting year 2013 2017 2016 2015

Collection of

information 55,000 T N.C. 70 T 40 T

184 Circular Economy

Another observation is that Zara offers a new type of collection that other brands

do not yet offer: home collection that can be done when an online order is delivered.

This system exists in Spain but is not yet deployed in France. Collection should

therefore be adapted to the multi-channel profile of the brands with all the logistical

organization that this entails.

The collection follows two different organizational modes in terms of partners.

In the first case, the brand uses a single partner (I: Co) present in 60 countries, which

is responsible for all operations (transport from drop-off points to a sorting center,

sorting, recycling or routing to new destinations for reuse or processing). I: Co’s

warehouses are highly centralized. There is only one in Europe, which means that

the cost, including environmental costs, of moving textiles from collection points to

sorting centers is very high. On the other hand, I: Co has efficient solutions for

textile recycling. In the second case, the brand collaborates with many partners.

These are associations and have a charitable scope (in particular, the integration of

the most disadvantaged to whom they bring work). They are often local and

are located in the heart of the collection areas. There are therefore two waste

management circuits, one multinational and the other more local. In the latter case,

the brand’s commitment is stronger since logistics can be shared. Zara, for example,

transports the collected used textiles to the sorting centers.

12.4.2. A still partial implementation of the CE

The analysis of broader circular practices and their inclusion in the CSR strategy

of brand names leads us to make several observations (Table 12.3).

H&M and Zara, ready-to-wear giants, have a CSR approach and claim to have

integrated CE into their strategy. These brand names play an active role in the

industry by participating in research projects on new recycling technologies. The

positions of Cyrillus and Camaieu are somewhat different. Cyrillus claims a

strategic commitment to the environment but not directly on the subject of waste and

the CE. As for Camaieu, the strategic axes are not communicated.

Apart from Camaieu, which communicates relatively little about point-of-sale

collection, companies include this approach in a more global CSR approach. They

opt for complementary social actions and choose partners to support the integration

of disadvantaged people at Cyrillus and Zara. They also make financial donations on

behalf of Zara and H&M.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 185

H&M ZARA CYRILLUS CAMAIEU

Temporary/permanent Permanent Permanent Permanent since 2018 Temporary (10 days/year)

Perimeter

(physical/Web)

Physical: all H&M

stores worldwide

Physical: some stores

Web: Pick-up at home when

ordering in Spain

Physical: all boutiques outside

Clermont-Ferrand and Galeries

Lafayette

Physical: all stores in France and

directly operated stores in Europe

Products/brands

collected

All textiles

All brands

Clean and dry textiles

Whatever their

condition

All textiles

All brands

Clean and dry textiles

Whatever their condition

Clothing and household linen

All brands

Clean and dry textiles

Exclusion: shoes, leather accessories,

duvets, pillows and lingerie

Women’s clothing and shoes

All brands

Clean and dry textiles

Exclusion: jewelry, linen, accessories,

bags and household linen

Point of sale

Presence of POSD6 and

POSI

Information/training of

salespeople

Presence of POSD and POSI

Information/training of

salespeople

Presence of POSD and POSI

Information/training of

salespeople

Presence of POSD and POSI

Information/training of salespeople

Bonus

For each bag of at least

three pieces, -15% on an

item

No remuneration 1 bag deposited, 1 coupon of €5 20% discount on the preferred

product

Conditions of the

offer

Two vouchers per

person per day Up to three bags (of three textiles

minimum)/person/day

One discount per day and per

person

Circular economy

partner(s)

I: CO

Single global partner

(any solution, global)

Le Relais, Caritas, Red Cross,

Salvation Army, CEPF and

Redress

Multiple partners,

variable/country, Social

Economy Organization (SEO),

cooperation of different actors at

a local level

Le Relais, Emmaüs France,

Emmaüs Alternatives, Sock in

stock, Apivet, etc.

Multiple partners, SEO, national

or even regional sites

Caritas and Weaving Solidarity and

then I: OC in 2018

Passage from a local partner from

SEO to a single global partner (any

solution, global)

Table 12.2. Description of in-store collection operations by brand names

6 POSD: Point of Sale Display; POSI: Point of Sale Information.

186 Circular Economy

H&M ZARA CYRILLUS CAMAIEU

Strategic axis CSR

“Recycle your clothes” is one

of the three commitments in

terms of sustainable

development

“Recycling and efficient use of

resources” is one of the seven

strategic priorities

Respect for the planet is one

of the three commitments N.C.

Reuse Donations to associations Donations to associations Second-hand site7/donation

to associations

Partner of Tissons la

Solidarité (repair and resale

in second-hand clothing) in

2017

Since 2018, given the

partnership with I: CO Reuse

and Recycle

Reuse and repurpose

Textile products not suitable

for use in clothing to create

other products (rags)

Articles made of 100% cotton,

wool or polyester to make new

fabrics

“Shape the Invisible”

collection not marketed (work

of creators reusing old clothes)

No specific action

mentioned but:

61% reuse

36% recycling

3% waste

N.B.: Extension of the

“second-hand” approach to

books and school bags

Recycling Automotive industry,

construction

Automotive industry,

construction

Marketing of “green”

ranges

Organic cotton or recycled

materials

Organic/recycled fibers, water

and CO2 parsimony

Organic cotton for babies

and children No

Research/recycling Chemical recycling with

Kering and Worn Again

Work with Lenzing and MIT

on innovative projects N.C. N.C.

Societal actions

related to collection

1 kilo of textile collected = 0.2

E donated to UNICEF France

Donation to CARITAS of €3.5

million for collection points

Non-financial support (social

inclusion)

Table 12.3. Description of circular economy actions of brand names

7 https://www.secondehistoire.fr/fr/.

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 187

Thanks to their partners, the brands are positioned on the three stages of end-of-

life management: Reuse, Repurpose and Recycle. The supply of new products

resulting from this recycling, i.e. recycled fabrics, reflecting a form of circularity, is

fairly rare in the companies analyzed because it concerns only a small number of

products. It is even totally absent from Camaieu. It should be noted that the products

are more widely presented as responsible, i.e. they are made from fibers that can be

either recycled or organic. H&M, with its Conscious range, and Zara, with Join Life,

present responsible product ranges in organic and recycled fibers. Cyrillus, for its part,

offers a Capsule collection for babies and children exclusively in organic cotton, stating

that its objective is to create a collection made of recycled fibers. But the share of

brands in the turnover and in the number of references offered is quite limited.

12.5. The limits of the actions implemented

The study of the four cases shows that the brands are developing a “new

business”: that of a waste collector. What are the consequences of this new

profession in terms of CE?

The first remark is to point out that this job as a collector does not necessarily

lead them to engage in all the downstream operations of waste management. These

are often delegated to third party companies. The commitment to waste management

as a circular resource is therefore still limited.

As a second remark, the brands studied, thanks to their collection partners, are

positioned on the three aspects of Reuse, Repurpose and Recycle (Table 12.3).

However, the French “Transition énergétique pour la croissance verte” (Energy

transition for green growth) act emphasizes that there is an order of priority in the

options considered:

the prevention of waste production, in particular through the reuse of

products and following the hierarchy of waste treatment methods, the

reuse, recycling, or where possible, repurposing of waste.

The idea is above all to prevent the production of waste and not to collect and

recycle as the brand names do. One of the levers to prevent waste production is to

increase the functional and environmental quality of products through eco-design.

On this subject, very little information is provided to us. Brands do not seem to

be developing initiatives to improve product quality, which is a guarantee of an

increase in shelf life before recycling. It should be noted, however, that recently, to

increase the lifespan of their products, H&M has been providing washing advice to its

customers.

188 Circular Economy

The recycling capacity will also depend on the design. Indeed, current

technologies do not allow all textiles to be recycled. According to the Zara site,

“today, technology only allows the textile recycling of garments that are 100%

cotton, wool or polyester”. Brands then have two options: either develop research

programs to find technological solutions for fiber recycling or use only recyclable

fibers to produce their clothing and be part of an eco-design process, from a CE

perspective.

Avoiding waste production means promoting reuse. This question of reuse is

interesting because it can occur before and after collection: upstream, via second-

hand sales sites, or downstream, via collection and donation to associations. With

regards to the upstream phase, several practices exist. For several years now, we

have been assisting in the development of online sales sites for second-hand clothing

offered directly by brands such as Petit Bateau and Jacadi, for example. Other

brands will partner with an online store, like Patagonia with eBay. Cyrillus pays

particular attention to reuse by being located at two levels: upstream, via the site

created by the brand for reselling second-hand products, and downstream, via the

donation to associations of collected clothing, some of which are in perfect

condition. The latter come from clothing collected in stores. But we do not have any

figures as to the percentage of these products actually reused. Our information only

covers the following: on non-recoverable clothing, 61% reuse, 36% recycling and

3% waste. In general, brands should organize comprehensive information on the

actual fate of the clothing collected.

A last axis concerns the extension of the product’s useful life through repair.

This subject is not addressed by the brands we have analyzed. This does not mean

that the products have never been repaired: it is still common for consumers to repair

a zipper, sew a button or fix a snag. However, this repair is not orchestrated by the

brands studied. Nevertheless, some of them offer to repair their products such as

Patagonia or The North Face. In addition, some recycling partners, such as Emmaus

Alternatives, repair clothing that can be damaged after Cyrillus has collected and

sorted it.

The practices of the brands are therefore varied and complementary.

Nevertheless, taking environmental impacts into account from the design stage of

the product makes it possible to resolve certain issues related to its end-of-life. In

other words, the prospect of increased lifespan, reuse, repurposing and recycling

requires companies to think differently about their products.

Another limitation of these collection systems is that these operations are

ambivalent with regard to the CE. From a marketing point of view, this type of

collection operation works to build customer loyalty by encouraging customers to

consume again, once their old clothes are returned. This is precisely against the

When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 189

establishment of a circular economy, since consumption is fueled by recycling.

More broadly, it is the very model of fast-fashion, that must be challenged when

implementing circular practices. Brands do not commit themselves to a positioning

more focused on basic collections than on fashion. However, fashion is an

instrument of planned obsolescence since it disqualifies clothes, not because of their

condition, but simply because of their cut, material or color. As a result, what is the

credibility of collection actions when they are carried out in an industry that

promotes unsustainable consumption practices such as fast-fashion?

12.6. Conclusion

Our exploratory research provides an overview of the main practices of circular

economy by ready-to-wear companies initiating the collection of old clothing. We

are dealing with more or less complete approaches to circularity. It seems that the

largest firms are also the ones that offer the most numerous approaches, including

sourcing and technological research to improve recycling. This observation should

be seen in the context of the considerable human and financial resources required to

transform a company and lead it to circular practices.

Our results highlight a number of contradictions that companies will need to

resolve in order to adopt circular practices. One of our main results is to show that

we are dealing with different approaches to circularity: global management by the

multinational company H&M, national management by the multinational company

Zara, regional management by Cyrillus. These different approaches have an impact

on logistics management, in particular. The international management of circularity

contradicts the very notion of a circular economy that promotes local, parsimonious

management in transport (mileage and CO2 emissions). This refers to a research

approach designed to deepen the relationship between the circular economy and the

notion of geographical proximity.

Moreover, it seems difficult for fast-fashion brands to promote circularity since it

helps to accelerate consumption. In the options for managing the flow of collected

used textiles, the second-hand, offered on behalf of the brand, is infrequent.

However, it would allow the brands that practice it to move away from their

fast-fashion image. Indeed, it testifies to the durability of clothing. This has

consequences in the marketing field that still need to be explored. Thus, the

slow-fashion movement, which appeared in the 2010s and was strongly driven by

the Rana Plaza disaster (Chapuis and Pündrich, 2016), seems, to us, to be an

interesting avenue to explore, because it tries to integrate the framework of the

circular economy from the eco-design phase, by rethinking the economic model of

companies.

190 Circular Economy

Of an exploratory nature, our study does not provide a complete picture of the

implementation of circular practices by these companies, which nevertheless initiate

the collection of used textiles. It will be interesting to continue this research based

on interviews with all the actors involved in this approach: ready-to-wear

companies, consumers and recycling partners from both the SSE and the private

sector.

12.7. References

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dans le textile : le point de vue des acheteurs. Logistique & Management, 21(34),

pp. 59–70.

Bostrom, M. and Micheletti, M. (2016). Introducing the sustainability challenge of textiles

and clothing. Journal of Consumer Policy, 39, pp. 367–375.

Bourcier-Béquaert, B., Damay, C., Delécolle, T. and Loussaïef, L. (2016). Collecte de

produits usagés en points de vente : de nouveaux rôles clients-enseignes. Logistique &

Management, 24(1), pp. 43–56.

Bredeloup, S. (2016). FEGG JAAY : fripe business ou fripe éthique au Sénégal ? Mouvements,

87, pp. 142–154.

Chapuis, S.M. and Pündrich, A.P. (2016). DELLA en mode slow fashion. Revue Recherche et

Cas en Sciences de Gestion, (16), pp. 7–19.

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https://www.entreprises.gouv.fr/secteurs-professionnels/textile-mode-et-luxe [Accessed

22/02/2018].

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www.ecotlc.fr/page-307-rapports-d-activite.html. [Accessed 22nd February 2018].

Ekstrom, K.M. and Salomonsonn N. (2014). Reuse and recycling of clothing and textiles – A

network approach. Journal of Macromarketing, 34(3), pp. 383–399.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017). A new textiles economy: Redesigning fashion’s future.

Report. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications

[Accessed 29th October 2019].

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de la supply chain : une étude exploratoire. Logistique & Management, 26(1), 15–25.

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struggles and challenges in the textile industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 168,

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When Fashion Brands Try to Adopt a Circular Economy 191

Fulconis, F., Paché, G. and Reynaud, E. (2016). Vers une nouvelle forme de croissance

économique. Revue Française de Gestion, 261, pp. 128–149.

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en Provence.

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The Circular Economy and Packaging:

Challenges and Avenues for Reflection

In a circular economy approach, packaging deserves special attention because

the stakes are so high and their impacts so significant.

The stakes are direct: they are linked to the production of packaging, its

destruction or not, its recycling or not, etc. The figures are quite clear: packaging

accounts for 40% of global plastic production (Geyer et al. 2017). However, many

of these plastics are designed to be discarded after only one use. The immediate

consequence is measured in terms of pollution: almost half of the plastics already

produced become waste in less than three years, and therefore more than 75% are

now waste. Between 1950 and 2015, we generated 8.3 billion tons of plastics and

6.3 billion tons of plastic waste, a figure that could almost double if we do not

change a trajectory that has become unsustainable, as Caroline Janvier, a Member of

Parliament, reminded the Assemblée nationale on July 11, 20191.

Thus, in 2012, each French national generated 277 kg of household waste

(excluding bulky waste), 1/3 of which was in packaging, which is perceived as

ephemeral, ancillary, intended for disposal or destruction2, etc. According to the

same source, the packaging sector in France in 2018 represented nearly 35 billion

euros in turnover and 200,000 direct jobs.

The stakes are also indirect because the functions attributed to packaging are

multiplying and growing in importance due to economic developments (mass

Chapter written by François CABARET.

1 http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/15/europe/rap-info/i2132.asp.

2 2016 Ademe study cited by the Conseil National de l’Emballage (French National

Packaging Council) in its May 2018 report “L’emballage en France”.

194 Circular Economy

production of finished products, even in the food sector, international trade, etc.) and

sociological developments (changes in lifestyles, “Out-of-home” consumption,

self-service or remote purchases, etc.). As Adetem, the French national association

of marketing professionals, already analyzed in 2004: “the increase in the amount of

packaging followed that of self-service” (Pinet 2004). In a rather abrupt short cut,

we could say that fast food, self-service and e-commerce have boosted packaging

consumption.

It is very revealing in this respect that, historically, the first approach of EPR

(Extended Producer Responsibility) included in the legislative texts in the autumn of

2019 under discussion in the Assembly and the Senate was for the packaging sector.

It has made it possible to create an “eco-packaging tax”, to finance companies in

charge of collecting and recycling packaging, such as “Eco-Emballages”

(“eco-packaging”). This, on its website, provides a reminder of the history presented

in the box below.

1972: Creation of the “Polluter–Payer” principle.

As early as 1972, OECD member countries decided on the principle that economic

actors should take responsibility for the pollution generated by their activities.

1991: Riboud and Beffa reports.

Antoine Riboud, President of BSN (former name of Danone), and Jean-Louis Beffa,

President of Saint-Gobain, submit their report to the Minister of the Environment Brice

Lalonde, in which they define the principles for dealing with “lost packaging” as part of

the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).

1992: Creation of Eco-Emballages.

A non-profit company, Eco-Emballages was created to set up a selective collection

system that allows consumers to give a second life to their packaging waste. They also

support packaging reduction actions.

1993: First national communication campaign on sorting. Its slogan: “sorted

packaging is no longer lost packaging”.

Box 13.1. History of “Eco-Emballages”

The emblematic product of this packaging sector is, without a doubt, the Bottle,

which immediately raises the question of Consignment. The initial draft of the

“waste for a circular economy” bill provided for the introduction of a “deposit for

reuse, repurposing or recycling” system for products consumed by households, such

The Circular Economy and Packaging 195

as beverage packaging. The Senate Committee on Sustainable Development decided

to remove the recycling deposit and only keep the deposit for reuse or repurposing.

They believe that the recycling deposit is aimed, above all, at plastic bottles, which

will thus be perpetuated3, and that the choice of material: glass, plastic, cardboard,

etc. will therefore be the most important.

As early as 1938, a law (published in the journal officiel of January 13, 1938)

required brasseries to return sparkling water bottles for deposit, but this practice of

returning glass bottles for reuse was gradually abandoned from the 1970s onwards in

favor of disposables, under pressure from operators in the sector, distributors and

others.

Better packaging design therefore directly aims to better control its proliferation

and, if possible, to promote its reuse or even recycling. This indirectly leads to the

fight against the waste of the products contained, or even their ecological footprint

(transport, storage, etc.).

The decisions to be taken when designing packaging are numerous and their

consequences complex, whereas for a Product Manager, by nature, it is a secondary,

or even ancillary, subject compared to the decisions to be taken when designing the

product itself! To help a more ecologically-responsible reflection on packaging, we

will start from the functions fulfilled by it, which we group into four themes:

– division function;

– protection functions;

– marketing and communication functions;

– service functions.

13.1. Division function

Defining packaging means defining the quantity of product it will contain – its

“division”. This choice is not neutral since it will, of course, determine the price of

the final product as it will appear to the buyer, but will also influence the level of

consumption, the shelf life once opened. This choice can therefore be a waste of the

contents. It also leads to the multiplication of atypical packaging formats,

incompatible with logistics standards, cartons, pallets, racks, etc. resulting in

additional logistics costs.

Faced with the complexity of the problem, several avenues are being explored.

3 AFP press release dated September 24, 2019.

196 Circular Economy

13.1.1. Bulk goods

This consists of organizing, at a retail outlet scale, whether self-service or not,

the “bulk” sale of products, the argument being that only the quantity actually

needed is then purchased, and – in addition – only standard bags or sachets (or even

an existing container brought by the customer) are required. Thus, we have seen an

increase in the number of experiments, 80% for food products such as wine, cereals

and confectionery, with traditional grocery stores and non-sedentary sales in our

markets, and 20% for hygiene or cosmetic products, even medicine4.

Since the 2000s, the development of specialized bulk sales shops or departments

has seen two successive waves. The first has a “first price” positioning, focusing

mainly on the savings generated by more precise consumption and lower transport

and packaging costs. The results of this first wave seem to be quite mixed, especially

in the mass retail sector. It has remained rather discreet on the results obtained, in

particular, concerning markdowns (losses, theft, etc.) and therefore, paradoxically,

waste, as well as on additional maintenance costs.

A more recent wave claims a more “premium” positioning, emphasizing a more

global concept – locavore, organic, eco-responsible, etc. – for a more militant target

of consumers, as this testimony proves5:

Sourcing from a bulk grocery store is “one of my New Year’s

resolutions: I became a vegan last year and I realized that it was to

achieve zero waste”, says Nolween Delage, a 25-year-old graphic

designer and customer of La Recharge in Bordeaux, AFP. This

grocery store has reintroduced the deposit system with the objective of

working in a short circuit with local producers, explains its

co-manager, Jules Rivet, to AFP, whose clientele has quadrupled in

four years. A figure that comes as no surprise to Célia Rennesson,

Executive Director of Réseau Vrac, the organization that brings

together 600 players in the sector: “In fact and in figures, France is

ahead of its European counterparts,” she told AFP. Thus, from 15

grocery stores specializing in bulk a few years ago, France now has

200, far ahead of Belgium, Germany and Great Britain. And according

to Credoc (Centre de recherche pour l’étude et l’observation des

conditions de vie), 47% of French people bought food products in bulk

at least once in 2018, compared to 32% in 1998.

4 Célia Rennesson, Executive Director of Réseau Vrac, the organization that brings together

600 stakeholders in the sector, AFP on March 23, 2019.

5 The French are increasingly fond of bulk sales, published by Par Sciences et Avenir with

AFP on March 23, 2019 at 12h00.

The Circular Economy and Packaging 197

The success of these new concepts is probably due to the ecological benefit,

perceived as superior to the disadvantages and risks related to hygiene, as the

products are unprotected, the more difficult traceability of the products, the

maintenance of the department or store, generating additional costs, etc.

13.1.2. The sale in unit packaging

A variant of bulk, but seeking to provide solutions to problems of hygiene and

traceability of bulk products, unit packaging could be of interest to the

pharmaceutical sector, or the snacking and fast food market.

With regard to medicine, for example, several countries (e.g. Scandinavian

countries) or sectors (e.g. hospitals) have opted for “bulk” sales. The pharmacist

delivers the exact quantity stipulated by the prescription, in order to avoid any waste

(in France, about half of prescription drugs, 40% more than our neighbors, will

never be consumed). This “bulk” solution does not meet with the support of

pharmacists in both “cities” and hospitals, who highlight both hygiene problems and

the risk of errors when taking these drugs, hence the idea of providing unit

packaging (in cellophane or other packaging, or attached on a string (like rosaries or

candy necklaces)) in which the exact quantity needed would be distributed.

The principle could be adopted for snack food products, hygiene and cosmetic

products, even diapers, etc. (“bodycare”) or detergent products, for the home,

laundry, etc. (“homecare”). In such cases, any additional packaging costs would be

compensated by reducing waste.

13.1.3. Sales in the so-called family or “giant” promotional packaging

On the other hand, the trend towards increasing the size of packaging aims – a

priori – at certain economies of scale, by spreading some of the costs (labor,

processing, etc.) over larger quantities of product. However, they are more

questionable in terms of waste.

13.2. Protection function

The initial or “first-pack” container is the one in contact with the contents, often

supplemented by an on-pack container, then different boxes, crates, etc. according to

the logistical needs.

The choice of material used for the container must first respect the compatibility

between the contents and the container with which it is in direct contact. In short, it

198 Circular Economy

is the protection of the container against certain “aggressions” of the content!

Against the risks of oxidation, corrosion, chemical reactions, etc., the neutrality of

the material used is essential, for example, that of glass in food or cosmetics is very

good. Conversely, the container must also protect the content from external chemical

aggressions, oxidation, UV, odors, etc. It thus contributes to the preservation of the

product.

A first major historical step was taken in the 19th Century by Nicolas Appert.

This French inventor was the first to develop a method of preserving food by

subjecting it to heat in hermetic and sterile containers (jars, welded metal cans, etc.):

the famous tin can.

More recently, the invention of the complex film Tetra Pak, in 1951, by the

Swedish industrialist Ruben Rausing, combines three layers: cardboard, plastic and

aluminum, thus optimizing the quality of this new material. Made of a continuous

tube, it can be filled and sealed under vacuum, guaranteeing the long preservation of

the liquid contained.

Figure 13.1. Greenhouse gas emissions per 1 L of juice, Lifecycle Assessment Bio

Intelligence Service Study, March 2008. For a color version of this figure, see

iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

Today, some detractors reproach the difficult recycling of this complex film, in

particular, the separation of its three components – especially the plastic and

The Circular Economy and Packaging 199

aluminum. But its advocates point out other advantages: less energy needed to

produce it, compared to glass or PET bottles, less logistic costs (transport, storage

outside the cold chain and therefore, again, less wasted energy). The total

comparative assessment carried out as part of the LCA (Lifecycle Assessment),

comparing the three containers (Figure 13.1) gives food for thought, and everyone

innovates to reduce the defects of their product!

Two major phenomena in distribution have “exploded” these expected protective

functions of packaging:

– In the 20th Century, the generalization of self-service sales, which today

concern the vast majority of food products and a large part of personal and

household equipment. Products “left to their own devices” must be protected from

breakage, impact, theft, hence, for example, large rigid packaging for small products

that are too easy to conceal (batteries, lighters, etc.). Against the “violation” of the

product, systems of tearable guarantee strips, heat-sealed caps or

heat-shrink films (known as “skin-packs”) have been added to ensure that the

packaging has not been opened, that the product has not been touched, soiled, etc.

– In the 21st Century, the emergence of “e-commerce”, one of the main

difficulties of which lies in the supply chain, particularly at two levels. First of all,

the first link in this chain, order picking, requires boxes, cartons, overpacking of all

shapes and sizes. The last link in this same chain, delivery to homes or collection

points, considerably limiting any grouping, rationalized transport on pallets, etc. also

contributes to the proliferation of packaging, often quasi-individual. The

development of e-commerce calls into question the traditional logic of the different

levels of packaging: primary, secondary, tertiary, which should be completely

rethought (Fulconis and Philipp 2018). As an illustration, the promotional operation

of the Chinese merchant site Alibaba, its “Single day”, on November 11, 2019

generated, in that one day, 1390 million packages to be delivered!

In addition, in e-commerce, the empty space, for some products, is more than

60% of the volume of packaging6.

More generally, the development of international trade and “delocalized”

production contribute greatly to the multiplication of secondary and even tertiary

packaging, cartons, crates, pallets, containers, etc., even if extraordinary efforts at

6 Study published by Forbes Insight in collaboration with DSSmith, one of the leading

European packaging players. Available at: https://www.dssmith.com/fr/packaging/strateges/

livres-blancs/leconomie-de-lespace-vide.

200 Circular Economy

standardization have been made, thanks in particular to the container, boats still

transport empty space for ¼ of their space7.

13.3. Marketing and communication functions

Marketing can use packaging as a tool for product recognition and

differentiation, such as the round bottle of Orangina or the curved Coca Cola bottle,

which will increase the number of bottle shapes and their sizes and reduce the

possibilities of standardization.

It has also been shown that the perception of the product is influenced by the

nature and shape of its packaging, by a “sensation transfer”. Thus, according to

Herbreteau and Jacquot (2017), there is a different perception of the taste of the

same yogurt depending on whether it is in a square or round pot. The same

marketing observation applies to the perception of a perfume and the perception of

its bottle (shape, material).

To “blur the lines” as to the public price of the product (psychological price or

comparison with that of the competition), marketing can vary the quantities sold

(which are supposed to be rounded to whole decimals): 205 gram chocolate bar, or

170 grams, 70 or 60 centiliter bottles, 80 gram cosmetic cream jars, etc. These

actions on quantities lead to additional manufacturing and logistic costs.

A more embarrassing trend has been the temptation to use so-called “thieving”

packaging. These are boxes or jars whose apparent external volume is misleading

about the idea of the volume actually contained, such as double-walled jars with

very thick walls, with a “bell-shaped” bottom. This approach is reprehensible if

there is a desire to deceive, and which – incidentally – results in additional costs and

consumption of packaging and materials, etc.

Packaging is also a communication medium: it must include legal information:

quantity, composition, origin, dates of manufacture, sales limits for fresh products.

The multiplication of secondary packaging (cardboard box containing a tube of

toothpaste, for example) is explained by the amount of marketing information that

we want to communicate: promotion of the product, its effectiveness, advice on use

or implementation, hence also the leaflets, range presentations, etc., not to mention

the essential “bar code” that we print there for the traceability of the product, its

passage in crates. This communication is not – in itself – reprehensible. But what

7 Study published by Forbes Insight in collaboration with DSSmith, one of the leading

European packaging players. Available at: https://www.dssmith.com/fr/packaging/strateges/

livres-blancs/leconomie-de-lespace-vide.

The Circular Economy and Packaging 201

raises questions is its impact on the proliferation of packaging and its difficult

recycling.

This phenomenon is further aggravated by self-service sales (already mentioned),

because packaging fulfils a “merchandizing” function, in the departments where it is

found to be “the silent seller” of the product, according to a dedicated formula. It

must attract the customer’s attention, arouse their curiosity, their interest and make

them want to buy it. The larger the surface area of the department’s “front” (facing)

and the brighter its colors, the more likely it is to be noticed and then bought, and

the more brands and competition (national brands, private labels, etc.) “boost” this

phenomenon.

The “inflationary” nature of the phenomenon is a cause for concern. One avenue

to explore in the future is the widespread use of new “smart” labels, such as RFID

(Radio Frequency Identification) labels. Combined with smartphone applications,

they could contribute to this communication without overloading packaging, just as

the digitalization of points of sale could lighten the merchandising aspects of

packaging.

13.4. Service functions

The proliferation of packaging is also due to the fact that, in addition to technical

and communication functions, packaging is becoming a source of innovation, not

only in terms of content, but also in terms of the services provided by the container,

and, more broadly, in terms of “packaging”:

– “dispensing” and/or “dosing” pump systems for liquid soaps, creams,

detergents, sauces and condiments;

– propellant gas aerosol for sprays (deodorants, water, perfumes, lacquers,

paints, lubricants, etc.);

– applicator/doser systems (cosmetics, detergents);

– heating trays, individual briquettes, straws, cutlery, “plate boxes”, glass cans

and, in fast food, “snaking” products;

– individual pods for coffee machines;

– mixing systems for unstable products (injectable or drinkable solutions, cold

welding, vulcanization).

202 Circular Economy

13.5. Reflection points

The question is whether these products and the services they provide should be

abandoned for ecological reasons. This raises a fundamental question for marketing

and our industrial societies: “how far does the notion of ‘need’ go, in relation to a

service provided, and when does it become a ‘gadget’?”

Without seeking to answer this “existential” question, two axes of work are

possible on these subjects:

1) reconsider these products according to their negative impact on the

environment, or even the danger they represent to the planet, and prune, or even

remove, them accordingly. Ban certain packaging, as already done for propellant gas

aerosols containing CFCs, for example, or plastic straws;

2) make the fight against waste and the promotion of a circular economy a

research axis for innovation in packaging-service, contributing to these new

challenges: research on materials, manufacturing processes, user machines (in the

case of pods), the establishment of PWR sectors in these areas (e.g. for fast food).

These innovations, while providing ever more services, create value and jobs.

13.6. Conclusion

As we have seen, decisions in terms of packaging design are complex to make,

as the direct and indirect impacts on the environment can be numerous and even

counterproductive. The options taken lead to ecological benefits as well as to certain

disadvantages. By the end of this chapter, we can appreciate that public authorities

are concerned about this, providing a more precise regulatory framework, in

particular, for the organization of EPR sectors in which conflicting interests may

arise. It also shows that an overall ecological balance sheet is needed to support

packaging decisions. These decisions are no longer the responsibility of a Product

Manager or operational marketing teams, but of the company’s own management.

What to recommend?

– the creation of a multidisciplinary committee, in charge of studying packaging

choices, including managers in purchasing, production, marketing-sales, supply

chain, category management;

– this committee reporting to the sustainable development department, if it

exists, or to the general management;

The Circular Economy and Packaging 203

– membership in or the creation of “eco-responsible packaging” labels to reward

the efforts of the most deserving companies;

Finally, three principles of the Sustainable Development approach seem

particularly well-suited to the challenges related to packaging:

– the principle of transparency: companies throughout the supply chain –

packaging producers, industrial users, logisticians, distributors – must have the

courage to publish their figures, such as their CO2 balance sheet (certified by

independent bodies) in order to show, year after year, the progress made;

– the principle of continuous improvement: once an objective has been achieved,

set a new and more ambitious one, for example, for the weight of the material used

in a package;

– the principle of ecologically-responsible management: the environmental

concern must prevail in managers’ decisions.

The packaging and packaging policy is fully in line with the circular economy

approach, first of all, through the emblematic principle of the deposit, to be updated

and, far beyond that, through the search for better recyclable packaging and the

implementation of more efficient recycling channels. Finally, this subject highlights

the interaction and the powerful link between the evolution of production (design,

development and more responsible use of packaging) and the evolution of

consumption (vigilant, even militant attitude towards packaging, active participation

in deposit and recycling systems). This link is even the main key factor for the

success of this sector.

13.7. References

Fulconis, F. and Philipp, B. (2018). La question des emballages d’expédition dans

l’E-commerce : une affaire de logistique et de marketing. Projectique, 3(21), pp. 23–41.

Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Lavender Law, K. (2017). Production, use and fate of all plastics

ever made. Science Advances, 3(7).

Herbreteau, V. and Jacquot, M. (2017). Choix du couple emballage produit et role du transfert

de sensation. Industries agroalimentaires et agricoles, January–February, pp. 30–32.

Pinet, B. (2004). Développement durable et marketing de l’emballage. Revue Française du

Marketing, 200, pp. 27–38.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector

Environmental issues such as the loss of biodiversity and climate change, as well

as social inequalities, have been pointed out since the 1970s (Meadows et al. 1972).

The circular economy, whose institutional foundations date back to the early 2000s,

seems to be a path through which we could rethink our production and consumption

patterns towards sustainable development.

However, today, there is not any official/controversial-free definition of the

circular economy. For the Institut National de l’Économie Circulaire, the aim is:

to move from an impact reduction model to a value creation model

that is positive on a social, economic and environmental level1. […]

Its ultimate objective is to achieve the decoupling of economic growth

from the depletion of natural resources through the creation of

innovative products, services, business models and public policies.

In clearer terms, this means rethinking our production and consumption patterns.

Murray et al. (2015) specify that in this model, “planning, procurement, purchasing,

production and reprocessing are designed and managed, both as processes and

outcomes, to maximize ecosystem functioning and human well-being.” Therefore,

circularity is based on the lifecycle (see Chapter 1 of this book) while involving a

territorial and sectoral reading of the subject.

Despite many negative impacts, the toy sector has received little attention from

the environment’s and the circular economy’s literatures. The very few existing

analyses focus either on product safety, in which case legislation takes over, or on

global value chains with their social abuses reported by NGOs and shared on social

Chapter written by Karen DELCHET-COCHET and Coralie DAMAY.

1 https://institut-economie-circulaire.fr/economie-circulaire/.

206 Circular Economy

networks. The issue of waste is getting addressed, as evidenced by extended producer

responsibility (EPR). EPR in the toy sector is drafted in the law on the waste and

circular economy of fall 2019. But this does not necessarily involve a global approach.

So, what really is the situation regarding the circular economy in this sector?

Moreover, toys are not goods like others. What do these very first objects we

give our children show? And how can this impact the thinking in regard to the

adoption of the circular economy in this sector?

14.1. The toy sector between impact and innovation

14.1.1. The main characteristics of the toy sector

A highly internationalized and highly seasonal sector

The games and toys sector2 is a significant market. In 2018, it represented

€3.4 billion in revenue in France3. Globally, seven groups produce 75% of the toys

to be found on shelves: Mattel, Hasbro, Playmobil, V-Tech, Lego, Ravensburger and

Bandai. This increasingly internationalized sector has experienced many relocations

over the past 20 years. In France, however, we are witnessing a revitalization of the

sector, supported by historical players as well as new brands whose position is based

on sustainable development. Since 2014, French companies have been working

together in the Association of French Toy Creators-manufacturers (Association des

créateurs-fabricants de jouets français – ACFJF) in order to promote a geographical

approach to production via the “Made in France” stamp. New players are positioning

themselves with the principles of local and/or environment-friendly production.

They are therefore partly involved in a circular economic perspective that involves

“rethinking (the) models and production processes, from design to consumption,

while integrating the need to recycle the components of products and even refurbish

them” (Hoballah 2016). So, what is the situation, more generally, in this sector?

A normative and legislative framework under construction

The legislation on toys mainly focuses on the safety and toxicity of toys. As the

website of the French Ministry of Economy and Finance points out, toys are

regulated by the decree of 24 February 20104. This refers to “essential safety

requirements” and “CE marking”, as well as the related conformity assessment.

However, nothing is said about the social or environmental impact of the product.

2 In this work, we are interested in the games and toys sector, except video games.

3 https://www.fjp.fr/.

4 https://www.entreprises.gouv.fr/politique-et-enjeux/qualite/securite/la-reglementation-

applicable-aux-jouets.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 207

In other sectors such as textiles, the French legislator has developed a legal

provision on extended producer responsibility (EPR). This obligation for the

producer to finance the management of the end-of-life of its products helps to limit

waste. To explain what an EPR is, the French Ministry of Ecological Transition has

chosen a counter-example relating to toys (see Figure 14.1)! Indeed, in November

2019, there was no EPR for this sector. But this is being addressed as part of the

anti-waste law for a circular economy.

Figure 14.1. Description of the EPR channels (source:

https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/loi-anti-gaspillage)

In practice, producers generally organize themselves into eco-organizations. In a

first approach, this seems to go against the general preference for closed loops, i.e.:

closed loop recycling and closed supply chains promoted by the

circular economy in which a producer recycles and processes

materials from his/her own end-of-life products for reuse in the same

products in order to preserve and maintain the quality of materials for

the longest period of time. (EMF 2013, cited by Kunz et al. 2018)

However, recent work by Geyer et al. (2016) on the environmental performances

of open loops apparently provides more nuanced results. According to them,

208 Circular Economy

“closed-loop recycling is no better than open-loop recycling”. For these authors, it is

especially important to ensure that secondary raw materials, from recycling, actually

substitute raw materials.

Even if the EPR process aims to encourage producers to design easy-to-recycle

products (Kunz et al. 2018), one can only notice that companies are still very

uncommitted to eco-design approaches as can be seen in other processes under EPR.

As for voluntary approaches, there is currently only one ecolabel for toys, cited

by ADEME5: The Nordic Ecolabel. An ecolabel guarantees an environmentally

friendly design for all the stages of the product’s life. The Nordic Ecolabel for toys6

more specifically bans named chemical substances, limits formaldehyde levels,

guarantees the absence of genetically-modified trees in the wood used to make the

product, and so on. It is therefore a guarantee of better environmental performance.

Other environmental labels do exist but they are more specific. They will ensure that

environmental criteria are taken into account in the production of the main raw

materials, such as FSC or PEFC for sustainably-generated wood or Oeko-tex for

organic fabrics. Finally, labels specifying the origin of the products can display

quality claims such as “Origine France Garantie” (French origin guaranteed).

The possibilities for environmental labeling are therefore rather limited. What

about the practices at each stage?

14.1.2. The circular economy in the toy sector: a lifecycle perspective

The importance of design

As Kunz et al. (2018) point out, “the majority of products are not currently

designed to be easily reusable or reusable after recycling and, in many cases, require

special treatment to eliminate hazardous materials at the end of their life.” Toys, in

their vast majority, are no exception to the rule. Design requires, from a product

lifecycle perspective, integration of the environmental impacts at all stages: raw

materials, production, distribution, use including reuse, repurposing and end-of-life.

Each of these stages will involve different actors, generally located in different areas

or countries, which makes thinking in terms of lifecycle even more complex.

But this does not mean that designers should be relieved of their responsibilities.

Indeed, the environmental performance of some later stages may be directly

dependent on the initial design. Let us therefore detail the characteristics of each

step.

5 https://www.ademe.fr/labels-environnementaux.

6 http://www.nordic-ecolabel.org/product-groups/group/?productGroupCode=095.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 209

The decisive choice of raw materials

The choice of raw materials is crucial. Today, toys are mainly made of plastic.

Historically, plastic has been used in the toy sector since the 1960s. It was regarded

as a source of innovation, as recalled by Barbe and Lioger (1999) in their analysis of

companies in the Jura7. But the recent awareness of environmental issues is now

pointing to this raw material made from oil, neither sustainable in terms of supply

nor in terms of recyclability. There are, of course, different alternatives: natural

materials such as rubber wood used by Plan Toys to make dolls houses, or

bioplastic, made from sugar cane, for Lego bricks in 2018.

In addition, the toy is usually sold in a box. The design of the toy is therefore not

without including the packaging. It is probably on this specific point that companies

have made the biggest effort. However, despite their investments, much remains to

be done, and this does not solve the problems posed by the lack of global thinking

on the product.

Production, including logistics and transport

The production stage consists of the actual manufacture of the toys. This sector

is not immune to the effects of globalization. Production is often outsourced, in

countries with low labor costs and less stringent environmental legislation. Several

companies, such as Mattel and Lego, have been identified by NGOs on this subject8.

This step also involves rethinking manufacturing processes, so that they are the most

economical in terms of non-renewable resources in particular.

For larger toy companies, production sites are usually far from the selling

countries. However, Lego with its three factories located in Europe, Central

America, and Asia is an exception to the above. The global flows of goods require

sales in stores all over the world, with very strong seasonality. The impact in terms

of transport is significant.

Distribution, towards a responsibility in terms of choice and message

Four categories of operators, in other words distributors, will be divided into this

crucial stage: specialists in traditional toys (representing 40% of turnover),

hypermarkets and supermarkets (32%), “pure players” in online sales (19%) and

others (bazaars, sales outlets, department stores, traditional mail order companies

representing 9%). Distributors are responsible for the choice of products distributed

and the related communication, whether or not they raise consumer awareness of

7 Region of eastern France specializing in toy production.

8 https://www.novethic.fr/actualite/social/conditions-de-travail/isr-rse/mattel-en-chine-des-

violations-du-code-du-travail-denoncees-depuis-15-ans-141622.html.

210 Circular Economy

responsible consumption practices. The comments by Cho et al. (2018), who specify

that “encouraging sustainable decisions and practices at the individual level is one of

the necessary preconditions”, fully underline the role of distributors as relays of

information to the consumer. However, it must be noted that few have integrated

these issues into their product choices and therefore into the related communication,

outside specialized stores such as Nature et Découvertes or Bonhomme de Bois.

Use, between shelf life and new uses

The use stage involves two main complementary topics: the shelf life of the

product before it is discarded and the duration of use, which may vary from one

child to another and from one product to another.

The short lifespan of products is often due to the design itself. The role of toy

manufacturers and designers is key to this. Toys may have been designed voluntarily

with a short lifespan due to the poor quality of some components, for example. What

about their reparability? The existence of spare parts to complete a game? Few

manufacturers offer to repair their products like Corolle and its dolls’ clinic. But this

possibility is little known to the general public, complicated to implement and

imposes conditions (such as an almost perfect condition of the doll) to be feasible.

The short lifespan can also be related to trends, especially in the context of licensing.

This seems to impose another form of programmed product obsolescence.

This subject would not be fully addressed without consideration of the short

duration of the use of some toys in the life of the growing child. The role of toy

libraries or dedicated structures such as the Playmobil Fun Park, which make it

possible to use and/or rent toys, can be an interesting alternative, in terms of the

functional economy.

When they no longer use the toy, consumers may show different types of habits:

– The toy is stored in order to pass it on, often within the same family, to a

younger person. This choice makes it possible to keep the memories attached to the

object by a new use instead of letting it gather dust.

– The toy is given to a known third party or charity to be used by someone else

and here again find another use. In this case, it can be repaired and refurbished for

sale in second-hand shops such as Rejoué (see Box 14.1) or Emmaüs, for reuse.

– The toy is sold in order to recover part of its cost and/or for educational

purposes during car boot sales.

There are therefore many reuse practices in this sector.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 211

The French association Rejoué is a specialist in the reuse of toys (see Figure 14.2). It

collects toys, repairs them, cleans them and sells them in shops. In 2018, the association

recovered 42,000 tons of toys and recovered two-thirds of them, thereby increasing

product lifetime9. The cleaning of toys is done with ecological and biological products.

This approach helps to consider short loops for reuse.

Figure 14.2. Example of the integrated approach of REMPLOI by Rejoué,

(source: https://rejoue.asso.fr/nos-missions-une-activite-eco-responsable/).

For a color version of this figure, see iste.co.uk/delchet/circular.zip

This company is also working on a positive approach to its social impact by

employing people who are being reintegrated. In 2018, it was awarded the Association

trophy by the Institut National de l’Economie Circulaire.

Box 14.1. Rejoué

– Finally, the toy can be thrown away when it is broken or when this solution is

considered the easiest way to get rid of an object that is now considered useless or

even cumbersome. Nothing is said about the end of its life. Most of it will be buried

or incinerated, in other words, not recycled. Let us analyze this subject.

The end of product life and the limits of recycling

In recent years, the question of toy recycling has been raised by both the media

and parents, who do not know what to do with the large amount of objects that are

no longer suitable or even broken. According to the government, “75,000 tons of

9 https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/paris-ile-de-france/jouets-se-recyclent-pere-noel-

adepte-economie-circulaire-1387633.html.

212 Circular Economy

toys end up in the garbage”10. Faced with this observation, as mentioned at the

beginning of this chapter, the French government plans to carry out a toy EPR in

order to encourage manufacturers in the sector to make a commitment to the end of

the product’s life.

Some manufacturers are beginning to work on the end of life of toys. For

example, in April 2019, the giant Hasbro announced a partnership with the global

waste treatment company TerraCycle. The Hasbro toys collected by this program are

sorted, crushed and transformed into plastic granules. The latter are used as

secondary raw material to manufacture urban benches or storage boxes,

characteristic of an open loop.

While it has good intentions, recycling remains very weak for two reasons. First,

recycling should only happen as a last resort, as specified in the law on energy

transition for sustainable growth of August 18, 2015. Therefore, priority must be

given to the reuse of products, then to their repurposing and then to their recycling.

Second, collecting for recycling does not guarantee that the product is recyclable or

even that it will actually be recycled. Toys are often made of several different

materials or plastic, which makes the task even harder11. The importance of design is

once against highlighted. Thus, Monopoly, G.I. Joe, My Little Pony and

Transformers are now designed and manufactured with only one type of plastic,

PET, which makes them easier to recycle12.

Nevertheless, some toy manufacturers have a very integrated and committed

approach, such as Bioviva13. This French company designs games, produced in a

responsible way, in other words with the lowest possible environmental impact and

a positive social impact. All steps are carefully looked into. But this company goes

further by offering “caring games” that raise awareness of respect for the planet.

This allows us to highlight another criterion: the purpose of the toy, which is not just

an object as any other.

10 https://www.actu-environnement.com/ae/news/economie-circulaire-concertation-

nouvelles-rep-jouets-velo-31576.php4.

11 https://www.liberation.fr/france/2019/07/13/comment-recycler-les-jouets-de-vos-enfants_

1739209.

12 https://www.liberation.fr/france/2019/07/13/comment-recycler-les-jouets-de-vos-enfants_

1739209.

13 https://www.bioviva.com/fr/.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 213

14.2. A toy is more than “just a product”

Playing is the hallmark of contemporary childhood (Ariès 1960, cited by Gaussot

2001), whether this activity is perceived as frivolous (recreation or reward) or as a

serious educational, pedagogical activity that contributes to the child’s development.

Since the beginning of the 20th Century, professionals working with children have

agreed on this second perception. Playing is central for the child (Brougère 2003)

and is often done thanks to a commercialized object: the toy. Childhood is perceived

as a time of learning during which play and toys are often assimilated.

The toy has many facets. First of all, the toy as a means for playing contributes

to the child’s development both psychomotorally and in terms of identity building,

socialization and even in school. Thus, the toy is an educational object, not only the

basis for the personal construction of the youngest children, their skills and abilities,

but also the basis for their understanding of their social environment (justice,

cooperation, respect of rules and social relations according to age, gender, etc.).

Market figures – the traditional toy market represented just under 3.5 billion euros in

France in 201814, or an annual consumption of 275 euros per year per child aged

0–1115 – seems to testify parents’ support for this observation. Toy professionals go

even further because for them: playing is life16.

14.2.1. Toys, the company’s flagship products

In a socio-economic dimension, the toy reflects the values and foundations of our

society. As such, board games can be seen as a vehicle for children to learn the rules of

our consumer societies: sell, buy, anticipate the reaction of other players, and so on.

From a socio-cultural perspective, it is recognized that children are sensitive to

cultural gender stereotypes and that toys contribute to their sexual differentiation

(Brougère 2003). According to this conception, the toy is designed according to the

role, or future role, assigned to boys vs. girls. Toys for boys can therefore be seen as

a catalyst for their aggressiveness and encourage them to compete. For girls,

however, their maternal fiber and domestic chores are exacerbated. Even if debates

on the gender “signs” provided by toys have existed for several years, the recurring

polemics around Christmas catalogues clearly illustrate that the issue remains topical

and that expectations towards producers remain high (e.g. Ezan and Ulrich 2016).

14 www.fjp.fr.

15 www.fjp.fr.

16 www.fjp.fr.

214 Circular Economy

Finally, from an educational perspective, the studies highlight the various roles

of toys in the family education project. In middle and upper classes, toys are

learning tools, while in lower classes it is a reward or sanction for academic

achievements/failures (Vincent 2000). Therefore, the importance of toys is different

according to families.

14.2.2. A brief historical return

Understanding the place of toys cannot be done without drawing a parallel with

the place given to children in our society. At the end of the war, educational and

psychological importance was given to children. At the same time, birth control and

the increasing number of working women led to children being considered as

child-kings in the 1970s. In a period of claiming the right to happiness and personal

fulfillment, in opposition to the values of authority and obedience that previously

prevailed, the desired child was a subject in their own right. Families wanted to

make their child happy and it became the focus of their attention. During the Trente

Glorieuses, the 30 years following the end of World War II, the place given to the

child, and the increasing guilt of some parents whose time available for their

families was decreasing, explains the use and development of toys. Toys are used to

make up for the short time granted to children using entertaining products made to

contribute to their development. It gradually became a key element of their

development.

Toy manufacturers ride on the waves of this parental expectation – the desire to

offer the best to their child and to help them become a successful grown-up – and offer

a range of accessories to create skill-learning situations (Damay and Llorca 2012):

– learning to read and count are offered by many toys for young children from

magnetic letters, to wooden abacuses and mini computers;

– learning to manage your pocket money and the value of things is possible

through merchant toys as well as many board games, the most famous of which,

Monopoly, allows you to buy properties or hotels;

– learning to choose, to make decisions, to understand your limits as proposed by

strategy games as well as all the toys to collect and exchange in the playground;

– learning to express yourself in public becomes fun with many games that

allow you to communicate through drawings or without saying a list of forbidden

words;

– learning to behave in society is encouraged by most toys and games which,

when they involve several players, require agreement on the rules and the ability to

behave with others.

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 215

14.2.3. The role of the toy in educating the future consumer?

The child’s change of status in our society, now considered as an individual with

their own rights, contributes to giving a child multiple roles. They are a buyer thanks

to having their own money (pocket money, tooth fairy, etc.). They are also a direct

prescriber when they make a request, or an indirect prescriber when they refuse to

consume in order to show their disagreement (e.g. a refusal to eat yogurt). Finally,

they are a future consumer insofar as their learning (skills and knowledge) during

childhood will largely be mobilized in adulthood (McNeal 1992; Belk et al. 1984).

This 3-in-1 role, that is now recognized, explains the interest granted to children by

different stakeholders such as researchers (in human sciences as well as in

management sciences), public authorities and companies. For companies, having a

precise knowledge of this population allows them to offer goods matching children’s

real needs (psychological, nutritional, etc.) and expectations. However, the role of

marketing must be questioned. Indeed, the over-mediatization of toys, the

importance of licenses, the communications of certain professionals and so on can

be perceived by adults as strong injunctions and make them feel guilty for not

buying a specific toy for their child. The parent or adult therefore feel they are

jeopardizing their child’s development, keeping them from certain opportunities.

But, as early as the 1970s, Kotler and Zatlman (1971) mentioned a counterpart to

commercial marketing: social marketing. Based on the same techniques, social

marketing aims to voluntarily change consumer’s behaviors to improve the well-

being of the target and society. In the same period of time, a research stream on a

conserver society that would “maintain or improve one’s standard of living while

consuming less or differently” (LeGall 2002, p6) emerged and developed, before

declining in the 1980s because of the importance given to ownership (LeGall 2002).

Nowadays, social marketing is mobilized as part of prevention of obesity, smoking

and so on among children and teenagers. Given the challenges of sustainable

development and the growing interest in sustainable consumption, why not think

about its use in the toy sector? Social marketing could help reduce overconsumption

habits and promote a more restrained way of consuming that is essential to protect

our planet.

14.2.4. Toys and environmental education

Historically, our society was led by consumerism. However, resistance is

appearing. New and more responsible ways of consuming are developing. Shared

between performance injunctions for their children and the sacralization of

childhood values – such as carelessness and spontaneity – parents are starting to

reject a consumption that is considered excessive. For example, they will develop

their children’s critical sense, make them aware of the different sales techniques,

216 Circular Economy

make them think about commercial objectives of advertising and so on. More

specifically, parental resistance exists in the toy sector (Nabec 2013). If the toy is a

hedonic and involving product because it carries educational values and is a path to

socialization, some parents nevertheless wish to teach their children to consume less,

consume differently or not at all (Nabec 2013). For these parents, the relationship

with toys is at the heart of their educational method. This observation then

encourages professionals of the sector to modify their offer and reposition it. They

should do this by asking themselves: to what extent could toys become a support for

learning sustainable consumption?

Moreover, while work on children and the environment is relatively recent and

still very limited (Francis and Davis 2015), it is important to stress that early results

tend to show interest in environmental issues and a positive attitude towards the

environment (Evans et al. 2007; Grønhøj and Thøgersen 2012, cited by Parguel and

Charry 2019). Children show interest in the climate, pollution, animal survival,

deforestation, well-being and so on, whatever their cultural or economic

backgrounds (Francis and Davis 2015). At school age, they are motivated to protect

the environment and pass onto their parents the lessons learned in school (e.g.

Zelezny 1999; Vaughan et al. 2003). More specifically, children are involved and

aware of the phenomena of sorting, reflecting a certain know-how (Schill and Fosse-

Gomez 2014). Therefore, other professionals in children’s products have already

taken into account their sensitivity and skills in following advice, as shown, for

example, by the newspaper Astrapi of November 15, 2019, which offers a press kit

entitled “Save the Earth!” for children aged 7–11 years with challenges to be met as

a family.

However, there is little research on how to educate and encourage

pro-environmental behaviors in children aged 7–12 years (Parguel and Charry

2019). In the toy sector studied in this research, two means appear. First, to propose

toys aiming to raise awareness of environmental issues or citizenship in the broad

sense. Second, to offer toys that are exemplary in terms of design, reflecting

a circular economy approach or at least the company’s own eco-design. In the

first case, it is the purpose of the toy that has been questioned. What will the

toy be used for? What is the objective of the game? Many toys are already

designed with an educational vocation (learning to count, tying shoelaces,

mapping the world, etc.), but few are developed with a goal to raise collaborative or

ecological awareness.

14.2.5. The toy, a role to be redefined

Given the challenges society faces, it seems necessary to invite stakeholders to

consider the role given to the toy. Indeed, if playing is intrinsically linked to the

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 217

child, should the toy, and more precisely all toys, automatically be included as an

essential element for a child’s development? If the answer were a straightforward

yes, it would mean denying the development of the poorest children whose access to

toys is sometimes more than limited. To this tricky question, a simple answer cannot

be satisfactory and we invite all stakeholders to question the utility of the toy and

not (automatically) take it for granted.

The toy as only a toy does not seem necessary. But the toy that encourages

development may have its uses. It is then a catalyst that helps children to mime, to

reproduce the gestures they daily witness. The question seems to be about the level

of similarity between the toy and the object of the adult’s world. Imitation is an

important element of child development, but should it be accepted as obvious that

this imitation involves a concrete object? Is it necessary to have a kitchen set with a

miniature food processor of the same brand as the parents’?

Harder still is the questioning of the toy as a symbolic object. Toys are often a

strong marker of social status and a tool for the child to join a peer group.

Nevertheless, the trend of licensing and trendiness need to be questioned. The

socialization of children with others cannot result solely from the possession of one

toy or another, as this could lead to children being excluded from playgroups.

Therefore, limiting the effects of trends and designing toys with a purpose other than

short-term sales should become an issue for all stakeholders (parents but also

industrialists, distributors and public authorities).

Toys provide us with information about our society. If we only provide younger

generations with objects that mirror consumption, it will certainly be more

complicated to make them aware of the increasing scarcity of raw materials,

pollution and restraint. We note that very few collaborative toys exist. The most

common rule is: win and win over other players! This observation leads us to ask

toy manufacturers to develop an offer that allows them to play truly together and not

against each other.

Another important aspect is that creative toys can be made with toxic and

polluting substances, even though the usefulness of these toys as facilitators of

imagination and creativity is often well grounded. It is important to note however

that creativity and cooperation are values sought (Taddei 2018) to find innovative

solutions for the future. As for construction toys, which promote imagination and

spatial representation, they are often pointed out for their perceived sexist nature.

The question of the usefulness of toys leads us to make proposals to rethink this

very special universe.

218 Circular Economy

14.3. To conclude: proposals for rethinking our relationship with toys

Following these observations, we propose here some ways to rethink our

relationship with toys and to place this sector in a circular economy perspective:

– One of the key points is to have a product lifecycle approach. This reduces

environmental impacts for all stages of the toy’s lifecycle. The toy is not only

designed as recyclable. It may be made of compostable materials, will be repairable,

reusable and so on. This design approach also entails, as far as possible, integrating

geographical proximity into the reflection process. This subject is fundamental both

in terms of reducing energy/climate impacts and in order to be able to consider flow

management between companies in the same territory. it is referred to as territorial

ecology.

– This study highlights the importance of a brainwork on the purpose of toys.

While it is necessary to conceive toys differently from a technical point of view, the

importance of thinking about their usefulness and the values they convey should not

be overlooked. Thus, we believe it is necessary to develop games that will enable

future eco-citizens to be trained instead of consumers and to value collaboration

and creativity. More generally, despite the many questions raised by the

circular economy, the question of the usefulness of the product does not always

seem to be sufficiently emphasized. At the time the good is purchased, the

individual should ask themselves: do I really need this object? When purchasing

a toy, as with any product, we invite people to ask themselves these questions:

what will be the use of this toy? What child or teenager’s needs will this

toy meet?

– Toys designed in this way must be supported, valued and chosen by all

stakeholders: manufacturers, distributors (who select certain products), buyers in the

broad sense, individuals or organizations (childcare facilities – nurseries,

kindergartens, leisure centers –, schools, etc.), public authorities, etc. It seems

essential for the successful integration of the toy sector into the circular economy

(more than the integration of the circular economy into the toy sector) that this

achievement be driven by all and not a single stakeholder.

– All these practices also need to be known, both by adults and children.

Distributors have a fundamental role in promoting eco-friendly products and

informing adult buyers, who have less and less time to spend on purchases. For

example, advice at the time of purchase, clear information (available in catalogues,

advertisements, etc.) must be provided.

– The circular economy also requires a redesign of the business model

(Geissdoerfer 2018). Developing new business models based on, for example, the

economy of functionality, i.e. the rental of products, could be considered. The

creation of new toy libraries could also participate in this circular economy via

the sharing economy. Another avenue is the development of second-hand toy stores

The Circular Economy and Toy Sector 219

to increase the life of the product. These initiatives would make it possible to move

towards restraint while being economically viable.

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Postface

From Inebriety to Sobriety:

Because Gê Is Worth It!

The exciting thing about the circular economy is that it simply forces us to

reinvent the world, the relationships between humans, the relationship between

humanity and the rest of life, in short our relationship to each other, whatever it is:

human, animal, plant or mineral.

It is a mistake to think that the current dominant model is the ideal balance that

should not be changed. First of all, there is an ontological error because it is the

intrinsic nature of human beings to adapt and evolve at the same time as their

environment; second, there is an error facing future generations by letting them pay

our environmental debts, which they already rightly blame us for.

A shared sense of urgency

We have no choice: the findings of the three international UN bodies, IPPC

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), IRP (International Resource Panel)

and IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services), are clear on the direction we are taking. Some people criticise

these bodies for their supposed pessimism, or even for knowingly blackening the

landscape to create concern, anguish and force political decision-makers to take

radical measures.

It means forgetting that, as scientists, they only draw up observations and

perspectives with models based on the knowledge of the moment. In 1972, the Club

of Rome published the so-called Meadows report entitled The Limits to Growth,

Chapter written by Jean-Louis BERGEY

224 Circular Economy

which also generated a lot of negative criticism, particularly in terms of

methodology. Forty years later, Australian researchers1 analyzed the evolution of the

six indicators in the Meadows report, between 1970 and 2000, and demonstrated that

they followed the trend predicted by the report.

So let us take seriously the IRP, which foresees a doubling of raw material

consumption by 20602 and considers this to be an “unsustainable future in terms of

both resource use and emissions, probably exceeding all possible measures of

available resources […]”.

It also means concealing the fact that other organizations, including those who

support the orthodox macroeconomic model of growth, share the findings. For

example: the OECD on the economic and quality of life consequences of commodity

consumption prospects3; or IMF President Kristalina Georgievia, who, at her press

conference on taking office in 2019, stated that climate risk will now be included in

economic analyses4; or the new President-elect of the European Commission,

Mrs Ursula von der Leyen, who prioritizes a Green Deal for Europe; or the 40 or so

large French or international companies grouped within EpE (Entreprises pour

l’Environnement) which, in a report entitled Zen 20505, acknowledge the climate

emergency.

The limit of a purely technological approach

Of course, most of the solutions advocated by these organizations are based on

science and technology to help us reduce our consumption of fossil fuels, metals,

materials, water, soil or biomass and, in fine, to make a relative decoupling between

(positive) GDP trends and the consumption of natural resources. Others (companies

and space agencies) go further, preparing mining projects on the Moon or Mars,

after having started mining resources in the deep sea and polar regions.

And then what? For every resource reaches its limits if we are in the “ever

more”, regardless of the progress science makes to push it back, with a world

1 Turner, G. (2014). Is Global Collapse Imminent? MSSI research paper no. 4, University of

Melbourne.

2 UNEP (2011) Decoupling natural resource use and environmental impacts from economic

growth. United Nations Environment Programme.

3 OECD (2019). Business Models for Circular Economy: Opportunities and Challenges for

Policy. Report, OECD Publishing, Paris.

4 La Tribune, 18/10/2019.

5 EpE (2019). ZEN 2050 imaginer et construire une France neutre en carbone. 20 May,

France.

Postface 225

population of 11 billion inhabitants by 2050. This is what the American economist

and philosopher Kenneth Boulding summed up well in the following maxim:

“Anyone who believes in indefinite growth in anything physical, on a physically

finite planet, is either mad or an economist.”6

Of course, we have made progress in all areas. But technology itself has its limits

and is only worthwhile if it is used properly, which is not always the case, especially

with the rebound effect. For example, in the automotive sector, progress in fuel

consumption per kilometer has been reversed over time with the increase in mileage

driven.

Deep changes needed to move towards sobriety

We must therefore go further, as the United Nations itself encourages us to do so

by indicating in its report published in November 2019 on the gap between the needs

and prospects for reducing GHG emissions: “Deep-rooted shifts in values, norms,

consumer culture and world view are inescapably part of the great sustainability

transformation”.

The ultimate path of this change of culture, beyond all the actions to be

undertaken in the field of the circular economy, is to enter the era of sobriety,

consented to if not desired (and if possible, happy, as proposed by Pierre Rabhi7),

but assumed. This in no way means “a return to the candle” but another way of

conceiving our economy, meeting our needs, monitoring indicators, in short, a

paradigm shift, which is obviously not an easy task. It is therefore necessary for the

third of humanity that consumes too much to consume less, and not only less thanks

to technology, but less, quite simply, thus allowing the other two-thirds who cannot

satisfy their basic needs to do so, despite everything: the cake remains identical, but

we share it better.

All this effectively reassesses the foundations on which our modern society has

developed: What is the business model for companies producing less? What about

the future of those working in manufacturing? What about salary? What about

working hours? What about the trade-off between the collective and the individual?

Incentive policy or coercive policy? What about the representation of happiness,

completely dependent on the consumption of objects and of which we are reminded

in every advertisement? And our relationship to money, to “wealth” which is only

6 United States Congress House (1973) Energy reorganization act of 1973: Hearings, Ninety-

third Congress, first session, on H.R. 11510, p. 248.

7 French writer, farmer and environmentalist who promotes the ethics of “happy sobriety”.

226 Circular Economy

that of money among all others. We must also change our relationship to the object

in that it allows us to satisfy wishes or desires, as well as to integrate ourselves into a

group or on the contrary to distinguish ourselves from the mass.

We must change our relationship to time, both the one that drives us to ever

more technology and more dependence on networks (electricity, transport,

telephony), the slightest breakdown of which becomes a disaster, as well as the one

of economic reflection and analysis, which is too short, preventing us from seeing

the impacts in the long term.

It is necessary to change the measurement instrument, GDP obsessively

supplanting all the others and carrying in itself this economic contradiction that it

does not integrate the depreciation of natural capital, which would not be accepted

for any company if it were its share capital. Changing the indicator would help us to

change our perspective, except that changing the indicator is already having done

most of the work.

But who should start this virtuous loop? Political leaders? Companies?

Individuals? Actually all three!

To do this, we will have to overcome all our fears and take risks: the elected

representative in the next election, the company on its annual result and the citizen

in the comfort of their habits. However, taking risks does not mean losing every

time. What satisfaction the political leader has for improving the lives of their fellow

citizens, for the entrepreneur to have positioned themself as a leader in a new market

and for the citizen to live in a more pleasant and healthy environment.

As we can see, we are only at the beginning of a large movement, inevitably

difficult because it will be so profound and still paved with uncertainties, but

necessary and even indispensable. This book illustrates, if necessary, the importance

of a collective and multidisciplinary approach to understanding the issues related to

the circular economy, in order to be part of this inevitable ecological transition and

the importance of being vigilant to ensure that this circular economy is no less

disabling and restricted.

The best for us is that we chart this new path together and from now on, even if

we do not master all the parameters (but have we always mastered everything?) and

that we accompany this change rather than undergo it and have to decide urgently,

which is never the right solution.

In short, think about the future to better design it.

List of Authors

Franck AGGERI

CGS-i3 UMR

CNRS 9217

MINES ParisTech

France

Mérylle AUBRUN

AFNOR Group

La Plaine Saint-Denis

France

Vincent AUGISEAU

UniLaSalle

and

CitéSource

Rennes

France

Anne BENADY

AFNOR Group

La Plaine Saint-Denis

France

Jean-Louis BERGEY

ADEME

Angers

France

Dominique BONET FERNANDEZ

IPAG Business School

Paris

and

CRET-LOG

Aix-Marseille University

France

Bénédicte BOURCIER-BÉQUAERT

ESSCA School of Management

Aix-en-Provence

France

Christian BRODHAG

Ecole des Mines de Saint-Etienne

and

Pôle National Ecoconception

Saint-Etienne

and

Construction 21

Paris

France

François CABARET

Groupe ISC Paris

France

228 Circular Economy

Coralie DAMAY

Groupe ISC Paris

France

Anne DE BÉTHENCOURT

Reset The World

and

C2C Community

Paris

France

Karen DELCHET-COCHET

Groupe ISC Paris

France

Karine FABRE

Senior Territorial Attaché

Paris

France

Valérie FERNANDES

CERIIM

La Rochelle Business School

CEREGE EA1722

France

François-Michel LAMBERT

French Parliament

Paris

and

Institut National de l’Économie

Circulaire

Paris

France

Catherine LEJEALLE

Groupe ISC Paris

France

Melodie MERENDA

AFNOR Group

La Plaine Saint-Denis

France

David MORIEZ

Groupe ISC Paris

France

Yvon PESQUEUX

HESAM University

and

CNAM

Paris

France

Alexis POKROVSKY

LIRSA (EA4603)

CNAM

Paris

France

Index

0 carbon, 102, 106, 107

B, C, D

brand, 175–177, 181–189

building, 139–150, 153, 154

business model, 103, 104, 106

certification, 86, 87, 91

children, 206, 210, 213–218

circular

economy project management, 126,

129, 131, 133

transition, 4, 10, 12

city, 140, 143, 144, 147, 149, 152, 153

communities, 67, 70, 71, 73, 77

community, 112, 114, 115, 118–122

companies, 53–55, 58, 65

competence, 67, 70–73

consensus, 126, 177

construction materials, 139, 140

consumer behavior, 116, 122

consumption practices, 111, 112,

115, 120

coordinate, 107, 108

coordination, 93, 99, 100, 102

Cradle to Cradle, 81–88, 90, 91

cycle

biological, 83, 84, 86, 88

technical, 83, 84, 86

demolition, 140, 148, 151, 152, 154

design, 205, 206, 208–210, 212, 213,

216–218

duration of use, 18, 24

E, F, G

eco-design, 19, 22–24, 26, 83, 85, 88, 89,

146, 149

ecological transition, 53, 54, 60, 61

economy of functionality, 111, 114, 120

ecosystem, 95, 104

education, 210, 213–216

generalization of, 61

elimination–recovery, 172

employment concentration, 33, 34

environment, 14, 16–18, 20–22, 24–26

environmental, 205–209, 212, 213, 215,

216, 218

impacts, 175, 176, 179, 184, 188

EPR (extended producer responsibility),

163, 168, 176, 180–182, 205, 207,

208, 212

evaluation, 128, 133, 134

230 Circular Economy

fast-fashion, 188, 189

FE (functional economy), 18, 20, 22–24

function

division, 195

marketing and communication, 195,

200

protection, 195, 197

service, 195, 201

globalization, 179, 180, 182, 183

governance modes, 100, 107

green

HRM (human resources management),

29, 30, 38–41

jobs, 36, 37, 40, 47

Green Plan, 56

greening jobs, 36, 37, 40, 42

H, I, L

Homo detritus, 160

industrial and territorial ecology, 93, 94,

97, 98, 100, 101

industrial ecology, 13, 20, 23, 151

intermunicipal (see also municipal), 68,

69, 71–74, 77

ISO, 14, 24, 126–129, 134

26000, 134

lifecycle, 13, 14, 20–22, 24–26, 128, 129,

205, 208, 218

local authorities, 67, 69–71, 73–77

loop

closed, 84

open, 84

positive, 83, 88, 90

M, N, P

maturity, 127, 134

Moore’s chasm, 122

municipal (see also intermunicipal), 67,

69–74, 76

neighborhood, 144, 150

packaging

eco-, 194, 203

promotional, 197

unit, 197

platform, 111, 113–115, 118–121

point of sale, 178, 182–185

polarization of employment, 34

positive impact, 82, 83, 88, 90, 91

proposal, 54, 61, 62

proximity, 67–70, 74, 100, 104,

106, 108

public procurement, 67, 73–77

R, S, T

recycle, 3, 5, 6, 8–11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20,

23–25, 193–195, 198, 201, 203

recycling, 160, 162–165, 167–170,

175–182, 184, 186–189

refurbishment, 144, 146, 154

responsibility, 209

responsible consumption, 23, 24

reuse, 3–6, 8–11, 160, 164, 165, 167,

169, 170, 173

RRT (reuse–recycling–transformation),

170

secondary resources, 151–154

sharing economy, 111–114, 118, 120,

122, 219

stakeholders, 128, 132–134

standard, 125–134

sustainability, 93, 94, 96–99, 101,

105–107

sustainable

development, 53–60, 64, 65

education for, 56, 57

procurement, 23

territorial, 67–75, 77

level, 67, 70, 74

levels, 68, 70

scale, 67–70, 73

territory, 93, 94, 96–99, 102,

104–108

textile, 175–177, 179–187, 189

transformation, 164, 170, 172

Index 231

U, V, W

unemployment

regional, 32, 34

structural, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 41

university, 53–57, 59, 60, 63, 64

upcycling, 83, 86

urban planning, 153, 154

used products, 179, 180, 181

usefulness, 217, 218

useless, 162, 172

uses, 111, 115, 117, 118, 120

utopia, 7

voluntary standardization, 125, 126

waste, 159–173

construction and demolition, 139–141,

143, 148–151, 154

management, 69–72, 76, 166–168, 171

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