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The Effect of Individual Characteristics and Supervision Experiences on the Perceived Quality of the Supervision Relationship
Abstract
Research has shown that high-quality relationships between individuals on probation/parole and their supervising officers can reduce recidivism and increase compliance. Although this relationship clearly matters, little attention has been given to understanding the factors that influence this relationship. Drawing on research in psychology and counseling, this study explores how both individual characteristics and supervision experiences affect the perceived quality of the supervision relationship. Results from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) reveal that both individual characteristics—such as mental health and family support—and supervision experiences—such as the use of sanctions and incentives—exert significant effects on the supervision relationship. Yet, the effects of supervision experiences were substantially more robust than the individual characteristics. Findings suggest community supervision agencies should prioritize positive supervision experiences to build positive relationships between the returning person and supervising officer.
... Despite general agreement that positive supervisory relationships are critical to probation outcomes (Andrews & Bonta, 2016;Clark, 2005;Matthews & Hubbard, 2007;Mendel, 2018), few studies have examined how specific supervisory experiences may shape youths' views of and relations with JPOs (Fountain & Mahmoudi, 2021;Lewis, 2014;Trotter & Evans, 2012;Wodahl et al., 2021). The following section presents a brief overview of three supervisory practices that may be associated with youths' views of JPOs: interaction format, interaction quality (i.e., JPO procedural justice perceptions), and interaction frequency. ...
... Moreover, transportation challenges may contribute to youth missing appointments with JPOs (Cristancho et al., 2008). If youth miss or are late to their court-ordered meetings, JPOs may reprimand or penalize youths, which may promote a more adversarial and less positive relationship (Wodahl et al., 2021). Although in-person interactions are viewed as an important element in building positive relationships with youth from the perspective of JPOs, some evidence suggests that the disruption in youths' lives inherent to in-person interactions may undermine youths' positive views of JPOs. ...
... Several studies indicate that matching the dosage, or amount, of correctional intervention to youths' risk level more effectively reduces offending behavior (Baglivio et al., 2021;Haerle, 2016), thereby implicating the amount of JPO-youth interaction as an important supervisory experience in shaping youths' legal outcomes. Third, results from a study of adults support the notion that interaction frequency matters (Wodahl et al., 2021). Adults under community supervision who interacted more often with their supervisory officer over the telephone reported significantly more positive relationships with supervisory relationships, although notably, this effect did not generalize to in-person interaction frequency (Wodahl et al., 2021). ...
Objective: Beyond traditional in-person meetings, contemporary juvenile probation officers (JPOs) leverage modern technology to interact with youth via videoconferencing, phone calls, and text messaging. It is plausible that youth feel more—or less—supported by JPOs depending on the format of their interactions. Simultaneously, the procedural justice literature suggests that the quality of JPOs’ interactions with youth may be as much or more influential on JPO-youth relationships than interaction format. Given that more positive supervisory relationships are associated with better probation outcomes, it is critical to understand what may shape youths’ regard for JPOs. This study examined youths’ perceived support from JPOs across four interaction formats. Then, this study examined how two supervisory experiences (interaction quality and frequency) were associated with youths’ perceived support from JPOs through each interaction format. Hypotheses: We hypothesized that youth would feel similarly supported by JPOs across all four interaction formats. Per procedural justice theory, we expected that youth who perceived better quality relationships with their JPO (i.e., more procedurally just) would be more likely to feel supported by JPOs across all interaction formats. Last, we hypothesized that youth interacted with JPOs more often digitally, rather than in person, would be more likely to feel supported. Method: Youth (N = 529) on juvenile probation were surveyed to assess their probation experiences and perceptions of JPOs. Results: Youth felt similarly supported by JPOs across all four formats. Youth were more likely to feel supported the more often they interacted with JPOs and were much more likely to feel supported by JPOs they viewed as more procedurally just. Conclusions: This study suggests that digital interactions are prevalent in juvenile probation supervision and well received by youth. Results highlight the potential of two supervisory practices that may help JPOs build better relationships with youth on probation.
... The study recommends implementing strengths-based interventions to increase self-efficacy, as it is associated with desistance from crime. Wodahl et al. (2021) found that supervision experiences, including the content of interactions between clients and officers, have a robust effect on the quality of the supervision relationship. Their study suggests that POs' encouraging communication and attention to clients' needs are more influential than individual characteristics in forming positive relationships. ...
... They can collaborate with POs to create environments that encourage career-related discussions and support the career aspirations of women on probation/parole. This suggestion aligns with findings from Wodahl et al. (2021), which suggest that supervision experiences, including the content of interactions between clients and officers, have a robust effect on the quality of the supervision relationship. ...
... This study extends prior research by finding evidence of the dual role relationship characteristics that serve as mediators and moderators of the relationship between PO's conversational orientation and women's occupational self-efficacy. These findings align with recent research by Wodahl et al. (2021) and Chamberlain et al. (2018), which emphasize the importance of the quality of the supervision relationship and its impact on recidivism and other outcomes. Ripper's (2023) study further supports our results, showing that women who maintained a sense of self-efficacy and used positive coping strategies were more successful in finding employment and reintegrating into society after release. ...
The relationship between probation/parole officers (POs) and their clients under community supervision plays a crucial role in successful reintegration. This study investigates how POs' communication orientations influence relationship quality and the occupational self-efficacy of women impacted by the justice system, drawing on family communication patterns and self-efficacy theories. A public dataset of 402 women on probation or parole in Michigan, USA was recruited using a cross-sectional snowball sampling approach. Regression analyses revealed that POs' communication orientation predicts women's occupational self-efficacy and relationship quality. Equally important, caring and trust mediate the positive relationship between POs' conversation orientation and women's self-efficacy in their job-related abilities, while trust also moderates this relationship. These findings have important implications for POs, counselors, and educators in correctional systems, and inform future research directions on PO-client relationships and career development for justice-involved women.
... This practice is consistent with prior longitudinal studies using all three waves of postrelease SVORI data (e.g., Boman & Mowen, 2017;Stansfield et al., 2018). Researchers consistently found that the sample attrition of SVORI was random and therefore would not introduce bias to study results (e.g., Mowen et al., 2018;Wodahl et al., 2021). The author conducted sensitivity tests to assess whether drop-outs differed systematically from those remaining in the study. ...
... Due to drastic differences in sample size and different sets of questions used in the interviews with the male and female samples, merging the two samples may cause power issues and heteroscedasticity. The current study follows the practice of past studies using SVORI data and refrained from merging samples (Boman & Mowen, 2017;Mowen et al., 2018;Stansfield et al., 2018;Wodahl et al., 2021). ...
Although much literature has examined the racial gap in employment, relatively fewer efforts have been devoted to examining racialized employment outcomes in the context of reentry. The factors associated with the racial gap in post-release employment are largely unknown. Even less is known whether a disadvantage factor exerts disparate effects on minority and White returning citizens. Using longitudinal data documenting returning citizens’ social capital, health, neighborhood conditions, parole supervision, and employment outcomes over 15 months after release, this study extends prior studies by testing three competing explanations of the racial gap in post-release employment. Findings suggest that structural disadvantages and criminal history cannot fully explain the lower employment rates of Black returning citizens. Furthermore, this study did not find a significant race-specific effect of social capital on employment outcomes.
Implications for reentry programing and interventions are discussed.
... The investigation identified motivational factors that demonstrated how the practices of community supervisors impacted the women's progress on probation. The findings are consistent with recent studies that emphasize the significant influence of the staff-client relationship on recidivism rates and the journey toward desistance (Salazar & Peeples, 2024;Wodahl et al., 2021). Despite the findings in this study, it is critical for ongoing and enhanced research that centers on the distinct experiences of women as they navigate the complexities of the justice system. ...
... The attrition rate was not surprising given that post-incarcerated persons are considered a difficult-to-reach social group, and they may have difficulty participating in a study when they are challenged by time conflicts due to parole conditions and work schedules. Researchers consistently found that the sample attrition of SVORI was random and therefore was unlikely to introduce bias into the study results (e.g., Mowen et al., 2018;Wodahl et al., 2021). Given that a nontrivial portion of respondents in the 9th month interview did not participate in the 15th month interview, we used respondents who participated in exit interviews, 3rd and 9th month follow-up interviews (T1-T3 data). ...
Having a mental health (MH) or substance use (SU) issue can make the transition from prison to the community a challenging process. Despite this, few studies have quantified how justice-involved individuals with mental health issues only, substance use only, those with both struggles, and those with neither are uniquely affected. Using a sample of re-entering men who were released from twelve state prisons in the United States, we assessed the effects of having MH and SU issues on their drug use during re-entry. Furthermore, we examined their differing coping reactions to housing insecurity, joblessness, and family tension after release. The results demonstrated that respondents’ risk of SU during re-entry was associated with MH and SU issues measured at release. Those with co-occurring MH and SU challenges were at the highest risk of SU during re-entry. Furthermore, challenging life situations during re-entry exerted an amplified effect on SU for respondents with both anxiety and SU issues. The findings suggest that post-incarcerated individuals with co-occurring MH and SU issues have the highest risk of SU, and their reaction to re-entry barriers is distinct from their peers. Quality services to address co-occurring MH and SU may be needed to facilitate a smooth transition from prison to the community.
... Reentering society may be challenging for some offenders, especially those returning to the same negative environment. Research has identified areas such as employment (Bushway, 2004;Visher et al., 2011), housing (Clear et al., 2001;Visher & Travis, 2003), education (Bushway, 2004), and social support (Bares & Mowen, 2020;Wodahl et al., 2021) as barriers to overcome. Additionally, offenders under community supervision are required to adhere to several conditions, which may include maintaining employment, submitting to drug screens, reporting to the supervising officer, paying fines and restitution, attending treatment and programs, and avoiding contact with other felons (Bahr et al., 2010;Chamberlain et al., 2018;Morash et al., 2015). ...
Community supervision programs are instrumental for reducing the prison population and successfully reintegrating offenders back into society. Prior literature suggests that supportive relationships between legal authorities and their clients may foster law-abiding behavior. Using data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) program (N = 781), the current study investigates whether fair (procedurally just) treatment by community supervision officers is associated with compliance and receiving a formal violation. Findings from multivariate analyses suggest that individuals who perceive their supervising officer as treating them procedurally just are more likely to comply with directives and less likely to receive formal violations. Such findings underscore the importance of legal authorities treating probationers with dignity and respect. Policy implications and limitations are discussed.
... Following the practice of prior panel studies using SVORI data Stansfield et al., 2018), we finalized the study sample using list-wise deletion, which resulted in 499 respondents. Researchers have consistently found that sample attrition in SVORI was random and therefore unlikely to introduce bias to study results Wodahl et al., 2021). The sensitivity tests conducted in this study confirmed this: we discovered no noticeable differences in age, race, SVORI participation, or education level between respondents included and not included in the study (these supplemental analysis results are available upon request). ...
Existing research on social support and reentry primarily focuses on a single dimension of support, such as family or community support. Informed by the social support perspective, this study assessed how combined support from family, mentors, religious groups, parole officers, and social service agencies influences reentry outcomes. Given that the social support one receives during reentry is time-variant rather than static, longitudinal multilevel modeling was employed to examine how temporal changes in social support were associated with temporal changes in recidivism and drug misuse among people on parole. Results indicated that simultaneous support from family, parole officers, and social service agencies exerted protective effects on reentry outcomes. However, community-based mentoring programs had no significant effect on recidivism, and religious and social service support increased substance misuse. Policy implications derived from this research are discussed to address the intersection of various sources of social support.
... Further, focusing on short-term outcomes provides opportunities to demonstrate success (see Blasko et al., 2021;Wodahl, Mowen, & Garland, 2020), which breeds more success. Individuals who have goals are more likely to be successful than those who are focused only on the past or making it through the day (Spohr, Walters, & Taxman, 2017). ...
Individuals on supervision who are convicted of violent offenses, have a history of gun violence, and/ or have been a victim of gun violence present unique challenges. Probation staff can play an important role in helping individuals address their thinking, behaviors, and/or involvement in situations likely to lead to violence. This article reviews existing practices to highlight effective approaches for supervising individuals that are violent, have a violent or gun offense, and/or are violence-prone. The article distinguishes between anger and aggression, provides an overview of efforts to manage such individuals, and reviews interventions better suited to address violence. A number of promising practices are also identified, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), contingency management (incentives), and efforts to provide structure and supports (e.g., violence interrupters and focused deterrence) can be integrated into supervision to promote non-violent attitudes and behaviors. These approaches rely on a strong working relationship (alliance) between the officer and individual on supervision to achieve positive results.
... Following the past practices of prior longitudinal studies using the SVORI data (e.g., Boman & Mowen, 2017;Stansfield et al., 2018), we use respondents who participated in all three waves of post-release interviews in the longitudinal multilevel model. Researchers consistently found that the sample attrition of SVORI was random and therefore is unlikely to introduce bias to study results (e.g., Wodahl et al., 2021). The sensitivity tests conducted in this study confirmed it: we found no noticeable differences in age, race, SVORI participation, and education level between respondents included and not included in the study (the supplemental analysis results are available upon request). ...
Victimization is associated with a cascade of negative outcomes, and the literature has been enriched by research that situates victimization in the life context of key social groups such as children, youth, women, and veterans. Yet, less is known about violent victimization in the context of prisoner reentry. Using longitudinal data documenting reentry experiences, the current study examines the prevalence, triggers and impact of victimization among returning citizens with specific attention given to mental health outcomes. Longitudinal multilevel modeling is employed to estimate the heterogenous victimization experiences among respondents as well as the temporal change in victimization over the follow-up period of a respondent. Results underscore an alarmingly high rate of victimization against returning citizens. Risky neighborhood and family environments are significant predictors of their victimization. Upon victimization, the respondents’ mental health deteriorates. Policy implications and directions for the future research are provided.
... Family relationships (e.g., Liu & Visher, 2021a;Mowen et al., 2019), reentry programs (Wodahl et al., 2021), substance use (Liu & Visher, 2021b), and financial security Visher & Kachnowski, 2007) are widely-found predictors of returning citizens' mental health. To achieve unbiased estimations, we evaluate the effect of perceived neighborhood conditions based on adjusting these primary confounders' effects. ...
Studies show that residents from urban, high-risk neighborhoods fair worse on multiple behavioral and health outcomes than their counterparts from more socially and economically advantaged neighborhoods. However, few research efforts have been devoted to examining how formerly incarcerated individuals’ concerns over neighborhood environment are associated with reentry outcomes. Using longitudinal data that captured the reentry experiences of individuals released from prison, the present study quantifies how returning citizens’ concerns over neighborhood environment predict their social withdrawal and mental health deterioration. Findings suggest that when respondents’ post-release family bonds, financial difficulty, drug use, and past mental health histories are all taken into account, their concerns over neighborhood environment exert a significant and positive effect on social withdrawal, depression, and hostility. Returning citizens who believe it is hard to stay out of trouble and prison in their neighborhoods tend to avoid social interactions with others and experience depression and increased hostility and vigilance. Implications for reentry programing and interventions are discussed.
This study draws on person-centered therapy, Bordin’s working alliance model, and the guidelines from the Norwegian Prison and Probation Service to explore how Norwegian probation officers demonstrate key relational skills during supervision. Thirteen participants from probation offices in western Norway took part in three focus groups: two with supervisees and one with probation officers. Thematic analysis revealed two key themes: (1) perceptions of inconsistent focus and (2) a cautious atmosphere of trust. While empathy emerged as a crucial factor in building a working alliance, it sometimes came at the cost of structure and planning. However, this imbalance did not necessarily undermine the sessions’ effectiveness, as trust and rapport form a strong foundation for growth. The findings highlight that balancing a strong bond with clear structure is central to effective probation supervision. This implies that probation officers should leverage relational trust to introduce structure, thereby fostering sustainable behavioral change.
The current study examined the role of sanctions and incentives in improving community supervision outcomes, utilizing data collected from 300 individuals under probation supervision by the Denver Adult Probation Department. The research expanded the current literature by addressing two important existing gaps. First, we included supervision failure due to absconding as a unique dependent variable. Second, we controlled for client behavior to enhance our confidence in study findings. Findings revealed no evidence in support of the use of sanctions to improve supervision outcomes. Incentives, however, were associated with both an increased likelihood of supervision completion and a lower incidence of criminal offending. Study findings suggest a need to prioritize efforts to integrate incentive use into everyday supervision practices, as well as a need to increase funding to support the research and development of incentive programs to guide agencies in creating and sustaining programs that will have the greatest impact.
Introduction: Emerging adults (EAs) in the criminal legal system are at high risk for substance use and related negative outcomes. EAs also have low levels of engagement in treatment services, a pattern exacerbated for those living in rural communities. This pilot study investigated implementation outcomes of task-shifting an evidence-based substance use intervention, via a developmentally targeted program, provided by probation officers (POs) to selected EA clients.
Methods: Ten POs recruited from two counties in Oregon who provide services to rural clients were trained and supported in delivering contingency management for EAs (CM-EA) to 17 EAs on their current caseloads. The pilot took place entirely during the COVID-19 pandemic. POs submitted session audiotapes and checklists from meetings with participating EA clients and participated in focus groups. EA clients completed baseline interviews and agreed to have their adult criminal records collected. Ten semi-structured interviews were completed with probation/parole administration and staff from four rural counties across three states highly impacted by the opioid epidemic about the barriers and facilitators for delivering a program like CM-EA in their offices.
Results: Based on self-reports and observational coding, POs demonstrated fidelity and adoption as they delivered all CM-EA components and engaged in CM-EA quality assurance protocols. Penetration was demonstrated by the selection of EAs reflecting the demographics of their local offices (i.e., White, non-Hispanic, balanced across sex), struggling with polysubstance use, and primarily holding felony convictions. Emerging themes from focus groups and interviews revealed feasibility, acceptability, and appropriateness of CM-EA, including use with clients not currently in the research program and reported intentions to continue CM-EA use. Barriers for future use include those found for the delivery of other programs in rural areas such as resource limitations.
Conclusions: There is initial support for the implementation outcomes related to task-shifting a program like CM-EA to POs, particularly those serving rural clients, to increase access to evidence-based substance use services for EAs. Future research with larger samples and multiple follow-ups will allow for effectiveness testing and further program refinement for this high-priority population.
The growth in the population of women on probation and/or parole has prompted the need for research that examines static and dynamic risk predictors for recidivism among them, particularly substance use and negative peer associations. Using a longitudinal study of 402 drug-involved and justice-involved women on probation/parole in 16 Michigan counties, this study employed the Dual-Role Relationship Inventory—Short Form (DRI-SF) and personal characteristics to examine how the perceptions of women under community supervision regarding their supervising officers correlated to risks for substance use and negative peer associations. We found those perceptions to be robust predictors of substance use and negative peer associations among our sample. The dynamics of that correlation are discussed, as are implications for practice.
Peer influence is generally understood to be one of the primary predictors of crime and delinquency. It is unclear, however, whether the mechanism that connects peer association, endorsement of deviant values, and delinquent behavior applies equally across different age and sex groups. This study examined age- and gender-specific susceptibility to delinquent and prosocial peer influence using a sample of justice-involved individuals. Based on multigroup structural equation modeling, the author found the nexus among peer association, endorsement of deviant values, and violent delinquency varied across gender and age groups. Among adult male respondents, delinquent peers strengthened deviant culture whereas prosocial peers inhibited that culture. Among juvenile respondents, deviant culture was not inhibited by relationships with prosocial peers. The results for adult females showed no significant influence by either delinquent or prosocial peers.
Prior research indicates that reclaiming family roles, such as parent or spouse, can facilitate re-entry and reintegration for justice-involved individuals. However, few studies have examined whether a determination to desist and shield children from the negative impact of crime is associated with reentry outcomes. This study examined the nexus of determination to desist, parental nurturing practices, and recidivism. Multilevel longitudinal modeling was employed to analyze respondents’ varying levels of commitment to nurturing children and recidivism risk. Results showed that returning mothers were more committed to parenting activities than returning fathers. Moreover, with the effects of prior records, reentry programs, and familial criminogenic environment controlled, we found that returning parents who were more committed to parenting had significantly lower odds of recidivism. Implications for research and policy were discussed.
The COVID-19 pandemic instantly changed the day-to-day practices of the criminal justice system. The court system, traditionally reliant on face-to-face interaction, had to quickly alter operations to decrease the virus’ spread while remaining functional as an integral role in the criminal justice system. The current exploratory study examines the response strategies U.S. court systems implemented, impacts on case processing, case backlogs, and additional consequences endured due to the pandemic. Using responses from self-report surveys of court staff (e.g., judges, clerks), results indicated that courts prioritized the types of cases heard and implemented multiple mitigation strategies that were deemed effective, some of which may be sustainable post-pandemic. Despite an increase in virtual jury trials and hearings, many courts saw a surge in backlogged cases and complications in assembling juries. The overall findings may inform judiciary policy and practice concerning short and long-term pandemic outcomes on court processing and future pandemic preparedness.
Women face many potential difficulties when under community supervision, and more research that examines their experiences there is needed. This study investigates how women under supervision relate to their supervisors and how these relationships impact their tendencies toward supervisory compliance. Using secondary data, predictors of recidivism are evaluated in 16 Michigan counties using the Dual Role Relationship Inventory–Revised (DRI-R) and its shorter form (DRI-SF), which quantify relationship quality. We found that one of the most important predictors of rule compliance for women under supervision is their relationship with their probation or parole officer. Thus, probation and parole officers should prioritize their personal relationships with their female clients by considering their unique circumstances while striving to cultivate an environment of fairness and mutual respect. This article advances our understanding of how to administer effective community supervision for women.
The article traces the development of the concept of the therapeutic working alliance from its psychodynamic origins to current pantheoretical formulations. Research on the alliance is reviewed under four headings: the relation between a positive alliance and success in therapy, the path of the alliance over time, the examination of variables that predispose individuals to develop a strong alliance, and the exploration of the in-therapy factors that influence the development of a positive alliance. Important areas for further research are also noted.
Objective:
To assess the prevalence of depression and associated factors among prisoners in Hawassa Central Correctional Institution, Hawassa, SNNPR, Ethiopia.
Result:
56.4% of study participants had significant depressive symptoms. During Multiple logistic regression, depression was significantly associated with not participating in income generating activities inside the prison [AOR = 0.531 95% CI (0.32, 0.87)], History of Chronic disease [AOR = 2.62 95% CI (1.29, 5.32)] and history of Khat chewing [AOR = 2.47, 95% CI (1.04-5.85)].
Parole officers are an integral part of parolees’ reentry process and success. Few studies, however, have examined whether the quality of the relationship between parolees and their parole officer influences outcomes such as recidivism. This study assesses how recidivism is affected by the quality of the relationship that parolees have with their parole officers. Using the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) dataset, we use parolees’ perceptions of their relationship with their parole officer to determine whether they have established a positive or negative relationship, and whether these types of relationships differentially affect recidivism. Results show that parolees who have a negative relationship with their parole officer have higher rates of recidivism, while a positive relationship lowers parolees’ likelihood of recidivating. An implication of this study emphasizes parole officer training that develops positive, high-quality relationships with parolees. Further implications are discussed below.
Traditionally, the role of a community supervision officer has largely been that of a case manager. However, knowledge in the area of 'what works' in offender rehabilitation has stimulated efforts to revolutionise what it means to supervise clients in the community; that is, moving from a case-management approach to what we call a 'change agent' approach. In this article, we define what cognitive-behaviourism looks like in a criminal justice context and how it can be used to maximize the impact of community supervision. Through the amalgamation of cognitive-behavioural techniques and risk/need information, we propose the use of a theoretically and empirically based framework (i.e. the STICS Action Plan) to assist Community Supervision Officers in planning, prioritising and effectively achieving change with their clients.
Offender reentry programs have proliferated since the passage of the Second Chance Act in 2008. This study examines the effectiveness of one such jail-based reentry program for male inmates diagnosed with substance dependency and who have minor children, the Delaware County (OH) Jail Substance Abuse Treatment program. This program served 34 offenders and their families over 2 years and was based on the Community Reinforcement and Family Training model, a treatment modality for substance abuse involving both operant conditioning and family-based therapy for behavioral modification. Results from a quasi-experimental design indicate that program participants were significantly less likely to be rearrested within 1 year after release relative to a comparison group of similarly situated offenders and more likely to comply with child support orders following release. Findings also revealed the treatment group had significantly more days to failure for those who did recidivate.
This article presents the review of results of psychotherapy researches pre-presented in the Psychotherapy research in years 2004-2012. the main point of interest was a common factor of many psychotherapeutic schools - the therapeutic relationship. collected information were divided into three categories. The first one consist of variables which can be used to describe the relationship, specified with use of tools created for their measurement. Most of them were easy to measure, however some concerned abstract concepts. The second category consists of factors which affect the relationship. Those were classified within 4 categories: influence of a patient, his features and experience, also characteristics of a therapist and his actions. The last category was on the association between the relationship variables and variables of a therapeutic process. Those within the second category described in this article, were studied the most. Least information was provided about the third category. It clearly shows that the matter of the psychotherapeutic relationship is commonly examined by many researchers, nevertheless it still leaves place for future studies.
Although psychotherapy literature identifies the client–therapist relationship as a key factor contributing to client outcomes, few studies have examined whether relationship quality among corrections populations and supervising officers influences outcomes. This is surprising given that many criminal justice intervention models include quality of the client–practitioner relationship. Parolees enrolled in a six-site randomized clinical trial, where they were assigned to a parole officer–therapist–client collaborative intervention designed to improve relationship quality (n = 253) or supervision as usual (n = 227), were asked to rate relationship quality with their supervising officer. Results showed parolees assigned to the intervention endorsed significantly higher relationship ratings and demonstrated a lower violation rate than those assigned to the control group. Ratings of the parolee–parole officer relationship mediated the relationship between study condition and outcomes; better perceived relationship quality was associated with fewer drug use days and violations during the follow-up period, regardless of the study condition. Findings are discussed as they pertain to supervision relationships.
Careful reading of the literature on the psychology of criminal conduct and of prior reviews of studies of treatment effects suggests that neither criminal sanctioning without provision of rehabilitative service nor servicing without reference to clinical principles of rehabilitation will succeed in reducing recidivism. What works, in our view, is the delivery of appropriate correctional service, and appropriate service reflects three psychological principles: (1) delivery of service to higher risk cases, (2) targeting of criminogenic needs, and (3) use of styles and modes of treatment (e.g., cognitive and behavioral) that are matched with client need and learning styles. These principles were applied to studies of juvenile and adult correctional treatment, which yielded 154 phi coefficients that summarized the magnitude and direction of the impact of treatment on recidivism. The effect of appropriate correctional service (mean phi = .30) was significantly (p
The relation of the working alliance, as assessed by A. O. Horvath and L. Greenberg's (1986) Working Alliance Inventory (WAI), was examined with respect to (a) a set of client variables (hostility, quality of past and current relationships, level of adjustment, and type of presenting concern) and (b) premature termination status. Ratings on these variables were collected after the first session from 15 counselors rating 144 clients seen at a university counseling center, as well as from 98 of these clients. A canonical analysis of the WAI scales and the client variables revealed that both client and counselor assessments of the alliance were related to the quality of past and current relationships, and level of adjustment as rated by the counselor but not the client. The working alliance was not related to different client presenting concerns. Further, there was no relation between the working alliance and premature termination status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Missing data are a common occurrence in real datasets. For epidemiological and prognostic factors studies in medicine, multiple imputation is becoming the standard route to estimating models with missing covariate data under a missing-at-random assumption. We describe ice, an implementation in Stata of the MICE approach to multiple imputation. Real data from an observational study in ovarian cancer are used to illustrate the most important of the many options available with ice. We remark briefly on the new database architecture and procedures for multiple imputation introduced in releases 11 and 12 of Stata.
Background
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is associated with high rates of chronicity and relapse risk is a considerable therapeutic challenge in the disorder. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association of stages of change and outcome with a focus on the relapse struggle in the maintenance stage in patients with predominantly chronic AN. Further, therapeutic alliance and stages of change associations were explored.
Methods
As an instrument measuring relapse struggle in the maintenance stage, we applied the short form of the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment-Short (URICA-S). We assessed stages of change in 39 patients with a predominantly chronic course of AN in early, middle, and late stages of inpatient psychotherapy. General symptom severity as assessed by the SCL-90-R and weight change were investigated as outcome measures.
Results
In-line with earlier evidence, contemplation significantly predicted therapeutic alliance. Further, we demonstrated that relapse risk as operationalized by URICA-S maintenance is an important predictor of general psychopathology. BMI change was not predicted by stages of change.
Conclusions
The URICA-S maintenance scale might be applied to help identify patients at relapse risk. High URICA-S maintenance scores could be considered as one critical aspect of AN patients who might especially benefit from relapse-preventing aftercare programs.
Despite the widespread use of probation in the United States, little is known about how offenders perceive this sentence or the officers who provide their supervision. The present research measures and evaluates perceptions of the probation process, specifically probationers' perception of their probationer officer, and examines characteristics associated with these perceptions. The sample consisted of 347 probationers drawn from a large urban county office. A self-administered survey was utilized to reveal probationers' views of their probation officer. Overall, the probationers expressed positive feelings regarding their probation officers. They were fairly satisfied, and a majority of probationers felt officers were fair, competent, helpful, and clear. Perceptions were more positive among clients who were supervised by an officer of their own race.
Results of 24 studies (based on 20 distinct data sets) relating the quality of the working alliance (WA) to therapy outcome were synthesized using meta-analytic procedures. A moderate but reliable association between good WA and positive therapy outcome was found. Overall, the quality of the WA was most predictive of treatment outcomes based on clients' assessments, less so of therapists' assessments, and least predictive of observers' report. Clients' and observers' rating of the WA appear to be more correlated with all types of outcomes reported than therapists' ratings. The relation of WA and outcome does not appear to be a function of the type of therapy practiced, the length of treatment, whether the research is published, or the number of participants in the study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Therapeutic alliance has been a robust predictor of therapy outcome, yet little is known about which patient variables predict the development of an alliance between patient and therapist in time-limited manualized therapies. The authors evaluated pretreatment predictors of therapeutic alliance, controlling for symptom change before its assessment, using a large sample of patients treated with either supportive-expressive (SE) dynamic psychotherapy or cognitive therapy. They found that SE patients with greater pretreatment expectations of improvement formed better alliances with their therapist at Session 2, and expectations significantly predicted alliance at Session 10 for both treatment groups. Further, patients in the SE condition demonstrated a significant relation between positive expectations and growth in alliance. Women achieved better alliances at Session 10. Finally, hostile-dominant interpersonal problems significantly predicted poor alliance. Pretreatment symptom level was not significantly predictive of alliance.
A growing body of research suggests that high quality dual role relationships between community corrections officers and offenders reduce risk of recidivism. This study assesses whether this finding generalizes from offenders with mental illness to their relatively healthy counterparts. More importantly, this study tests the possibility that this finding is spurious, reflecting the influence of pre-existing offender characteristics more than a promising principle of practice. In this study of 109 parolees without mental illness, the authors found that (a) firm, fair, and caring relationships protect against rearrest, and (b) do so even after accounting for offenders' pre-existing personality traits and risk for recidivism. These findings are consistent with the theoretical notion that good dual role relationships are an essential element of core correctional practice, even (or particularly) for difficult or high risk offenders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Offenders with mental illness have attracted substantial attention over the recent years, given their prevalence and poor outcomes. A number of interventions have been developed for this population (e.g., mental health courts). They share an emphasis on one dimension as the source of the problem: mental illness. Their focus on psychiatric services may poorly match the policy goal of reducing recidivism. In this article, we use research to evaluate (a) the effectiveness of current interventions, and (b) the larger viability of psychiatric, criminological, and social psychological models of the link between mental illness and criminal justice involvement. We integrate theory and research to offer a multidimensional conceptual framework that may guide further research and the development of efficient interventions that meaningfully reduce recidivism. We hypothesize that the effect of mental illness on criminal behavior reflects moderated mediation (i.e., the effect is direct in the case of one subgroup, but fully mediated in another); and that the effect of mental illness on other “recidivism” is partially mediated by system bias and stigma. We use this framework to propose three priorities for advancing research, articulating policy, and improving practice.
This study explored pretreatment patient characteristics associated with the level and growth of working alliance in therapies lasting up to 120 therapy sessions. The quality of working alliance was rated by both patients (N=201) and therapists (N=61) at Sessions 3, 12, and 20 and then at every 20th successive session. Patients reported that experience with good maternal care up to adolescence and better current interpersonal relationships were associated with positive ratings of working alliance throughout therapy. Higher global functioning was associated with growth of alliance over time. Higher levels of interpersonal problems of the cold/detached kind were associated with poorer early working alliance. On the other hand, this type of interpersonal problems was also associated with improvement of working alliance over time. Therapists' ratings of alliance were associated with patients' intrapsychic functioning. Implications for treatment and research are discussed.
The article traces the development of the concept of the therapeutic working alliance from its psychodynamic origins to current pantheoretical formulations. Research on the alliance is reviewed under four headings: the relation between a positive alliance and success in therapy, the path of the alliance over time, the examination of variables that predispose individuals to develop a strong alliance, and the exploration of the in-therapy factors that influence the development of a positive alliance. Important areas for further research are also noted.
The present review is a comprehensive examination of the therapist's personal attributes and in-session activities that positively influence the therapeutic alliance from a broad range of psychotherapy perspectives. Therapist's personal attributes such as being flexible, honest, respectful, trustworthy, confident, warm, interested, and open were found to contribute positively to the alliance. Therapist techniques such as exploration, reflection, noting past therapy success, accurate interpretation, facilitating the expression of affect, and attending to the patient's experience were also found to contribute positively to the alliance. This review reveals how these therapist personal qualities and techniques have a positive influence on the identification or repair of ruptures in the alliance.
Recent studies have demonstrated that the working alliance predicts treatment outcome for partner violent men. This study examined the influence of personality and interpersonal characteristics, motivational readiness to change, and demographic factors on working alliance formation among a sample of men (N = 107) participating in a cognitive-behavioral group treatment program for partner violence. Motivational readiness to change was the strongest predictor of the working alliance. Psychopathic personality characteristics also emerged as a strong (negative) predictor of the working alliance. Lower levels of borderline personality characteristics and interpersonal problems, self-referred status, married status, and higher age and income predicted higher working alliance ratings. The results support recent clinical efforts to address motivational readiness in programs for partner violent men.
This study examines changes in family conflict and violence among a sample of adult men after release from prison. Using longitudinal panel data on 1,282 men in the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative, cross-lagged dynamic fixed-effects panel data models are used to examine factors that relate to family conflict and family violence perpetrated by men after release from prison. Increased contact with family members during incarceration, as well as postrelease family support, related to decreased family conflict, even after accounting for family conflict during incarceration. Contact was unrelated to postrelease family violence. Interestingly, family violence prior to incarceration did not predict within-person changes in violence postrelease. Postrelease substance use and criminal offending significantly related to postrelease family violence. With incarceration affecting so many people nationwide, understanding how the experiences of incarceration and reentry impacts family health and well-being should be an important consideration for correctional policy and programming.
Using the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) data set, the current study examined the relationship between internal change factors, including agency, readiness for change, and legal cynicism, and four reentry outcomes (recidivism, reincarceration, drug use, and treatment participation). The study also assessed the impact of external change factors, such as family support and perceived neighborhood quality on reentry outcomes. Using a hybrid model approach, we found that within-individual changes in agency and family emotional support were significantly related to decreased self-reported recidivism and reincarceration over time. Within-individual changes in family emotional support were also significantly related to reductions in self-reported drug use and within-individual changes in readiness for change were positively associated with treatment participation across the postrelease waves of the SVORI data. Between-individual results further demonstrate the salience of change factors on reentry outcomes. Study findings inform desistance models and identify some promising targets for reentry programming.
Supervising agents serve as sources of social support for over one million women in the US on probation and parole who strive to avoid recidivism. Little is known about the supportive messages agents intend to provide their female clients or their precursors. The optimal matching model of social support is used in an investigation of the precursors to agents’ intent to send different types of social support messages to the women they supervise. Results indicated that supervising agents intended to provide informational support in the form of suggestions or advice, esteem support in the form of compliments, and emotional support in the form of encouragement to the women. Both agent communication pattern and offender level variables were precursors to the intent to send informational support messages, but only agent communication pattern variables predicted the intent to send emotional support messages.
Research on prison reentry shows that individuals with depression turn to substances to cope with the stress of reintegration. While social support drawn from families, peers, and institutions may help returning individuals avoid substance use, it is unclear how social support might condition the link between depression and substance use. Using longitudinal panel data from the Serious and Violent and Offender Reentry Initiative, results from mixed-models demonstrate that depression is significantly associated with increased substance use. Family support, but not peer support, is tied to lower use, and institutional support relates to decreased alcohol use but increased illicit drug use.
There is much debate about the effects of punitive or treatment responses to the many women who are on probation and parole. This article examines whether types of technical violations (drug or nondrug related) and responses to them (treatment or punishment oriented) as well as supervision intensity predict recidivism. Study participants are 385 women on probation or parole for a felony offense, and official records of violations and recidivism are the data source. Negative binomial regression analysis revealed that for high-risk women, treatment responses to nondrug violations are related to reductions in recidivism, whereas punitive responses to nondrug offenses are related to increased recidivism. For low-risk women, treatment responses to non-drug-related violations are related to increased recidivism and punitive responses to violations unrelated to drug use are related to decreased recidivism. Study findings suggest differential reactions to common supervision practices depending on a woman’s initial risk to recidivate.
This study examines the relationship between a sample of 98 probationers with serious mental illnesses (SMI) and probation staff in three programs: mental health court, specialized mental health probation, and standard probation. Probationers in the mental health court rated the quality of their relationships with probation officers higher than did those in standard probation. Qualitative analyses highlight caring as a bedrock relational factor upon which other relationship dimensions rest, and the important role of support in developing and maintaining therapeutic relationships. Findings shed light on the importance of relational experiences in the context of probation supervision for people with SMI.
Although there are multiple statistical approaches used in understanding reentry, there is little consensus on the benefits and limitations of some of the more popular techniques as they relate to each other. Here, two common methods, lagged dependent variable modeling and hierarchical generalized linear modeling, are contrasted. To examine how particular modeling strategies may lead to different understandings of recidivism within reentry, we use data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI; N = 1,697) to provide an example of the two statistical approaches and discuss the benefits and limitations of each strategy. While researchers will need to make important decisions about which strategy best addresses their research question, results of our analyses show that in dealing with reentry data across more than two waves, a hierarchical generalized linear model is often the preferred approach. © 2016, © 2016 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology.
Because women offenders often have limited social networks and unique needs, the actions of probation/parole officers providing community supervision may be particularly relevant to outcomes. The present study examined the effects of probation/parole officer relationship style, attention to criminogenic needs, and intensity of supervision on women offenders’ arrests and convictions within a 24-month period. Contrary to findings from other studies, the measured elements of officer actions had no direct effects on recidivism for a sample of 226 women. However, the analysis revealed an indirect effect in which a non-supportive, punitive relationship was related to reactance and anxiety, which in turn were related to high recidivism. The discussion focuses on theoretical and methodological explanations for the null findings regarding direct effects. Moreover, it draws on the literature in psychology and communication to suggest approaches to reducing the reactance that can promote recidivism and to suggest related future research directions.
This article provides a vivid description of how persons with mental illness continually find themselves involved in the corrections system. It first explains how their unique needs are interpreted into relevant management problems for corrections agencies. It discusses the 1970s deinstitutionalization movement, where the mentally ill were moved out of state hospital and placed in the community. Unfortunately, most of these mentally ill persons became unemployed, homeless, and even abused drugs and alcohol, which placed them in and out of corrections. This article emphasizes that there is a move towards adequate knowledge on how to identify and effectively treat persons who have mental illnesses, and notes that the public is becoming even more sympathetic to giving services to the nonviolent mentally ill who can be supported within the community.
This article considers the continued relevance of law enforcement and social worker roles to probation officer practice, a central motif in community corrections scholarship. It also considers how these traditional functions are integrated into community-oriented supervision practices, increasingly emphasized in policy circles. Using Latent Class Analysis of data from a national community corrections survey, a four-class typology of probation officers was developed, based on their supervision practices. While classes vary according to the intensity of supervision, particularly in the engagement of third parties (family, community, and the police), there are no classes that correspond either to law enforcers or to social workers. Rather, officer classes are all “synthetic”—combining law enforcement and social work functions together in the same strategy. The analysis identifies a number of predictors of membership in more intensive supervision classes. These relate to ideological orientations, caseload characteristics, officer demographics, and agency progressiveness.
Deficits in education, employment, and housing as well as the lack of treatment programs pose significant barriers to the successful reentry of inmates released from prison. This research uses a representative sample of inmates released from Ohio prisons to examine the extent to which these factors are associated with recidivism. Furthermore, building on prior research, it examines potential differences in these predictors by gender. The findings provide support for Petersilia’s suggestions and indicate that employment, housing, and the completion of some forms of treatment are negatively associated with multiple measures of recidivism. Also, no gender differences in the predictors examined here are detected, suggesting that the factors likely behave in a gender-neutral manner.
Identifying and evaluating the influence of factors that predict offenders' post-release performance is central to the study of recidivism. In this project, 60,536 adult prison releases from the Oklahoma Department of Corrections between 1985 and 1999 were tracked until May 31, 2004. Recidivism was measured as a return to incarceration and cases were analyzed with a Cox Proportional Hazards Survival Regression, which allowed for the assessment of the relative hazards of returning to prison over time. Predictor variables included offense type, release type (probation, parole, discharge), number of prior incarcerations, sentence length, time served in prison, security classification, education, age, sex, and race. A greater hazard of recidivism was associated with being a property offender (as opposed to a drug, violent, or sex offender), being released to probation (as opposed to being discharged), having a violent offense history, having a greater number of past incarcerations, and being young, male, and a racial minority. Sentence length and time served in prison had weak (but significant) associations with recidivism, while security classification and proportion of sentence served (as proxies for institutional performance) indicated modestly positive, significant relationships.
Counselor rapport is a significant factor affecting positive outcomes from treatment services. Within the criminal justice literature, increasing attention has been given to the working alliance between criminal justice actors and offenders (clients). A review of the literature finds that a growing body of work is measuring this construct within justice settings, and finding that the nature of the relationship affects outcomes either directly or as a mediating factor. Perceptions of fairness and care appear to create positive outcomes, and when offenders perceive that they have a voice in decisions, more positive outcomes are likely to occur. This paper will review the literature on therapeutic alliance factors for criminal justice actors (e.g., judges, correctional officers, probation officers, special counselors, etc.) and then highlight the implications for advancing practice in the correctional arena. Four points will be raised about policy implications affecting the concept of punishment, roles of correctional staff, models of offender change, and models of organizational change.
guide to the selection and interpretation of appropriate exploratory factor analyses for the researcher familiar with basic factor-analytic procedures and terminology
mathematical versus scientific paradigms / factors-are-real versus factors-are-inventions / confirmatory versus exploratory factor analysis
criteria for evaluating exploratory factor-analytic procedures
decision points in factoring / variable selection / subject selection / correlation coefficients / factor extraction methods / number of factors
communalities / orthogonal rotation / correlated versus uncorrelated factors / which oblique rotation / factor scores
implications: some designs for exploratory factor analysis (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Purpose. Palmer (1995) drew attention to a distinction between ‘programmatic’ and ‘non‐programmatic’ aspects of criminal justice interventions. While a considerable amount of research has accumulated on the former, the latter by comparison remains under‐researched. Nevertheless some advances have been made and the present article identifies the key components of this.
Methods. Following analysis of the concepts forwarded by Palmer, a methodical comparison is made between his findings on programmatic elements and those of two other major groups of meta‐analytic findings from this area. This provides further opportunity for testing of the Risk‐Needs‐Responsivity (RNR) model and an evaluation is offered of its current status in synthesizing relevant knowledge. A parallel set of comparisons is then drawn with respect to non‐programmatic factors and the paper considers the level of agreement between separate reviews of that knowledge base. This directs attention to a number of instances of intervention ‘failure’ which can be explained by insufficient attention to non‐programmatic issues.
Results. There is a generally high level of agreement between the three sets of data surveyed. There is not a complete consensus however, caused not by disagreement between data sets but by gaps in the types and range of evidence assembled. There are larger gaps remaining on non‐programmatic factors and the nature and extent of those is described. There is also discussion of some objections and proposed alternatives to RNR, and to some conceptual confusions arising from them.
Conclusions. The present state of knowledge on criminal justice interventions is a ‘work in progress’ but nevertheless can provide firm guidance on the design of such interventions, highlighting areas in which much further work is needed.
Evidence-based supervision is the newest in a long line of efforts to advance community corrections. This new model adopts a risk-need-responsivity model where the agency uses a risk and need tool to identify appropriate treatment and control services and then assigns offenders to such services. Underscoring this new approach is the creation of a social learning environment that makes supervision officers active in facilitating offender change. The goal is to empower the offender. Maryland's Proactive Community Supervision (PCS) model was one of the first to implement this approach. Controlling for length of time on supervision and prior history, logistic regression results found that offenders who were supervised in this new style were less likely to be rearrested (30% for the PCS and 42% of the non-PCS sample; p < 0.01) and less likely to have a warrant issued for technical violations (34.7% of the PCS group and 40% for the non-PCS group; p < 0.10).
The study findings indicate that a behavioral management approach can increase the frequency of contacts and obtain positive offender outcomes. More importantly, the PCS model illustrates that supervision agencies can be transformed to achieve public safety goals through focusing on offender change strategies. Providing officers with new behavioral skills to work with offenders and creating an empowering environment can yield positive outcomes. Criminal justice policy should focus on reengineering community supervision to prevent additional penetration into the justice system, to reduce churning, and to reduce incarceration.
A general formula (α) of which a special case is the Kuder-Richardson coefficient of equivalence is shown to be the mean of
all split-half coefficients resulting from different splittings of a test. α is therefore an estimate of the correlation between
two random samples of items from a universe of items like those in the test. α is found to be an appropriate index of equivalence
and, except for very short tests, of the first-factor concentration in the test. Tests divisible into distinct subtests should
be so divided before using the formula. The index
[`(r)]ij\bar r_{ij}
, derived from α, is shown to be an index of inter-item homogeneity. Comparison is made to the Guttman and Loevinger approaches.
Parallel split coefficients are shown to be unnecessary for tests of common types. In designing tests, maximum interpretability
of scores is obtained by increasing the first-factor concentration in any separately-scored subtest and avoiding substantial
group-factor clusters within a subtest. Scalability is not a requisite.
The desired outcome of psychotherapy is positive change. A substantial body of empirical research now supports the importance of the therapeutic alliance in predicting therapeutic change. Research on therapeutic process has also been increasing. Despite these achievements, there is little theoretical understanding of how the therapeutic alliance develops and is maintained. What are the key variables in the establishment of a collaborative relationship between therapist and client that can elicit positive change in the client? Recent interest in client responsivity and effective therapy process with offenders has shed light on how little relevant theory and research exists on process issues in offender rehabilitation, compared to conventional psychotherapy. Although the general ingredients of a therapeutic alliance may be similar across therapy contexts, difficulties in creating these alliances with offenders can prompt a more complete examination of these ingredients. This article examines and critiques the dominant model of the therapeutic alliance proposed by Bordin [Bordin, E.S. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 16, 252–260.], and then integrates it with recent research, theory, and clinical observation from the field of offender rehabilitation, to propose a Revised Theory of the Therapeutic Alliance that is particularly relevant for therapists who work to reduce future risk of criminal behavior.
The authors examined the relationship between readiness for change and the quality of the working alliance of adolescents (ages 14-18 years) and their counselors. As predicted, clients who were more ready for change had more positive alliances, particularly with respect to goal and task collaboration. There was also a trend toward the association of the maintenance or postchange stage with a weakened bond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Journal of Counseling & Development is the property of American Counseling Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
The importance of therapeutic alliance in predicting treatment outcomes is well established, but less is known about client characteristics that predict alliance. Clients with co-occurring psychosis and substance misuse (n = 116) who received integrated motivational interviewing and cognitive behavior therapy in the context of a large randomized controlled trial completed the Working Alliance Inventory. Their trial therapists also completed Working Alliance Inventories. Rating perspectives were compared, and in a cross-sectional study, client predictors of therapeutic alliance were examined. As hypothesized, clients' negative attitudes to treatment, including lack of insight, were predictive of poorer alliance. Therapist-rated alliance was also predicted by the client's attitude to medication, self-reported depression, and living situation. Symptom severity and substance use measures were unrelated to alliance. Consistent with previous studies, rating perspectives differed, with clients rating alliance more positive than therapists.
This text is a Stata-specific treatment of generalized linear mixed models, also known as multilevel or hierarchical models. These models are "mixed" in the sense that they allow fixed and random effects and are "generalized" in the sense that they are appropriate not only for continuous Gaussian responses but also for binary, count, and other types of limited dependent variables.
Prediction of the therapeutic alliance in alcoholism treatment (as rated by the client and by the therapist) was examined in light of a range of potentially relevant factors, including client demographics, drinking history, current drinking, current psychosocial functioning and therapist demographics.
The data were gathered in Project MATCH. The present analyses were based on data from 707 outpatients and 480 aftercare clients assigned to one of the three Project MATCH treatments. Potential predictor variables were evaluated by first examining bivariate linear relationships between the variables and ratings of the alliance, and then entering blocks of these predictors into multiple linear regression equations with alliance ratings as the dependent variables. All analysis incorporated adjustments for the nonindependence of ratings pertaining to clients seen by the same therapist.
In simple regressions evaluating bivariate relationships, outpatients' ratings of the alliance were positively predicted by client age, motivational readiness to change, socialization, level of perceived social support and therapist age, and were negatively predicted by client educational level, level of depression, and meaning seeking. Therapist ratings in the outpatient sample were positively predicted by the client being female and by level of overall alcohol involvement, severity of alcohol dependence, negative consequences of alcohol use, and readiness to change. Among aftercare clients, ratings of the alliance were positively predicted by readiness to change, socialization and social support, and were negatively predicted by level of depression. Therapist ratings of the alliance in the aftercare sample were positively predicted by the client being female and therapist educational level, and were negatively predicted by pretreatment drinks per drinking day. Of the variables having significant bivariate relationships with alliance scores, only a few were identified as significant predictors in multiple regression equations. Among outpatients, client age and motivational readiness to change remained positive predictors and client education a negative predictor of client ratings of the alliance, while client gender remained a significant predictor of therapist ratings. Among aftercare clients, readiness to change and level of depression remained significant predictors of client ratings, while none of the variables remained a significant predictor of therapist ratings.
While the data indicate that several client variables predict the nature of both the client's and therapist's perception of the therapeutic alliance, the significant relationships are of modest magnitude, and few variables remain predictive after controlling for causally prior variables. The strongest relationship identified in both the outpatient and aftercare samples is that between clients' motivational readiness to change and their ratings of the alliance.
Several meta-analyses have rendered strong support for the clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of human service, risk, need, and general responsivity. However, each of these reviews has focused on specific program components and not on the characteristics of the staff or the specific techniques used to deliver the program. This meta-analytic review examines the role of core correctional practices in reducing recidivism and provides strong preliminary evidence regarding their effectiveness. Staff characteristics and training in core skills must be addressed to ensure the maximum therapeutic impact of correctional treatment programs.
In the past two decades, a number of studies investigating the role of the therapeutic alliance in drug treatment have been published and it is timely that their findings are brought together in a comprehensive review.
This paper has two principal aims: (1) to assess the degree to which the relationship between drug user and counsellor predicts treatment outcome and (2) to examine critically the evidence on determinants of the quality of the alliance.
Peer-reviewed research located through the literature databases Medline, PsycInfo and Ovid Full Text Mental Health Journals using predefined search-terms and published in the past 20 years is considered. Further papers were identified from the bibliographies of relevant publications.
A key finding is that the early therapeutic alliance appears to be a consistent predictor of engagement and retention in drug treatment. With regard to other treatment outcomes, the early alliance appears to influence early improvements during treatment, but it is an inconsistent predictor of post-treatment outcomes. There is relatively little research on the determinants of the alliance. In studies that are available, clients' demographic or diagnostic pre-treatment characteristics did not appear to predict the therapeutic alliance, whereas modest but consistent relationships were reported for motivation, treatment readiness and positive previous treatment experiences.
The therapeutic alliance plays an important role in predicting drug treatment process outcomes, but too little is known about what determines the quality of the relationship between drug users and counsellors.